SKDAV GOVT.

POLYTECHNIC
ROURKELA

LECTURE NOTES
ON
BASIC ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGG.

1ST/2ND SEMESTER
PREPARED BY
MAMATA MOHANTY (Lect. EE)

SKDAV GOVT.POLYTECHNIC
ROURKELA
 CONTENTS
1. FUNDAMENTALS
1.1 Concept of current flow.
1.2 Concept of source and load.
1.3 State Ohm’s law and concept of resistance.
1.4 Relation of V, I & R in series circuit.
1.5 Relation of V, I & R in parallel circuit.
1.6 Division of current in parallel circuit.
1.7 Effect of power in series & parallel circuit.
1.8 Kirchhoff’s Law.
1.9 Simple problems on Kirchhoff’s law.
2. A.C. THEORY
2.1 Generation of alternating emf.
2.2 Difference between D.C. & A.C.
2.3 Define Amplitude, instantaneous value, cycle, Time period, frequency, phase angle,phase difference.
2.4 State & Explain RMS value, Average value, Amplitude factor & Form factor with
Simple problems.
2.5 Represent AC values in phasor diagrams.
2.6 AC through pure resistance, inductance & capacitance
2.7 AC though RL, RC, RLC series circuits.
2.8 Simple problems on RL, RC & RLC series circuits.
2.9 Concept of Power and Power factor
2.10 Impedance triangle and power triangle.
3. GENERATION OF ELECTRICAL POWER
3.1 Give elementary idea on generation of electricity from thermal , hydro & nuclear
power station with block diagram
4. CONVERSION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY
(No operation, Derivation, numerical problems)
4.1 Introduction of DC machines.
4.2 Main parts of DC machines.
4.3 Classification of DC generator
4.4 Classification of DC motor.
4.5 Uses of different types of DC generators & motors.
4.6 Types and uses of single phase induction motors.
4.7 Concept of Lumen
4.8 Different types of Lamps (Filament, Fluorescent, LED bulb) its Construction and
Principle.
4.9 Star rating of home appliances (Terminology, Energy efficiency, Star rating Concept)
5. WIRING AND POWER BILLING
5.1 Types of wiring for domestic installations.
5.2 Layout of household electrical wiring (single line diagram showing all the important
component in the system).
5.3 List out the basic protective devices used in house hold wiring.
5.4 Calculate energy consumed in a small electrical installation
6. MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
6.1 Introduction to measuring instruments.
6.2 Torques in instruments.
6.3 Different uses of PMMC type of instruments (Ammeter & Voltmeter).
6.4 Different uses of MI type of instruments (Ammeter & Voltmeter).
6.5 Draw the connection diagram of A.C/ D.C Ammeter, voltmeter, energy meter and
wattmeter. (Single phase only).
Course Outcome
After the completion of the course the students will be able to
CO1- Analyze the electrical circuit (both a.c & d.c) behavior for the calculation of various circuit parameters and
practice commercial billing of power and energy.
CO2- Classify & evaluate the performance of various power generation systems, energy conversion devices,
protective devices & measuring instrument

CHAPTER-1

FUNDAMENTALS
 CURRENT:-
● Current can be defined as the motion of charge through a conducting material, measured in
Ampere (A). Electric current, is denoted by the letter i or I.
● The unit of current is the ampere abbreviated as (A) and corresponds to the quantityof total
charge that passes through an arbitrary cross section of a conducting material per unit second.
Mathematically,

Where Q is the symbol of charge measured in Coulombs (C), I is the current inamperes (A)
and t is the time in second (s).
 The current can also be defined as the rate of charge passing through a point inan electric circuit.
Mathematically

● A constant current (also known as a direct current or DC) is denoted by symbol Iwhereas
a time-varying current (also known as alternating current or AC) is represented by the
symbol i or i (t).Current is always measured through a circuit element in ammeter.
● Two types of currents:
A direct current (DC) is a current that remains constant with time.
An alternating current (AC) is a current that varies with time.

VOLTAGE (OR) POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE:-

To move the electron in a conductor in a particular direction requires some work or energy transfer. This work is
performed by an external electromotive force (emf), typically represented by the battery (Fig-a). This emf is also
known as voltage or potential difference. The voltage Vab between two points a and b in an electric circuit is the
energy (or work) needed to move a unit charge from a to b

Voltage (or potential difference) is the energy required to move charge from one point to the other, measured in volts
(V). Voltage is denoted by the letter v or V.
Mathematically,

where w is energy in joules (J) and q is charge in coulombs (C). The voltage Vab or simply V is measured in volts
(V).
1 volt = 1 joule/coulomb
● The Vab can be interpreted in two ways: (1) point a is at a potential of V ab volts higher than point b, or (2) the
potential at point a with respect to point b is Vab. It follows logically that in general
Voltage is always measured across a circuit element in Voltmeter

POWER:

Power is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy, measured in watts (W). Power,is denoted by the letter p or
P.
Mathematically

Where P is power in watts (W), w is energy in joules (J), and t is time in seconds (s). From voltage and current
equations, it follows that

Thus, if the magnitude of current I and voltage are given, then power can be evaluated as the product of the two
quantities and is measured in watts (W).

● Sign of power:
Plus sign: Power is absorbed by the element. (Resistor, Inductor)
Minus sign: Power is supplied by the element. (Battery, Generator)
 ● Passive sign convention:
If the current enters through the positive polarity of the voltage, P = +VI If the current enters through the negative
polarity of the voltage, P = – VI

Polarities for Power using passive sign convention

(a) Absorbing Power (b) Supplying Power)
ENERGY:-
● Energy is the capacity to do work, and is measured in joules (J).
The energy absorbed or supplied by an element from time 0 to t is given by

ENERGY SOURCES:-
● The energy sources which are having the capacity of generating the energy. The most important energy sources
are voltage or current sources that generally deliver power/energy to the circuit connected to them.

There are two kinds of sources

a) Independent sources
b) Dependent sources
a) Independent Sources:
An ideal independent source is an active element that provides a specified voltage or current that is completely
independent of other circuit elements.

Ideal Independent Voltage Source:

An ideal independent voltage source is an active element that gives a constant voltage across its terminals irrespective
of the current drawn through its terminals.

Ideal Independent Current Source:

An ideal independent Current source is an active element that gives a constant current through its terminals
irrespective of the voltage appearing across its terminals.

b) Dependent (Controlled) Sources:

● An ideal dependent (or controlled) source is an active element in which the source quantity is controlled

by another voltage or current.

● Dependent sources are usually designated by diamond-shaped symbols, as shown in Fig.1.6 Since the
control of the dependent source is achieved by a voltage or current of some other element in the circuit,
and the source can be voltage or current, it follows that there are four possible types of dependent sources,
namely:

1. A voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS)

2. A current-controlled voltage source (CCVS)
 3. A voltage-controlled current source (VCCS)
4. A current-controlled current source (CCCS)

ELECTRICAL LOAD:-
● The electrical load is a device that consumes electrical energy in the form of the current and transforms it
into other forms like heat, light, work etc.
● The electrical load are (a) Resistive (b) Inductive (c) Capacitive
● Resistive Load – The resistive load obstructs the flow of electrical energy in the circuit and converts it
into thermal energy.
Ex- Lamp, Heater
● Inductive Load- The inductive load has a coil which stores magnetic energy when the current pass
through it.
Ex- Generator, motor, transformer
● Capacitive Load- The capacitive load include energy stored in materials and device. Ex- capacitor bank
and synchronous condenser

OHM’S LAW:-

Ohm‟s law states that at constant temperature, the voltage (V) across a conducting material is directly proportional to
the current (I) flowing through the material. Mathematically

Where the constant of proportionality R is called the resistance of the material

Limitations of Ohm‟s Law:
1. Ohm‟s law is not applicable to non-linear elements like diode, transistor etc.
2. Ohm‟s law is not applicable for non-metallic conductors like silicon carbide.

Example (1): An electronic device has a resistance of 20 ohms and a current of 15 A. What is the
voltage across the device?
Solution:
Resistance, current, and voltage are related together by Ohm's law as V=IR

Thus, the voltage of the device is obtained as V=IR

V=15×20=300V
Example (2): V potential difference is applied across a 6Ω resistor. What is the current that flows into the
resistor?

Solution: Ohm's law states the potential difference across a resistor is resistance times current so we get
I=V/R
=>I=3/6=0.5A

RESISTOR:-
Materials in general have a characteristic behavior of resisting the flow of electric charge. This physical property, or
ability to resist the flow of current, is known as resistance and is represented by the symbol R. The Resistance is
measured in ohms (Ω).
OR
Resistance to electricity–that is, electrical resistance–is a force that counteracts the flow of current. In this way, it
serves as an indicator of how difficult it is for current to flow. Resistance values are expressed in ohms (Ω).
Resistors in Series
A circuit is said to be connected in series when the same amount of current flows through the resistors. In such
circuits, the voltage across each resistor is different. In a series connection, if any resistor is broken or a fault occurs,
then the entire circuit is turned off. The construction of a series circuit is simpler compared to a parallel circuit.

Resistors in series combination For the above circuit, the total resistance is given as:
Rtotal = R1 + R2 + ….. + Rn
The total resistance of the system is just the total of individual resistances.
Example:A resistor having an electrical resistance value of 100 ohms, is connected to another resistor with a
resistance value of 200 ohms. The two resistances are connected in series. What is the total resistance across the
system?
Solution: Here, R1 = 100 Ω and R2= 200 Ω
Rtotal = 100 + 200 = 300 Ω
Resistors in Parallel
A circuit is said to be connected in parallel when the voltage is the same across the resistors. In such circuits, the
current is branched out and recombines when branches meet at a common point. A resistor or any other component
can be connected or disconnected easily without affecting other elements in a parallel circuit.

Resistors in parallel combination

The figure above shows ‘n’ number of resistors connected in parallel. The following relation gives the total resistance
here

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑹𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍
=𝑹 + 𝑹𝟐
+ …. + 𝑹𝒏
𝟏

Example-A resistor having an electrical resistance value of 100 ohms, is connected to another resistor with a
resistance value of 200 ohms. The two resistances are connected in parallel. What is the total resistance across
the system?
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 (𝟐𝟎𝟎 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎)
𝑹𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍
= 𝟏𝟎𝟎 + 𝟐𝟎𝟎
= 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎

𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎
Therefore Rtotal= 𝟑𝟎𝟎
= 𝟔𝟔. 𝟔𝟕 𝜴

Q.A battery with a terminal voltage of 9V is connected to a circuit consisting of four 20 ohm and
one 10ohm resistors all in series . Assume the battery has negligible internal resistance.
(a) Calculate the equivalent resistance of the circuit.
(b) Calculate the current through each resistor.
(c) Calculate the potential drop across each resistor. (d) Determine the total power dissipated by the resistors and the
power supplied by the battery.

a. The equivalent resistance is the algebraic sum of the resistances:

d. The power dissipated by a resistor is equal to P=I2R, and the power supplied by the battery is equal to P-IE:
. Q.Calculate the current supplied by two batteries in the circuit given below
 CHAPTER- 2
A.C. THEORY
An electrical quantity is said to be “alternating‟ if it changes in magnitude & direction
continuously with time. The term AC is nothing but the alternating current & the circuit that
carries the AC is called as AC circuit. This alternating quantity may be periodic and non-
periodic. Periodic quantity is one whose value will be repeated for every specified interval.
Generally to represent alternating voltage or current we prefer sinusoidal wave form
GENERATION OF ALTERNATING EMF:-
AC generator generates A.C. voltage based on the faraday‟s law of electromagnetic induction.
(Fig.

The armature coil is rotated as shown in the fig.2.1, about an axis perpendicular to the magnetic
field lines. As the angle between the area vector of the coil and the magnetic field changes, the
magnetic flux linked with the coil changes and an e.m.f. is induced in the coil.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AC & DC:-

AC DC

1. The current which change its magnitude & The current which does not change its magnitude
direction periodically (or at regular interval) & direction periodically is called alternating
is called alternating current current. i.e the direction of current remains same
 2. The direction of flow of electron is 2. The direction of flow of electron is
bidirectional unidirectional

3. It has frequency, like Indian standard 3. .It has zero frequency.

frequency is 50Hz.

4. It’s power factor lies between 0 & 1 4. It has power factor always 1.
5. It‟s passive parameter is impedance 5. It‟s passive parameter is resistance.
Combination of Reactance and
Resistance
6. It is represented by sine wave, square 6. It is represented by straight line i.e it
wave, triangular wave etc. may be 2 types Pure DC and Pulsating
DC

7. It can be transmitted over very long

7. Can be transmitted over long distance distance with negligible losses
with some losses.

8. Their load is resistive, inductive or 8. Their load is usually resistive in nature

capacitive
9. Dangerous. Easily convert into direct 9. Very Dangerous
current byrectifier. Easily convert into alternating currentby inverter

10. Application- Factories, Industries and 10. Application- Electroplating,

for the domestic purposes Electrolysis, Electronic Equipment
etc.
 CHAPTER-3
GENERATION OF ELECTRICAL POWER
Bulk electric power is produced by special plants known as Generating stations or power plants.
1. STEAM POWER STATION (THERMAL STATION)
2. HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER STATION
3. NUCLEAR POWER STATION

THERMAL POWER PLANT:-

A generating station which converts heat energy of coal combustion into electrical energy is known as a
steam power station. The heat produced for burning of coal & with the help of water steam is produced.
This produced steam flow towards turbine i.e. kinetic energy is converted into mechanical energy. The
input steam drives the prime mover or turbine, simultaneously the generator also start to rotate. At that
time mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy.
CHOICE OF SITE
1. SUPPLY OF FUEL :- The steam power station should be located near coal mines so that
transportation cost of fuel is minimum.
2. AVAILABILITY OF WATER:- A huge amount of water is required for the condenser for
which it is it is essential that the plant should be located at the bank of a river or near a canal
to ensure continuous supply of water.
3. TRANSPORTATION FACILITIES:- : A modern steam power station often requires the
transportation of material and machinery. Therefore adequate transportation facilities by rail
or Road should exist.
45
4. COST AND TYPE OF LAND:- The steam power station should be located at a place where
land is cheap and further extension if necessary is possible.
5. NEARNESS TO LOAD CENTRES:- In order to reduce transmission cost the plant should
be located near the center of load.
6. DISTANCE FROM POPULATED AREA :- As huge amount of coal is burnt in a steam
power Plant due to which smoke and fumes pollutes the surrounding area.This necessitates
that plant should be locate at a considerable distance from the populated areas.
MAIN UNITS OF PLANT
1. COAL STORAGE PLANT :- Coal is transported to the power station by road or rail and is
stored in coal storage plant.
2. COAL HANDLING PLANT:- : From the coal storage plant coal is delivered to the coal
handling plant where it is pulverized for rapid combustion with out using excess amount of
air.
3. ASH STORAGE PLANT:- The coal is burnt in the boiler & the ash produced after the
complete combustion of coal is removed to the ash handling plant.
4. ASH HANDLING PLANT:- the ash from ash handling plant is then delivered to the ash
storage plant for subsequent use as fertilizer etc.
5. BOILER:- The heat of combustion of coal in the boiler is utilized to convert water into
steam at very high temperature and pressure.The flue gases from the boiler makes their
journey through superheater,economizer, air pre-heater & are finally exhausted to the
atmosphere through the chimney.
6. SUPERHEATER:- The steam produced in the boiler is wet and is passed through super
heater where it is dried and super heated.
7. ECONOMISER:- An economizer is essentially a feed water heater & derives heat from the
flue gases for the purpose.
8. AIR PREHEATER:- Air pre-heater increases the temperature of the air supplied for coal
burning by deriving heat from flue gases.
9. FORCED DRAUGHT FAN :-It draws air from atomosphere which is supplied to the boiler
for effective combustion.
10. INDUCED DRAUGHT FAN : it draws the flue gas and sends to chimney.
11. CHIMNEY:- The hot flue gases go to the atmosphere though chimney.
12. STEAM TURBINE:- The dry and super heated steam from the super heater is fed to the
steam turbine which converts the heat energy of steam tto mechanical energy.
13. ALTERNATOR:- The alternator converts the mechanical energy of steam turbine to
electrical energy.

Working of Thermal power Plant : When the water from condenser is fed to
the Boiler through Economiser it remains a little hot .The Boiler is a extremely
heated chamber because of a continuous burning of Coal in presence of air
injected by F.D fan through pre-heater.
47
So, ,the water gets converted to steam with very high temperature and pressure
and reaches the Steam Turbine through Super-Heater. The Internal Energy of
Steam gets converted to Mechanical Energy by Turbine and the Alternator
converts the mechanical Energy of Turbine output to Electrical Energy .The
Electrical Energy thus produced is supplied to the Bus-Bar for Power use.
Assignments / Discussion:-
Ø What are the Advantages / Disadvantages of a Steam Power Station ?
ADVANTAGES
i) The Fuel (i.e. Coal) used is quite cheap.
ii) Less initial cost as compared to other generating stations.
iii) It can be installed at any place & the coal can be transported by Rail / Road.
iv) It requires less space as compared to hydro-electric Power Station.
DISADVANTAGES
i) It pollutes air / atmosphere due to smoke / fumes
ii) Running cost is higher than hydro power plant.
HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER STATION
CHOICE OF SITE
1. AVAILABILITY OF WATER:- Since the primary requirement of a hydro-electric power
station is the availability of huge quantity of water at a good head this requirement is very
essential.
2. STORAGE OF WATER:-There are wide variations in water supply from a river or canal
during the year.This makes it necessaryto store water by constructing a Dam in order to
ensure the generation of power throughout the year.
3. COST & TYPE OF LAND :-The land for the construction of Plant should be available at a
reasonable price. Further the bearing capacity of the ground should be adequate to withstand
the weight of heavy equipment to be installed.
4. TRANSPORTATION FACILITY :The site selected should be accessible by Rail and Road
so that necessary equipment and machineries be easily transported.
MAIN CONSTITUENTS OF PLANT
1. DAM :- A Dam is a barrier which stores water & creates water head.Dams are built of
concrete or stone masonary,earth or rock fill.
48
2. SPILWAYS :- There are times when the river flow exceeds the storage capacity of the
reservoir.In order to discharge the surplus water from the storage reservoir into the river
on the down-stream side of the dam, spill ways are used.
3. HEAD WORKS :-The head works consists of the diversion structures at the head of an
intake.They generally include booms and racks for diverting floating debris,sluices for
by-passing debris,sediments and valves for controlling the flow of water to the turbine.
4. SURGE TANK :-For close conduits abnormal pressure may cause damage to the
conduit leading from head works to penstock.Surge tank acts as a protection for such
situation.
5. PENSTOCKS :-Penstocks are open or close conduits which carry water to the
turbines.They are generally made of reinforced concrete or steel.
6. WATER TURBINES :- Water turbines are used to convert the energy of falling water
into mechanical energy.
7. ALTERNATOR :- The alternator converts the mechanical energy of turbine to electrical
energy.
Working of Hydro-Electric Power Plant : When the water from Reservoir is
allowed to get released through pressure channel, it reaches the Valve house.
The surge tank is provided in order to safe guard the extra back-thrust of water
causing heavy damage to Penstock.The valve house controls the amount of water
that will flow to the power house turbines through the Large sized Pen-stocks.
Inside the power house the water Turbine convert the potential energy of water
with sufficient head to Kinetic energy i.e. mechanical Energy which in turn acts
as a prime-mover for the Alternator as before and generates Electrical Energy.
ADVANTAGES
i) It requires no fuel as water is used for the generation of Electrical Energy.
ii) It is quite neat & clean as no smoke or ash is produced.
iii) Running cost is very less as water is used.
iv) It is simple in construction & requires less maintenance.
v) It can be started quality as compared to Thermal Power Station.
vi) In addition to generation of Electrical Energy these plants are also helpful in irrigation &
control of floods.
DISADVANTAGES
i) It involves high capital lost due to construction of dams.
ii) Generation depends on average rainfall round the year.
iii) High cost of transmission as these plants are located in hilly areas quite for off from localities.
NUCLEAR POWER PLANT:-
The Power Plant which uses nuclear energy of radioactive material (Uranium or Thorium)
converted into Electrical Energy is known as Nuclear Power Plant.
As we know that, the freely moving neutrons bombarded with radioactive material (U235 or
Th232) the heat energy produced, with the help of this heat energy water a steam produced at
high pressure & temperature. High pressure steam passes towards turbine where KE is converted
to ME. We know that, turbine & generator are mechanically coupled through this combination an
Electrical Energy is produced in Nuclear Power Plant.
Selection of Site for Nuclear Power Plant:
1. Availability of water: Sufficient supply of water is obvious for generating steam & cooling
purposes in nuclear power station.
2. Disposal of Waste: The wastes of nuclear power station are radioactive and may cause severe
health hazards. Because of this, special care to be taken during disposal of wastes of nuclear
power plant.
3. Distance from Populated Area: As there is always a probability of radioactivity, it is always
preferable to locate a nuclear station sufficiently away from populated area.
4. Transportation Facilities: During commissioning period, heavy equipment to be erected, which to be
transported from manufacturer site. So good railways and road ways availabilities are required.

MAIN UNITS OF PLANT

1. Nuclear Fuel:
In Nuclear Power Plant the fuels used are U235 or Pu239 orTh232.Out of the three fuel any
one of the fuel used in nuclear power plant. The fuel is required in nuclear power plant to
produce a huge amount of heat energy. The fuel are inserted in fuel rod, these fuel rods are
bombarded with slow moving neutrons. Separate provision provided for bombarded or
hits the neutron to the fuel rod, this device is known as neutron bombardment device.
2. Moderator:
In nuclear power plant, moderator is a device, of rod shaped. Moderator is placed near the
nuclear fuel rod. The main function of moderator in nuclear power plant is reduce the
speed of neutrons (neutron at slower speed is required to produce fission) & increases the
fission processes. Moderator rod is made up of graphite or heavy water or beryllium
material.
3. Control Rods:
In nuclear power plant, the control rods are placed in between nuclear fuel rod, moderator
and then control rod. In nuclear power plant the main function of control rod is to control
the chain reaction. If the control rod is inserted then it absorbs the freely moving neutrons
& stop the chain reaction, if it is no inserted chain reaction is in process, means chain 48
reaction continued. The steady rate or to stop the chain reaction is maintained through
control rods. The control rods are made up of cadmium, boron (alloyed with steel or
aluminium).
4. Nuclear Reactor:
It is an apparatus in which the nuclear fuel(U235) is subjected to nuclear fission.
5. Heat Exchanger:
The main function of heat exchanger in nuclear power plant is the boiled the cold water
and produces steam at high temperature & pressure.
6. Turbine:
Turbine receives steam from heat exchange at high pressure, and it rotates at high speed
then alternator also rotates, this way electrical power produced. The exhaust steam from
turbine passes to condenser for further use.
.
Working of Nuclear Power Plant : As discussed earlier, the chain reaction
produces a huge amount of heat inside the Nuclear Reactor and requires a lot of
care to control this reaction. The heat of the Reactor is carried to Heat-Exchanger
by molten sodium which also heats the water injected into this Heat Exchanger
chamber. After the water gets converted to steam with very high temperature and
high pressure ,the Turbine converts the internal Energy of steam to Mechanical
Energy and this is converted to Electrical Energy by Alternator as before

ADVANTAGES

i) There is saving in fuel transportation as amount of fuel required is less.

ii) A Nuclear Power Plant requires less space as compared to other plants.
iii) This type of plant is economical for producing bulk Electrical Energy.
DISADVANTAGES
i) Fuel is expensive and difficult to recover.
ii) Capital lost is higher than other plants.
iii) Experienced workman ship is required for plant erection & commissioning.
iv) The Fission by-products are radioactive & can cause dangerous radio-active pollution.
 CHAPTER - 4
CONVERSION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY
INTRODUCTION:-
A DC machine is a device which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
When the device acts as a generator mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy. On
the other hand when the device acts as a motor, the electrical energy is converted into
mechanical energy. However, during the conversion process a part of the energy is converted
into heat, which is lost and is not reversible. Thus an electrical machine can be made to work
either as a generator or a motor.

PARTS OF DC MACHINE:-

(Fig.4.1. Different Parts of DC Machine)

The DC machine consists of the following essential parts:

Magnetic frame or Yoke: - Purpose of Yoke is:
(a) It act as a protecting cover for whole machine.
(b) It also provides mechanical support for poles.
(c) It carries the magnetic flux produced by poles
Pole Cores and Pole Shoes: - The field magnets consist of pole cores and pole shoes. The
Pole shoes serve two purposes:
(a) They spread out the flux in the air gap
(b) They support the exciting coils
Field winding: - The field winding is wound on the pole core with a definite direction. Function
of field winding is to carry current due to which pole core on which the winding is placed
behaves as an electromagnet, producing necessary flux.
Armature Core: - Armature core is cylindrical in shape mounted on the shaft. It is made up of
laminated construction to keep eddy current loss as low as possible. Function of armature core
is:
50
 1. Armature core provides house for armature winding i.e., armature conductors.
2. To provide a path of low reluctance path to the flux it is made up of magnetic material like
cast iron or cast steel.
Armature Windings or Conductors: - Armature winding is the inter connection of the
armature conductors, placed in the slots provided on the armature core. Function of armature
conductor is:
1. Generation of emf takes place in the armature winding in case of generators.
2. To carry the current supplied in case of dc motors.
3. To do the useful work it the external circuit.
Commutator: - The function of Commutator is to facilitate collection of current from the
armature conductors and converts the alternating current induced in the armature conductors
into unidirectional current in the external load circuit. The commutator is made up of insulated
copper segments.
Brushes and Bearings: - Brushes are normally made up of soft material like carbon. Brushes
are used to collect current from commutator and make it available to the stationary external
circuit. Bearings are used for smooth running of the machine.

CLASSIFICATION OF DC GENERATOR/MOTOR:-

DC generators/motors are usually classified according to the way in which their fields are
excited.
DC generators/motors may be divided into
(a) Separately excited DC generators/motors
(b) Self-excited DC generators/motors

a) Separately excited DC generators/motors: - Separately excited generators/motors are

those whose field magnets are energized from an independent external source of dc current.
b) Self-excited DC generators/motors: - Self excited generators/motors are those whose field
magnets are energized by the current produced by the generators/motors themselves.
There are three types of self-excited dc generators/motors named according to the manner
in which their field coils (or windings) are connected to the armature.
(i) Shunt wound DC generator/motor: - In shunt the two windings, field and armature are in
parallel.
(ii) Series wound DC generator/motor: - In series type both field and armature winding are in
series.
(iii) Compound wound DC generator/motor: - There are two types of compound wound DC
generator/motor.
(a) Long shunt compound DC generator/motor: - The shunt field winding is parallel with
both armature and series field winding.
(b) Short shunt compound DC generator/motor: - The shunt field winding is in parallel
with armature winding only.

51
 (Fig.4.2. Classification of DC machine)

USES OF D.C. GENERATORS:-

(1) Shunt Generator
(i) Lighting and Power Supply
(ii) Charging batteries.
(2) Series Generator
(i) Boosters.
(3) Compound Generator
(i) Large range load
(ii) Power Supply

USES OF D.C. MOTORS:-

(1) Shunt Motor
(i) Constant speed drive
(ii) Drilling machine, lathes, elevators, water pump, cutting machine.
(2) Series Motor
(i) Electric Cranes
(ii) Electric Trains
(iii) Hoists
(3) Compound Motor
(i) Heavy tool machines
(ii) Printing machines

TYPES OF SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR:-

52
(1) Split phase motor
(2) Capacitor start motor
(3) Capacitor start – Capacitor run single phase Induction Motor.
(4) Shaded Pole Motor
(5) Repulsion Motor

USES :
(1) Split phase motor:
(i) Small Pumps
(ii) Grinders
(2) Capacitor start motor
(i) Compressor
(ii) Pumps
(3) Capacitor start capacitor Run Motor
(i) Compressor of Air-conditioner
(ii) Water Cooler
(4) Shaded Pole Motor
(i) Small fans
(5) Repulsion Motor
(i) Mixing Machine
(ii) Blowers

CONCEPT OF LUMEN:-
It is the unit of luminous flux. It is defined as the luminous flux emitted by a source of one
candle power per unit solid angle in all directions.

Lumen = candle power of source × solid angle.

Lumen = CP × ω

Total flux emitted by a source of one candle power is 4π lumens.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF LAMPS:-

(a) Filament Lamp:-
Construction
• It consists of an evacuated glass bulb and an aluminum or brass cap is provided with
two pins to insert the bulb into the socket.
• The inner side of the bulb consists of a tungsten filament and the support wires are made of
molybdenum to hold the filament in proper position.
• A glass button is provided in which the support wires are inserted.
• A stem tube forms an air-tight seal around the filament whenever the glass is melted.

53
 (Fig.4.3. Construction of Filament Lamp)
Principle
• When electric current is made to flow through the fine metallic tungsten filament, its
temperature increases. At very high temperature, the filament emits both heat and light
radiations, which fall in the visible region.
• The tungsten filament lamps can be operated efficiently beyond 2,000°C, it can be
attained by inserting a small quantity of inert gas nitrogen with small quantity of argon.

(b) Fluorescent Lamp:-

Fluorescent lamp is a hot cathode low-pressure mercury vapor lamp.

Construction

• It consists of a long horizontal tube, due to low pressure maintained inside of the bulb; it
is made in the form of a long tube.
• The tube consists of two spiral tungsten electrode coated with electron emissive material
and are placed at the two edges of long tube.
• The tube contains small quantity of argon gas and certain amount of mercury, at a
pressure of 2.5 mm of mercury.
• Normally, low-pressure mercury vapor lamps suffer from low efficiency and they produce
an objectionable colored light. Such drawback is overcome by coating the inside of the
tube with fluorescent powders. They are in the form of solids, which are usually knows
as phosphors.
• A glow starter switch contains small quantity of argon gas, having a small cathode glow
lamp with bimetallic strip is connected in series with the electrodes, which puts the
electrodes directly across the supply at the time of starting.

54
 • A choke is connected in series that acts as ballast when the lamp is running, and it
provides a voltage impulse for starting. A capacitor of 4μF is connected across the
starter in order to improve the power factor.

(Fig.4.4. Construction of Filament Lamp)

Principle

• At the time of starting, when both the lamp and the glow starters are cold, the mercury is
in the form of globules.
• When supply is switched on, the glow starter terminals are open circuited and full supply
voltage appeared across these terminals, due to low resistance of electrodes and choke
coil.
• The small quantity of argon gas gets ionized, which establishes an arc with a starting
glow.
• This glow warms up the bimetallic strip thus glow starts gets short circuited. Hence, the
two electrodes come in series and are connected across the supply voltage.
• Now, the two electrodes get heated and start emitting electrons due to the flow of current
through them.
• These electrons collide with the argon atoms present in the long tube discharge that
takes place through the argon gas. So, in the beginning, the lamp starts conduction with
argon gas as the temperature increases, the mercury changes into vapor form and takes
over the conduction of current.
• In the meantime, the starter potential reaches to zero and the bimetallic strip gets
cooling down. As a result, the starter terminals will open. This results breaking of the
series circuit.
• A very high voltage around 1,000 V is induced, because of the sudden opening of starter
terminals in the series circuit. But in the long tube, electrons are already present; this
induced voltage is quite sufficient to break down the long gap. Thus, more number of
electrons collide with argon and mercury vapor atoms.
• The excited atom of mercury gives UV radiation, which will not fall in the visible region.
Meanwhile, these UV rays are made to strike phosphor material; it causes the re-
emission of light of different wavelengths producing illumination. The phenomenon of the
emission is called as luminescence.

55
(c) LED Lamp:-

• A Light emitting diode bulb consists of two semiconducting material i.e. p-type material
and n-type material. A p-n junction is formed, by connecting these two types of
materials.
• When the p-n junction is forward biased, the majority carriers; either electrons or holes;
start moving across the junction.

(Fig.4.5. Construction of LED Lamp)

• As shown in the figure above, electrons start moving from n-region and holes start
moving from p-region. When they moved from their regions they start to recombine
across the depletion region. Free electrons will remain in the conduction band of energy
level while holes remain in the valence band of energy level.
• The Energy level of the electrons is high than holes because electrons are more mobile
than holes i.e. current conduction due to electrons are more. During the recombination of
electrons and holes, some portion of energy must be dissipated or emitted in the form of
heat and light.
• The phenomenon into which light emits from the semiconductor under the influence of
the electric field is known as electroluminescence.
• Always remember that the majority of light is produced from the junction nearer to the p-
type region. So diode is designed in such a way that this area is kept close to the
surface of the device to ensure that the minimum amount of light is absorbed.
• The electrons dissipate energy in different forms depending on the nature of the diode
used. Like for silicon and germanium diodes, it dissipates energy in the form of heat
while for gallium phosphide (GaP) and gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
semiconductors, it dissipates energy by emitting photons.
• For the emission of different colors, different semiconductors are used. For example;
phosphorus is used for a red light, gallium phosphide for the green light and aluminum
indium gallium phosphide for yellow and orange light.

56
STAR RATING OF HOME APPLIANCES:-

• Terminology

White goods > Home appliances (refrigerator, a/c etc)

Brown goods > Portable appliances (television and wireless sets, microwave ovens,
coffee makers)
BEE > Bureau of Energy Efficiency
EER > Energy Efficiency Ratio
BTU > British thermal unit

• Energy Efficiency

It is defined as energy service per unit of energy consumption.

• Star Rating
• An energy efficiency rating scheme for Electrical appliances is known as Star
labelling.
• Star Rating is the average amount of electricity used by the equipment in a year
i.e kWh/year or unit/year under standard test conditions.
• Star ratings are provided to all the major kind of appliances in the form of labels.
These star ratings are given out of 5 and they provide a basic sense of how
energy efficient each product is.

(Fig.4.6. Star rating of appliance)

QUESTIONS FOR PRACTICE

Short Answer Questions

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 CHAPTER-5
WIRING AND POWER BILLING

ELECTRICAL WIRING:-

A network of cables connecting various electrical accessories for distribution of electrical

energy from the supplier meter board to the various electrical energy consuming devices such
as lamps, fans, radio, TV and other domestic appliances through controlling and safety devices
is known as wiring system.

TYPES OF WIRING FOR DOMESTIC INSTALLATIONS:-

Electrical wiring system is classified into five categories:
• Cleat wiring
• Wooden casing and capping wiring
• CTS or TRS or PVC sheath wiring
• Lead sheathed or metal sheathed wiring
• Conduit wiring
• Surface or open Conduit type
• Concealed or underground type Conduit

• Cleat Wiring

• In this system of wiring cables are supported and gripped between porcelain cleats
above the wall or roof.
• The porcelain cleats are made in two halves. The main part is base, which is grooved to
accommodate the cables, the other part is the cap which is put over the base
• The lower cleat (base) and upper cover (cap), after placing cables between them are
then screwed on wooden gutties.

(Fig.5.1. Cleat Wiring)

Advantages:
• It is the cheapest system.
• Installation and dismantling is easy.
• Less skilled persons are required.

59
 • Inspection is easy.
• Alterations and additions are easy.
• As the cables and wires of cleat wiring system is in open air, therefore fault in cables can
be seen and repair easily

Disadvantages:
• It is purely temporary wiring system.
• Appearance is not good.
• Cables are exposed to atmosphere and there is a possibility of mechanical injury.
• This system should not be used in damp places otherwise insulation gets damaged.
• It is not lasting wire system because of the weather effect and wear & tear
• It can be only used on 250/440 Volts on low temperature.
• There is always a risk of fire and electric shock.
• It can‟t be used in important and sensitive location and places.
• It is not reliable and sustainable wiring system.

Application:
• It is suitable for temporary installation in dry places i.e. under construction building
or army camping

• Casing and Capping wiring

• It consists of rectangular blocks made from seasoned and knots free wood or PVC.
• The casing has usually two (or three) „U‟ shaped grooves, (two in number) into which the
VIR or PVC cables are laid in such a way that the opposite polarity cables are laid in
different grooves.
• The casing is covered by means of a rectangular strip of the same width as that of
casing known as capping and is screwed to it.

(Fig.5.2. Casing & Capping Wiring)

Advantages:
• It provides good mechanical strength.
• Easy to inspect by opening the capping.
• It is cheap wiring system as compared to sheathed and conduit wiring systems.

60
 • It is strong and long-lasting wiring system.
• If Phase and Neutral wire is installed in separate slots, then repairing is easy.
• Stay for long time in the field due to strong insulation of capping and casing..
• It stays safe from oil, Steam, smoke and rain.
• No risk of electric shock due to covered wires and cables in casing & capping

Disadvantages:
• Difficulty in finding any fault caused in the wire.
• There is a high risk of fire in casing & capping wiring system.
• Not suitable in the acidic, alkalies and humidity conditions
• Costly repairing and need more material.
• Material can‟t be found easily in the contemporary
• White ants may damage the casing & capping of wood.
• This system cannot be used in damp places.

Application:
Used in low voltage residential and office building.

• Batten Wiring (CTS or TRS)

• The cables are run or carried on well-seasoned, perfectly straight and well varnished (on
all four sides) teak wood batten of thickness 10 mm. at least.
• The width of the batten depends upon the number and size of cables to be carried by it..
• The wooden battens are fixed to the walls or ceilings by means of PVC gutties or
wooden plugs with flat head wooden screws, the wooden screws should be fixed on the
batten at an interval not exceeding 75cm.

(Fig.5.3. Batten Wiring)

Advantages:
• Wiring installation is simple and easy
• cheap as compared to other electrical wiring systems
• Repairing is easy
• Strong and long-lasting
• Appearance is better.

61
 • Customization is easy
• Less chance of leakage current

Disadvantages:
• Not suitable for outdoor wiring
• Humidity, smoke, steam etc. directly affect on wires.
• Heavy wires are not recommended for this wiring scheme.
• Only suitable for below 250 V.
• High risk of fire.

Application:
• Used in domestic, commercial or industrial wiring except workshops
• Used for low voltage installation

• Lead Sheathed Wiring

• The type of wiring employs conductors that are insulated with VIR and covered with an
outer sheath of lead aluminum alloy containing about 95% of lead.
• The metal sheath given protection to cables from mechanical damage, moisture and
atmospheric corrosion.
• The whole lead covering is made electrically continuous and is connected to earth at the
point of entry to protect against electrolytic action due to leaking current and to provide
safety in case the sheath becomes alive.
• The cables are run on wooden batten and fixed by means of link clips just as in TRS
wiring.

Advantages:
• Provides protection against mechanical injury better than TRS wiring.
• Easy to fix and looks nice
• Long life if proper earth continuity is maintained.
• Can be used in damp situation and in situation exposed to rain & sun.

Disadvantages:
• Costlier than TRS wiring
• Not suitable for chemical corrosion.
• In case of damage of insulation the metal sheath becomes alive & give shock.
• Skilled labour & proper supervision is required.

Application:
• Commonly used for laying sub mains from pole to electric meter

• Conduit Wiring

• There are two additional types of conduit wiring according to pipe installation
• Surface Conduit Wiring

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 • Concealed Conduit Wiring

• Surface Conduit Wiring

• If conduits installed on roof or wall, It is known as surface conduit wiring. In this wiring
method, they make holes on the surface of wall on equal distances and conduit is installed
then with the help of rawal plugs.
• Concealed Conduit wiring
• If the conduits is hidden inside the wall slots with the help of plastering, it is called
concealed conduit wiring. In other words, the electrical wiring system inside wall, roof or
floor with the help of plastic or metallic piping is called concealed conduit wiring.
obliviously,
• It is the most popular, beautiful, stronger and common electrical wiring
system nowadays.

(Fig.5.4. Conduit Wiring)

Advantages:
• The safest wiring
• Appearance is better
• No risk of fire or mechanical wear and tear.
• No risk of damage of cable insulation
• Safe from humidity, smoke, steam etc.
• No risk of shock
• Long lasting
• Repairing and maintenance is easy.

Disadvantages:
• Very expensive
• Installation is not easy
• Not easy to customize for future
• Hard to detect the faults.
• Risk of Electric shock (In case of metallic pipes without proper earthing system)
• Experienced & highly skilled labour is required

Application:
• Places where dust is present such as in textile mills, sawmills, flour mills etc.
• Damp situation
• In workshop
• Residential, commercial and public building

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LAYOUT OF HOUSEHOLD ELECTRICAL WIRING:-

(Fig.5.5. Layout of Household Electrical Wiring)

BASIC PROTECTIVE DEVICES USED IN HOUSE HOLD WIRING:-
• Fuse
• MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker)
• Lightening arrester
• Earthing Wire

ELECTRICAL ENERGY:-

 Energy is the capacity to do work, and is measured in joules (J).

 The electric power utility companies measure energy in watt-hours (WH) or Kilo watt-
hours (KWH)

Example 5.1. A building has the following electrical appliances

(i) A 1 HP motor running for 5 hrs in a day.
(ii) Three fans each of 80W running for 10 hrs. in a day.
(iii) Four tube lights of 40W running for 15 hrs. per day.
Find the monthly bill for the month of November if unit cost of bill is Rs.2.50.

Solution:
Sl.No. Name of Quantity Power Rating in KW Working Hrs Energy consumed
Appliances in a day in KWH
01 Motor 1No. 1HP = 746W=0.746KW 5 1×0.746×5=3.73

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 02 Fans 3Nos 80W = 0.08KW 10 3×0.08×10=2.4
03 Tubelight 4Nos 40W = 0.04KW 15 4×0.04×15=2.4
Total Energy consumed in KWH= 3.73+2.4+2.4=8.53

As we know 1KWH = 1unit

So, 8.53 KWH = 8.53 units.
In the month of November total Electrical Energy Consumed = 8.53 X 30 = 255.9 units.
Monthly bill = 255.9 X Rs.2.5 = Rs. 639.75P.

Example 5.2. A building has the following electrical appliances

(i) Two bulb each of 60 watt and one bulb of 100 watt.
(ii) Tube light 40 watt -2 nos.
(iii) Three Fans of 60 watt each
(iv) One Refrigerator of 150 watt.
All the lighting devices works for 6 hrs a day, fans work for 10 hrs and refrigerator works for 24
hrs. The electric tariff is as follows:- for first 100 units @ Rs. 1.40/-,next 100 units @ Rs. 2.30/-
Rest @ Rs. 3.10/- .Calculate the bill for the month of 30 days.

Solution:
Sl.No. Name of Quantity Power Rating in KW Working Hrs Energy consumed
Appliances in a day in KWH
01 Bulb 2 0.060 6 2×0.06×6=0.72
02 Bulb 1 0.100 6 1×0.1×6=0.6
03 Tube light 2 0.040 6 2×0.04×6=0.48
04 Fan 3 0.060 10 3×0.06×10=1.8
05 Refrigerator 1 0.150 24 1×0.150×24=3.6
Total 7.2 KWH
energy
consumed

As we know 1KWH = 1unit

So, 7.2KWH = 7.2units.
In the month of 30 days, total Electrical Energy Consumed = 7.2 X 30 = 216 units.
Monthly bill = 100 X Rs.1.40/- = Rs. 140/-
100 .X Rs 2.30/- = Rs. 230/-
16 X Rs 3.10/- = Rs. 49.6/-
Total = Rs. 419.6/-

QUESTIONS FOR PRACTICE

65
 CHAPTER-6
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

INTRODUCTION TO MEASURING INSTRUMENTS:-

● The measurement of a given quantity is the result of comparison between the quantity to
be measured and a definite standard. The instruments which are used for such
measurements are called measuring instruments.
● The three basic quantities in the electrical measurement are current, voltage and power.
● The instrument which measures the current flowing in the circuit is called ammeter while
the instrument which measures the voltage across any two points of a circuit is called
voltmeter. The instruments which are used to measure the power are called wattmeter.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTS:-

Electrical instruments are broadly classified into two types

1) Absolute instruments
Absolute instruments are those which give the value of the quantity to be measured in terms of
the constants of the instrument and their detection only. No previous calibration or comparison
is necessary in their case.
Example: Tangent galvanometer, which gives the value of current, in terms of the tangent of
deflection produced by the current, the radius and number of turns of wire used and the
horizontal component of earth's field.
2) Secondary instruments
Secondary instruments are those, in which the value of electrical quantity to be measured can
be determined from the deflection of the instruments, only when they have been pre-calibrated
by comparison with an absolute instrument.
Example: Ammeter, Voltmeter etc.

 The secondary instruments are again divided into the following three types
a) Indicating instruments
b) Recording instruments
c) Integrating instruments
a) Indicating instruments:
Indicating instruments are those which indicate the instantaneous value of the electrical quantity
being measured at the time at which it is being measured. Their indications are given by
pointers moving over calibrated dials.
Example: Ordinary ammeters, voltmeters and wattmeter
b) Recording instruments:
These instruments give a continuous record of the given electrical quantity which is being
measured over a specific period. The examples are various types of recorders. In such
recording instruments, the readings are recorded by drawing the graph. The pointer of such
instruments is provided with a marker i.e. pen or pencil, which moves on graph paper as per the
reading.

67
Example: X-Y plotter, ECG.
c) Integrating instruments:
These instruments measure the total quantity of electricity delivered over period of time.

Example: a household energy meter.

TORQUES IN INSTRUMENT:-

In case of measuring instruments, the effect of unknown quantity is converted into a mechanical
force which is transmitted to the pointer which moves over a calibrated scale. The moving
system of such instrument is mounted on a pivoted spindle. For satisfactory operation of any
indicating instrument, following torques must be present in an instrument.
1) Deflecting system producing deflecting torque (Td )
2) Controlling system producing controlling torque (Tc )
3) Damping system producing damping torque

1) Deflecting Torque:
In most of the indicating instruments the mechanical force proportional to the quantity to be
measured is generated. This force or torque deflects the pointer. The system which
produces such a deflecting torque is called deflecting system and the torque is denoted as
Td.

2) Controlling Torque:
This system should provide a force so that current or any other electrical quantity will
produce deflection of the pointer proportional to its magnitude. The important functions of
this system are,
1) It produces a force equal and opposite to the deflecting force in order to make the
deflection of pointer at a definite magnitude. If this system is absent, then the pointer will
swing beyond its final steady position for the given magnitude and deflection will become
indefinite.
2) It brings the moving system back to zero position when the force which causes the
movement of the moving system is removed. It will never come back to its zero position in
the absence of controlling system.

The controlling torque in indicating instruments may be provide by one of the following two
methods.
a) By weighting of moving parts i.e., Gravity Control
b) By one or more springs i.e., Spring Control

3) Damping Torque:
The deflecting torque provides some deflection and controlling torque acts in the opposite
direction to that of deflecting torque. So before coming to the rest, pointer always oscillates
due to inertia, about the equilibrium position. Unless pointer rests, final reading cannot be
obtained. So to bring the pointer to rest within short time, damping system is required. The
system should provide a damping torque only when the moving system is in motion.

68
 Damping torque is proportional to velocity of the moving system but it does not depend on
operating current

The following methods are used to produce damping torque.

a) Air friction damping
b) Fluid friction damping
c) Eddy current damping.

DIFFERENT USES OF PMMC TYPES INSTRUMENT:-

(i) Ammeter: - When PMMC used as an ammeter, except for a very small current range,
the moving coil is connected across a suitable low resistance shunt, so that only
small part of the main current flows through the coil.
(ii) Voltmeter: - When PMMC used as voltmeter, the coil is connected in series with high
resistance. The same PMMC instrument can be used as voltmeter or ammeter
(iii) Galvanometer: - It is used to measure a small value of current along with its direction
and strength.
(iv) Ohm meter: - It is used to measure the resistance of the electric circuit by applying a
voltage to a resistance with the help of battery.

DIFFERENT USES OF MI TYPES INSTRUMENT:-

● They are suitable for measurement of current, voltage and power factor in electrical
circuit.
● They are used for DC as well as low frequency AC in high power circuits.
● MI ammeter can be designed for full scale deflection current of 0.1Amp to 30Amp
without use of shunt
● MI voltmeter of ranges over 50V without series resistance are in common use.

CONNECTION DIAGRAM:-

(i) Ammeter:

(Fig.6.1. Connection Diagram of Ammeter)

(ii) Voltmeter:

69
 (Fig.6.2. Connection Diagram of Voltmeter)

(iii) Wattmeter

(Fig.6.3. Connection Diagram of Wattmeter)

(iv) Energy meter

(Fig.6.4. Connection Diagram of Energy meter)

70