Env'tal Hydrology

Compiled By Dr.
Mare Addis Desta

Environmental Hydrology (GeES 2024)
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1. Definition and Scope of Environmental Hydrology

Defn of hydrology:- it is derived from Greek words “Hydor” and “logos” i.e hydrology = Hydor +
Logos in which hydor refers to water and logos to the science
Therefore, Hydrology represents the science of water
Hydrologists define hydrology as the science, which deals with the occurrence , distribution,
circulation of atmospheric water through hydrologic cycle & simultaneously – its physical ,
chemical, & physiological interaction with the earth surfaces & their relationship to living things Or
hydrology is a science which deals with movement of water.
Compiled By Dr. Mare Addis Desta 1
Environmental Hydrology is concerned with the spatial and temporal distribution and movement of
water in all its forms and the interaction between water and the environment (living- and non-living
things) at the local, regional and global scale.
Environmental hydrology is the component of water science that focuses on the hydrological cycle
with an emphasis on its interface with humans and other organisms.
Environmental Hydrology focuses on the hydrosphere and, particularly, on the relationship between
hydrosphere and other environmental spheres, such as atmosphere, lithosphere and biosphere.
The hydrosphere is one of the four spheres/systems/ of the Earth’s physical environment.
The other three environmental spheres are the atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere.
The hydrosphere is often called the "water sphere"; it includes all the Earth's water.
Water is found at, beneath, and above the Earth’s surface in various storages/reservoirs/compartments,
such as oceans, streams, lakes, glaciers and ice sheets, in the soil, groundwater, and in the air and living
organisms. Compiled By Dr. Mare Addis Desta 2
At different places
• On the ground Evaporation
and
Transpiration
• Under ground
• Evaporation from Precipitation
(Rainfall &
Snow)
 land & water bodies
 Transpiration from plants
tissues through leaves & stems
 going back to the atmosphere &
 Return to the surfaces as precipitation Surface
Runoff
Infiltration/plant uptake/
 Precipitation is the primary sources of all water on Soil moisture redistribution Lateral Flow
the earth
Percolation to shallow aquifer

1.1.1. SCOPE OF HYDROLOGY
They are different aspects of hydrology. They include:
1. Study of water on and beneath the earth’s surface.
2. Study of water occurrence, distribution and movement.
3. Inspection of water properties.
4. Analyzing the interaction between water and the environment at different cycle phases.
1. Study of water on and beneath the earth surface
• Water is central to most natural processes.
• It transports sediment and solutes to lakes and oceans, thereby shaping the landscape.
• Hydrologic science has an important place in the field of water resources, especially freshwater resources, which
are the subject of intense concern and study.
• Water exists on the earth’s surface as surface water.

• This includes both the saltwater in the ocean and the freshwater in rivers, streams, and lakes.
• Surface water is an important source of drinking water and is used for the irrigation of farmland.
2. Study of water occurrence, distribution and movement
• Water circulates throughout the Earth through different pathways and at different rates.
• Hydrology is concerned with the continuous circulation of water in the air-atmosphere system, the hydrologic
cycle.
• The hydrologic cycle describes how water evaporates from the surface of the earth, rises to the atmosphere, cools
and condenses into rain or snow in clouds, and falls again to the surface as precipitation.
• Water takes on various forms in the environment in response to changes in temperature and other influences.
• It also exists in various quantities and quality as it moves through the cycle.
• Water content trapped by trees and plants also returns back to the atmosphere through transpiration or in a more
general phase called evapotranspiration.

• Parts of hydrology involves developing methods for directly measuring these flows or amounts of water available
as well as modeling these processes either for scientific knowledge or for making a prediction in practical
applications.
3. Inspection of water properties
• Hydrology also deals with the physical and chemical properties of water in all its phases.
• Different phase exhibits different water properties and this affects water usage.
• As a result of thermal content, the kinetic/dynamic energy of water varies in different states resulting in varying
water properties.
• The temperature, turbidity, pH levels, taste, and many more properties are key factors of a hydrologic datasheet.

4. Analyzing the interaction between water and the environment at different cycle phases
• Apart from studying the natural distribution and movement of water, hydrology is also concerned with the impact
of human activities on water quality as well as water management problems.
• A change in water quality or quantity can affect the local environment positively or otherwise.
These changes can be:
• man-made (e.g. a dam release)
• weather-related (flooding), or
• a combination of both factors (i.e. rainfall-runoff caused by poor agricultural practices).
• Regardless of the cause, hydrologic data assists in explaining water quality and environmental changes.

1.2. Environmental aspects of hydrology
• Definition of Environmental Aspect. Environmental Aspect is an element of an organization's activities, products

or services that can interact with the environment.
• What exactly is an environmental aspect?
• An environmental aspect is the way your activity, service, or product impacts the environment.
• For example, one of the environmental aspects of car washing may be a cleaning agent that has potential for
water pollution (this pollution is the environmental impact).
• Therefore, Environmental hydrology is the component of water science that focuses on the hydrological cycle
with an emphasis on its interface with humans and other organisms.

1.3. Practical Applications of Environmental Hydrology
• Determining the water balance of a region.
• Determining the agricultural water balance.
• Mitigating and predicting flood, landslide, and drought risk.
• Real-time flood forecasting and flood warming.
• Designing irrigation schemes and managing agricultural productivity.
• Part of the hazard module in catastrophe modeling.
• Providing drinking water.
• Designing dams for water supply or hydroelectric power generation.
• Designing bridges.
• Designing sewers and urban drainage systems.
• Analyzing the impacts of antecedent/precursor/ moisture on sanitary sewer systems.
• Predicting geomorphologic changes, such as erosion or sedimentation.

• Assessing the impacts of natural and anthropogenic environmental change on water resources.
• Assessing contaminant transport risk and establishing environmental policy guidelines.
• Peak flow and future conditions of flow, at any point in the drainage valley can be correctly estimated for any
basin or area.
• Spillway capacity can be accurately designed by estimating design flood.
• Design of river training work is facilitated.
• Dependable yields from the stream for generation of hydroelectric power can be calculated.
• Water supply to township and sewerage schemes can be properly designed.
• Water resources account of a river basin can be prepared.
• Reservoir capacity can be determined accurately.
• Operation of reservoirs can be done in an efficient manner.

1.4. Global water resources
water is most essential requirement for human life & survival of plants & animals
A global earth having the surface area
29% occupied by land = 2% is frozen in ice cape
71% covered by oceans = 0.31% is deep Ground water
Therefore, 97% of water is in ocean

Thus, 99.31% of water on earth is of no healthy use
to man
It is fact at any instant, fresh water is 0.009% from
the total water that is river & lakes
The global annual precipitation & evaporation are
estimated to be equal

Distribution of World’s Water Resources

1.5 Basic Properties of Water & kinds of Use
1.5.1. Basic Properties of Water
 Water has many properties that are critical to maintaining life.
 It is a polar molecule, allowing for the formation of hydrogen bonds.
 Hydrogen bonds allow ions and other polar molecules to dissolve in water.
 Therefore, water is an excellent solvent.
 The hydrogen bonds between water molecules cause the water to have a high heat capacity, meaning it takes a lot
of added heat to raise its temperature.
 As the temperature rises, the hydrogen bonds between water continually break and form a new.
 This allows for the overall temperature to remain stable, although energy is added to the system.
 Water also exhibits a high heat of vaporization, which is key to how organisms cool themselves by the
evaporation of sweat.

• Water’s cohesive forces allow for the property of surface tension, whereas its adhesive properties are seen as
water rises inside capillary tubes.
• The pH value is a measure of hydrogen ion concentration in a solution and is one of many chemical
characteristics that is highly regulated in living organisms through homeostasis.
• Homeostasis is defined as a self-regulating process by which a living organism can maintain internal stability
while adjusting to changing external conditions.
• Acids and bases can change pH values, but buffers tend to moderate the changes they cause.
• These properties of water are intimately connected to the biochemical and physical processes performed by living
organisms, and life would be very different if these properties were altered, if it could exist at all.

1.5.2. kinds of Water Use
What is the definition of water use?
Water use refers to water actually used by end users (e.g. households, services, agriculture, industry) within a
territory for a specific purpose such as domestic use, irrigation or industrial processing.
• Water can be used for direct and indirect purposes.
• Direct purposes include bathing, drinking, and cooking, while examples of indirect purposes are the use of
water in processing wood to make paper and in producing steel for automobiles.
• The bulk of the world's water use is for agriculture, industry, and electricity.
Uses of water in our everyday life
• For drinking purpose. • For feeding plants. • For hydro-electricity generation.
• For dish cleaning. • For clothes washing. • For the car wash.
• For cooking purpose. • To take bath.

The most common water uses include:
 Drinking and Household Needs
 Recreation
 Industry and Commerce
 Agriculture
 Thermoelectricity/Energy
• Water is required by a community for fulfilling its several needs & for surviving not only human life but also
animal & plant life
• Moreover, the water required for fulfilling their needs, should not only be in sufficient quantity, but should be of
good quality, so as to cause any harmful effects on such lives

5.2.1 Domestic use of water
• This includes the water required in private buildings for drinking, cooking, bathing, gardening, sanitary toiletry
uses, etc
• The amount of domestic water consumption per person shall vary according to the living conditions of the
consumers
• Eg. On average, the domestic consumption under normal conditions in Indian is expected to be around 135 liters
per day per person
• In developed effluent country Like USA this figure goes as high as 400 liter /d/p about 69% used as a solvent
to carry away wastes
• 29% gardening & 2% is for drinking
• This is because more water is consumed in reach effluent livings in air cooling, air conditioning, etc.

In Ethiopia, use the following rough guide
People :- 15 L/p/d
Cattle :- 25 L/animals for each day
Lactating cows:- 25 L/animal/day plus 5 Liters for each liters of milk produced
Horses & donkeys :- 20 liters/animals /day
Sheep & goat:- 10 L/animals/day
Poultry :- 15 L/1000birds /day
5.2.2. Agricultural Uses of Water

• Irrigation is the major consumptive use of water in most parts of the world
• The amount of water used for irrigation & livestock continues to increase throughout the world
• Future agricultural demand for water will depend on the cost of water for irrigation, the demand for
agricultural products, food, fiber, governmental policies; development policies of new technology &
competition for water from growing human population
• Since irrigation is common in arid & semi-arid areas, local water supplies are often lacking, & it is often
necessary to transport water greater distances to water crops
5.2.3. industrial & commercial use of water
• this includes the quantity of water required to be supplied to offices, factories, different industries, hotels, hospitals
etc.
• This quantities will vary considerably with the nature of the city & with the number & types of industries &
commercial establishments present in it
• On average, a provision of 20 to 25% of the total water consumption, is generally made for these uses.
• In small residential communities, the industrial use may be as low as 45 liters per day But.
• Industrial cities, it may be as high as 450 liters /day
• Therefore, the specific industrial water demand should be assessed on the industries settled or assess the quantity of
required per unit of production
• Most industrial processes involve heat exchanges, 90% of the water used by industry is for cooling & is returned to
the source, so only small amount is actually consumed
• It significantly change the water temperature that affect aquatic ecosystem by reducing dissolved oxygen

characteristics Industrial countries Developing countries
Domestic water use 1. Heavy per capita use 1. Small per capita use
per capita 2. Highest usage in Australia,
Newzealand, USA & Canada 2. Water usage increase as living standards go up
3. Usage is stabilizing
Where water is used 1. Irrigation & industry total 1. Irrigation is over 80% particularly high in Asia
about 85% & Africa
2. Domestic is about 15% 2. Industry & domestic uses are each < 10%
Access to safe 1. Safe drinking water generally 1. Large no of people lack safe drinking water
drinking water & available 2. Effective waste water treatment generally not
waste water 2. Waste water treatment available
treatment generally available 3. Rapidly growing urban population will create
3. Only small population increases greater need for safe drinking water & waste
expected water treatment

1.6. Hydrological cycle and its components
1.6.1. The Hydrologic cycle is a central focus of hydrology

 The cycle has no beginning or ending & its many processes occur continuously
• Hydrologic cycle comprises three phases:
• Evaporation & transpiration, Precipitation, Runoff
• In these three phases hydrologic cycle is always in function under the influence of solar energy & complete
un ending chain
 For inland areas, hydrologic cycle balance equation can be expressed as;
 P = R+E where R = runoff
E = loss through evaporation & transpiration
P = precipitation

The hydrologic cycle can be grouped in to subsystems that are divided in to three entire cycle.
1. Atmospheric water system
2. Surface water system
3. Subsurface water system
1.The atmospheric water system comprises Processes of
 precipitation
Evaporation & transpiration
Interception
2. Surface water system comprises the processes of
 ground water outflow
 runoff to streams, oceans

3. Subsurface water system includes all water located in the pore spaces of soil, rocks and ground water flow

• The water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle describes the continuous movement of water on,
above and below the surface of the Earth.
• Water can change states among liquid, vapor, and ice at various places in the water cycle.
• Although the balance of water on Earth remains fairly constant over time, individual water molecules can
come and go, in and out of the atmosphere.
• The water moves from one reservoir to another, such as from river to ocean, or from the ocean to the
atmosphere, by the physical processes of evaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, runoff, and
subsurface flow.
• By transferring water from one reservoir to another, the water cycle purifies water, replenishes the land
with freshwater, and transports minerals to different parts of the globe.
• It is also involved in reshaping the geological features of the Earth, through such processes as erosion and
sedimentation. In addition, as the water cycle also involves heat exchange, it exerts an influence on climate
as well. Compiled By Dr. Mare Addis Desta 23
• The sun, which drives the water cycle, heats water in oceans and seas.
• Water evaporates as water vapor into the air.
• Ice and snow can sublimate directly into water vapor.
• Evapotranspiration is water transpired from plants and evaporated from the soil.
• Rising air currents take the vapor up into the atmosphere where cooler temperatures cause it to condense into
clouds.
• Air currents move water vapor around the globe, cloud particles collide, grow, and fall out of the sky as
precipitation.
• Some precipitation falls as snow or hail, and can accumulate as ice caps and glaciers, which can store frozen
water for thousands of years.
• Snow packs can thaw and melt, and the melted water flows over land as snowmelt.
• Most water falls back into the oceans or onto land as rain, where the water flows over the ground as surface
runoff.
• A portion of runoff enters rivers in valleys in the landscape, with stream flow moving water towards the oceans.
• Runoff and groundwater are stored as freshwater in lakes.
• Not all runoff flows into rivers, much of it soaks into the ground as infiltration.
• Some water infiltrates deep into the ground and replenishes aquifers, which store freshwater for long periods of
time.
• Some infiltration stays close to the land surface and can seep back into surface-water bodies (and the ocean) as
groundwater discharge.
• Some groundwater finds openings in the land surface and comes out as freshwater springs.
• Over time, the water returns to the ocean, where our water cycle started.
..\..\Picture\The Water Cycle- How rain is formed-Lesson for kids.mp4

Many different process lead to movements and phase changes in water
1. Evaporation is the transformation of water from liquid to gas phases as it moves from the ground or
bodies of water into the overlying atmosphere.
It is the process by which water changes from a liquid state to a gaseous state.
2. Transpiration is essentially evaporation of water from plant leaves.
Total annual evapotranspiration amounts to approximately 505,000 km3 of water, 434,000 km3 of which
evaporates from the oceans.
3. Sublimation is the state change directly from solid water (snow or ice) to water vapor.
4. Condensation is the transformation of water vapor to liquid water droplets in the air, creating clouds and
fog.
It's crucial to the formation of clouds, and it's the reverse of evaporation.

• Condensation generally occurs in the atmosphere when warm air rises, cools and looses its capacity to hold water
vapour.
• As a result, excess water vapour condenses to form cloud droplets
5. Precipitation is the process by which water falls from clouds in the sky.
6. Percolation:- a portion of precipitated water percolates in the ground & is stored there
7. Infiltration is the process by which water on the ground surface enters the soil.
8. Runoff:- is a portion of precipitated water flows over the ground in the form of rivers & streams
9. Surface flow is ground water outflow and runoff to streams, oceans.
10. Subsurface flow is the flow of water underground

1.6.2. Components of Hydrological cycle
The main components of the hydrological cycle are evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, and
runoff.
• The hydrological cycle, also known as the water cycle, is a continuous process by which water circulates
between the Earth's oceans, atmosphere, and land.
• This cycle involves the exchange of energy, which leads to temperature changes.
• This process occurs when heat energy from the sun causes water in the oceans, rivers, lakes, and even puddles on
the street, to transform into water vapour.
• This water vapour then rises into the atmosphere which is evaporation.
• Transpiration is the process by which water is carried through plants from roots to small pores on the underside
of leaves, where it changes to vapour and is released to the atmosphere.
• It is essentially evaporation of water from plant leaves.

• Transpiration also includes a process called guttation, which is the loss of water in liquid form from
the uninjured leaf or stem of the plant, usually when the plant has adequate soil water supply and
transpiration is suppressed by a humid environment. The release of water vapor from plants and soil
into the air. Water vapor is a gas that cannot be seen.
The storehouses for the vast majority of all water on Earth are the oceans.
It is estimated that of the 1,386,000,000 km3 of the world's water supply, about 1,338,000,000 km3 is
stored in oceans, or about 95%. It is also estimated that the oceans supply about 90% of the evaporated
water that goes into the water cycle.

• Condensation is the transformation of water vapor to liquid water droplets in the air, creating clouds
and fog.

• Precipitation is the process by which water (in the form of rain, freezing rain, sleet, snow, or hail) falls
from clouds in the sky.
• It occurs when so much water has condensed that the air cannot hold it anymore.
• Approximately 505,000 km3 of water falls as precipitation each year, 398,000 km3 of it over the oceans.
• The clouds get heavy and water falls back to the earth in the form of precipitation.
Lastly, runoff is the process by which water moves across the land surface and drains into rivers, streams,
and eventually the oceans.
• This can occur naturally from rain or snowmelt, or artificially from irrigation or other human activities.
• Runoff is an important component of the water cycle because it is the primary way that water in the sky
comes back to Earth.

1.7. Watershed as a unit of hydrology
• The watershed is a fundamental concept in hydrology and is the basis for understanding hydrologic processes and
for the planning and management of water resources.
• Storage and movement of water at a watershed scale is complicated due to the coupled processes which act over
multiple spatial and temporal scales.
• A Watershed is defined as a geohydrological unit draining to a common point by a system of drains.
• Watershed is thus the land and water area, which contributes runoff to a common point.
• Types of watersheds are: Macro watershed (> 50,000 Ha).

• A watershed is a basic unit of hydrological behavior.
• On the land surface, it is a geographical unit in which the hydrological cycle and its components can be analyzed.
• Usually a watershed is defined as the area that appears, on the basis of topography, to contribute all the water that
passes through a given point of a stream.
• A watershed embraces all its natural and artificial (man-made) features, including its surface and subsurface
features, climate and weather patterns, geologic and topographic settings, soils and vegetation characteristics, and
land use (figure).
• A watershed carries water “shed” from the land after rain

falls and snow melts. Drop by drop, water is channeled into
soils, groundwater, creeks, and streams, making its way to
larger rivers and eventually the sea.
• ..\..\Picture\What is drainage basin I Drainage patterns
visualization using Google earth _ Watershed _
Catchment.mp4
CHAPTER TWO
2.1. BASIC COMPONENTS OF WATER BALANCE
What are the main components of water balance?
To understand water-balance concept, we need to start with its various components:
• Precipitation (P). ...
• Actual evapotranspiration (AE). ...
• Potential evapotranspiration (PE). ...
• Soil Moisture Storage (ST). ...
• Change in Soil Moisture Storage (ΔST).
• What is the basic concept of water balance studies?

The water balance looks at how the amount of precipitation compares with the water leaving the system as runoff or
as evapotranspiration.
This balance will change throughout the year and will be affected by the overall climate of the area near to the river.
The water balance concept, expressed in Equation (1), is useful to evaluate how changes in catchment conditions can
alter the partitioning of rainfall into different components (Zhang et al., 2001):
P = ET+Q+ΔS Eq 1
where P is precipitation,
ET is evapotranspiration,
Q is the sum of surface and subsurface runoff measured as stream flow, and
ΔS is the variation in soil water storage.

• Precipitation is the largest term in the equation and varies temporally and spatially.
• In most hydrological applications, it is appropriate to assume that precipitation is independent of vegetation type
Meaning of Water Balance:
• The water balance is an accounting of the inputs and outputs of water.
• The major input of water is from precipitation and output is evapotranspiration.
• The water balance of a place, whether it is an agricultural field, watershed, or continent, can be determined by
calculating the input, output, and storage changes of water at the Earth’s surface.
• The law of water balance states that the inflows to any water system or area is equal to its outflows plus change
in storage during a time interval.
• In hydrology, a water balance equation can be used to describe the flow of water in and out of a system.

2.1.1. The Water Balance Equation
I = O + S, where I = Inflow, O = outflow, S = change in storage during the specified time, the total
inflow & change in storage in an area predicts the available water in the basin
Catchment area: The area of land drained by a stream or a water course at a given location is known as
- Catchment area
- Drainage area
- Drainage basin in USA known as watershed
A catchment area is separated from its neighboring area by ridge called divide in USA & watershed in
UK ..\..\Picture\Chapter-4-water divide.webp
..\..\Picture\Parts of River Basin.webp
Watershed management is the process of creating and implementing plans, programs, and projects to
sustain and enhance watershed functions that affect the plant, animal, and human communities within a
watershed boundary.
Areal extent obtained by tracing ridge on topographic map to delineate the catchment and measure the area by
plani-meter
Ground water divide can coincide with surface divide
In hydrologic, calculation, the depths are often expressed as average volumes over the catchment area.
Eg. If the annual stream flow from a 10 km2 catchment is 107 m3, it corresponds to a depth of__?
Depth of water = Volume/area
107 m3/10x106m2 = 1m depth
An expression for the water budget of a catchment for a time interval t is written as P-R-G-E-T = S
Where P = precipitation G = net ground water flow out of the catchment (infiltration is
R = surface runoff included)
E = evaporation
T = transpiration
S = change in storage
All these terms can be expressed in depth over the catchment area.

Eg. A lake had a water surface elevation of 103.200m above a datum at the beginning of a certain month. In this
month the lake received an average inflow of 6.0m3/s from surface runoff occurrence. In the same period the
outflow from the lake had an average value of 6.5m3/s. further, in that month, the lake received rainfall of 145 mm
& the evaporation from the lake surface was estimated as 6.10cm. Write the water budget equation for the lake &
calculate the water surface elevation of the lake at the end of the month. The average lake surface area can be taken
as 5000ha. Assume that there is no contribution to or from the ground water storage
Solution
In a time period delta the water budget for the lake can be written as
Input – output volume = change in storage (I t + PA) – (Q t + EA) = S
Where I = average inflow rate, E = evaporation,

Q = average out flow rate, A = surface area of the lake &
P = precipitation S = change in storage volume

Hence t = 1 month = 30 days x 24hr x 60min x 60s
= 2,592x106s = 2.592 million seconds
Inflow volume(I t) = 6.0m3/sec x 2.592 million sec =15.552million

m3
Out flow (Q t) = 6.5 m3/sec x 2.592 million sec = 16.848 million m3
Input due to precipitation = PA = 145mm x 1/10mm

x5000(100x100)
PA= 14.5 cm x5000 x100mx100m/100x106 Mill m3 =7.25 million m3
(when we change 14.5cm in to meter & million)

Outflow due to evaporation
(EA) = 6.10cmx5000x100x100/100x106 = 3.05million m3
Change cm in to meter and million
Input - Output = change in storage
Hence, S = 15.552 + 7.25 – 16.848 – 3.05 = 2.904million m3
Change in elevation
E= S/A = 2.904x106m3/5000x100mx100 m = 0.058m
New water surface elevation at the end of the month
= water surface elevation + change in elevation
= 103.200 + 0.058
= 103.258m above the datum.
2.2. PRECIPITATION MEASUREMENT & ANALYSIS
Definition: precipitation denotes all forms of water that reach the earth from the atmosphere.
2.2.1. FORMATION AND FORMS OF PRECIPITATION
2.2.1.1. FORMATION OF PRECIPITATION
• Precipitation forms in the clouds when water vapor condenses into bigger and bigger droplets of water.
• When the drops are heavy enough, they fall to the earth.
• If a cloud is colder, like it would be at higher altitudes, the water droplets may freeze to form ice.
What are the steps of the formation of precipitation?
• After achievement of saturation, the further rise of air is accompanied by cloud formation, increase in size of
drops (crystals) under the influence of condensation (sublimation), and then also of coagulation.
• This process culminates in cloud precipitation - rain, snow, graupel, hail.

What is Precipitation?
• The falling of water from the sky in various forms is known as precipitation.
• They're all formed by clouds in the troposphere, which are around 8 to 16 kilometers (4 to 11 miles)
above the ground.
• Precipitation happens when any form of water particle falls from the upper atmosphere to the earth's
surface.
• Frictional drag and gravity induce the drop to the ground.
• Depending on the atmospheric conditions, the crystallized ice may reach the ground as ice pellets or
snow, or it may melt and convert into raindrops before reaching the earth's surface.
• Rain, snow, sleet, freezing rain, hail, snow grains, and diamond dust are all examples of diverse types
of precipitation.
• They are several types of water that fall from the frozen clouds in the sky.
Process of formation: Condensation of water vapors in the air mass causes precipitation.
• Due to adiabatic cooling, the rising air mass containing a significant number of water vapors becomes
saturated.
• Condensation of water vapors causes clouds to develop.
• In every cloud, there are updrafts and downdrafts.
• The updraft determines cloud growth and height. The stronger the updraft, the taller the cloud. As the
liquid water accumulates, the updraft weakens and the downdraft strengthens. Thereafter, Precipitation
results.
• While all clouds contain water, only some generate precipitation.
• Precipitated moisture from clouds sometimes evaporates before reaching the earth's surface. Precipitation
happens when cloud droplets or ice crystals grow large enough to overcome atmospheric updrafts.
• It signifies that specific processes are at work in a cloud that produces rain.

• 2.2.1.2. FORMS OF PRECIPITATION
• The different forms of precipitation are as follows:
1. Rain
• Rain is a form of precipitation that is in the form of water drops of a size that is larger than 0.5mm.
• The maximum raindrop size is about 6mm.
• Drops of larger size break up into smaller drops as it falls down on the Earth’s surface.
• Rainfall is the predominant form of precipitation and therefore, the term precipitation is used synonymously with
rainfall.
2. Snow
• Snow consists of ice crystals in a flaky form, having an average density of 0.1g/cc (grams per cubic centimeter)
• It is also an important form of precipitation that usually forms in colder climates and higher altitudes.
3. Drizzle
• Drizzle is a fine sprinkle of tiny water droplets that have a size less than 0.5mm and an intensity greater than 1mm/h.
• The tiny drops that form a drizzle appear floating in the air.
4. Glaze or Freezing Rain
• The glaze is formed when rain or drizzle comes in direct contact with the cold ground at around 0 degrees celsius.
• This water drops freeze to form an ice coating known as glaze.
5. Sleet
• Sleet is frozen raindrops that are formed when rainfall passes through the air in the atmosphere at subfreezing
temperatures.

6. Hail
• Hail is a kind of showery precipitation in the form of pellets or lumps that have a size greater than 8mm.
• Hail occurs during violent thunderstorms.
• These are examples of precipitation
7. Sun shower
• A sun shower occurs when rain falls while the sun shines.
• In the absence of clouds, raindrops fall from the sky when rain-bearing winds blow several miles away.
• As a result, a sun shower occurs when a single rain cloud crosses the earth's surface, allowing the sun's rays to
flow through.
• It is usually accompanied by a rainbow.
8. Grains of Snow
• Snow grains are tiny white ice grains.
• Snow grains are flat, with a diameter of about 1mm.
• They are almost as big as a drizzle.
9. Diamond Dust
• Diamond dust is made up of tiny ice crystals that occur at low altitudes and temperatures.
• The dazzling effect caused by light reflecting off ice crystals in the air gave diamond dust its name.

10. Ice Crystal
• This is a common occurrence in colder regions of the globe.
• The crystals resemble fog, with water particles freezing into ice.
• Ice crystals look similar to needles, plates, or columns in shape.
11. Virga
• Virga looks like a strip of rain that comes down from the cloud's base and evaporates before it
reaches the ground.
• Dry or warm air is in the way when rain falls through it.

Precipitation is the primary component of the hydrologic cycle.
It is obtained from water present in the atmosphere in the form of water vapor
Precipitation can be divided in two forms: 1. Liquid: rain, drizzle, dew
2. Frozen (solid): snow, hail, sleet
It is measured in terms of depth of water that would accumulate on a plane, (mm or in.) or its time rate, called
intensity (mm/hr or in/hr).
Rainfall: precipitation in the form of water with drop size of 0.5 to 6 mm.
A drop size larger than 6mm tends to break up in to drops of smaller size during its fall from the clouds.
Depending on its intensity rainfall is classified as light, moderate and heavy RF.
Types of rainfall intensities

2.2.1.3. TYPES OF PRECIPITATION
• The source of rainfall is evaporation mainly from ocean surfaces.
• Most of the precipitation didn’t occur where the evaporation takes place, rather it falls somewhere else out of the
evaporation area.
• Precipitation occurs when the moist air mass undergoes the process of condensation. This process occurs when
the air is cooled and saturated with the same moisture amount.
• This process of cooling the air mass occurs only when the air mass moves up to the higher altitudes.
• The air mass can be lifted to higher altitudes primarily by three methods based on which there are three different
types of precipitation which are as follows:
1. Cyclonic Precipitation, 2. Convective Precipitation, 3. Orographic Precipitation

1. Cyclonic Precipitation or Frontal rainfall when two air masses (warm and cold) meet, they do not mix freely with each
other.
• They remain separated with a boundary surface between them.
• The warmer and less dense air is forced to rise over the colder and heavier air.
• As the warmer air rises, it cools and condenses.
• Then clouds form and rain falls.
• The place where warm air and cold air meet is called a front.
• Frontal rainfall is very common in the middle and high latitudes (60o north and south from the equator).
2. Convective Precipitation
• The air above the land area gets heated up due to some cause.
• Most of this warmer air rises up, cools, and precipitates.
• Convective precipitation is showery by nature.
• This type of precipitation occurs in varying intensities.
3. Orographic Precipitation
• Moving air masses have a chance to strike barriers such as mountains.
• Once they strike, they rise up causing condensation and precipitation.
• The precipitation that occurs is greater on the windward side of the barrier when compared to the leeward side of the barrier.
• ..\..\Picture\Types of Rainfall - Rainfall and its Types - Different Types of Rain - Video for Kids.mp4

2.2.2. MEASUREMENT OF PRECIPITATION
• • Knowing quantity, spatial and temporal distribution of precipitation is important in the
hydrological analysis.
• Precipitation events are recorded by; Radar and Satellite image-
• Radar- The word radar stands for radio detection and ranging.
• A weather radar sends electromagnetic waves in all directions.
• When these waves collide with raindrops, an echo of the waves is produced which is caught
back by the radar.
• The strength of echo or returning signal depends on the intensity of the falling rain and the
time taken by the echo to reach the radar depends upon the distance of the rainfall field from
the radar.

• The main advantage of the weather radar is that it can give the estimates of rainfall over wide
areas and over areas that are difficult to access.
• Satellite image- Satellites are also being used to estimate precipitation over large areas and
in near real-time.
• Images from geostationary and polar orbiting satellites along with cloud top temperature,
shape, texture, and cloud history are used for estimation of precipitation.
• Another possibility is to combine satellite images with radar data to obtain improved
estimates.

• Rain gauges - gives the point value of rainfall. The unit of measurement is usually mm. and rainfall data are
usually represented as mm/hour, mm/day, etc. The amount of precipitation is measured on the basis of vertical
depth of water which is accumulated on the surface of the earth.
Types of Rain gauges
• The rain gauge may be broadly classified in to two types: non-recording and Record RG
1) The non-recording rain gauge ( also called symon’s rain gauge) = an ordinary rain gauge
• The rain falling into the funnel is collected in the receiver and is measured in a special measuring glass
graduated in mm of rainfall.
The water collected in the vessel is

measured using suitable graduated
measuring glass.

• It gives the total rain fall only. • when the rain end,
• what is the intensity of rain fall,
• Cannot provide information regarding
• how the intensity of varies with in the
• when exactly the rain began, duration of the storm
2) Recording Rain Gauge = self-recording rain gauge
• This is also called self-recording, automatic or integrating rain gauge.
• This type of rain gauge has an automatic mechanical arrangement consisting of clockwork, a drum with a graph
paper fixed around it and a pencil point, which draws the mass curve of rainfall.
• From this mass curve,
• The depth of rainfall in a given time,
• The rate or intensity of rainfall at any instant during a storm,
• Time of onset and cessation of rainfall, can be determined.

There are three types of commonly used self-recording rain gauges.
A. Tipping bucket type
B. Weighing bucket type:
C. Natural-siphon type:
A. Tipping bucket type Tipping Bucket Rain Gauge.mp4
• this is a 30.5 cm size rain gauge adopted for use by the US weather bureau.
• The catch from the funnel falls on one of a pair of small buckets.
• These buckets are so balanced that when 0.25mm of rain fall collects in one bucket, it tips and brings the
other one in position. How a Tipping-Bucket Rain Gauge Works.mp4
• The water from the tipped bucket is collected in storage can.
• The tipping actuates an electrically driven pen to trace a record on a clock driver chart.
• The water collected in the storage can is measured at a regular interval to provide the total rainfall and
serves as a check Such record also gives the intensity of rain fall.
B. Weighing bucket type: In this rain gauge the catch from the funnel empties in to a bucket
mounted on a weighing scale. Working of Siphon type rain gauge -Measurement of Precipitation.mp4
• The weight of the bucket and its contents are recorded on a clock work driven chart.
• The clock work mechanism has a capacity to run for as long as one week.
• This instrument gives a plot of accumulated rainfall against the elapsed time. See fig. below:

C. Natural-siphon type: This type of recording rain gauge is also known as float type gauge.
• Here the rainfall collected by a funnel shaped collector is led in to a float chamber causing a float to rise.
• As the float rises, a pen attached to the float through a lever system records the elevation of the float on a rotating
drum driven by clock work mechanism.
• A siphon arrangement empties the float chamber when the float has reached a pre-set maximum level.
• This type of rain gauge is adopted as the standard recoding type rain gauge.
The fig shows a typical

chart for natural-siphon
type rain gauge.
At this time the pen reset at zero level. This chart
gives a plot of mass curve of rainfall.
Working of Siphon type rain gauge _Measurement of
Precipitation.mp4

Sources of Errors in Rain Gauge Measurements
• Although rain gauges present the most simple and direct way for measuring rainfall amounts and rates, they are
subject to several sources of uncertainties and errors.
1) Wind-induced errors
• Since most rain gauges are elevated above the ground, wind eddies form around their orifices /holes
which reduces the catch of small rain drops. This problem is the most common and serious source of rainfall-
measurement errors.
2) Evaporation and Wetting Losses
• These losses are encountered in storage-type non-recording gauges, gauges with small orifices,
and gauges recording at long intervals (several days).
• The magnitude of these losses depends on temperature, humidity, and time between rain and collection of the
measurement. However, such errors are usually small and can be often neglected except for low- intensity rainfall
events.
• This error is encountered in tipping-bucket rain gauges.
3) Other sources of errors in gauge measurements
 Other sources of errors include;
 Calibration Errors (adjustment errors),
 rainfall splashing, evaporation from gauge,
 mechanical breakdown of gauges,
 clogging of gauge orifices and funnels,
 observer mistakes in recording, processing and publishing rainfall measurements.
 improper sitting configuration of rain gauges near trees or building can cause significant
losses of rainfall

PLACEMENT OF RAIN GAUGES and its Rain gauge Net work
• Since the catching area of a rain gauge is very small when compared to the areal extent of a storm, it
is obvious that to get a representative picture of a storm over a catchment, the number of rain gauge
should be as large as possible i.e. the catchment area per gauge should be small.
• Of course, economic and topographic factors may affect the number of gauges.
• Hence, an optimum density of gauges is needed from which reasonable accuracy of information of
storm can be collected.
• World Meteorological Organization (WTO) recommends the following rain gauge density for different
locations.
1. In flat region of temperate, Mediterranean and tropical zones:
Ideal: 1 station for 600-900km2
Acceptable: 1 station for 900-3000km2

2. In mountainous regions of temperate, Mediterranean and tropical zone:
Ideal: 1 station for 100-250km2
Acceptable: 1 station for 250-1000km2
3. In arid and polar zones: 1 station for 1,500-10,000km2 depending on the feasibility.
To know the intensity of rainfall 10% of the gauges should be automatic (self-recording).
However, the adequacy of the number of gauges in the existing network may be find out by calculating the optimum
( maximum) number of gauges as follows:

• The coefficient of variation
(CV) is the ratio of the
standard deviation to the mean.
The higher the coefficient of
variation, the greater the level
of dispersion around the mean.
What Does Standard Deviation Tell You?
Standard deviation describes how
dispersed a set of data is.
It compares each data point to the mean of
all data points, and standard deviation returns
a calculated value that describes whether the
data points are in close proximity or
whether they are spread out.

Example
There are four rain gauge stations existing in the catchment of a specific river. The average annual rainfall values at
these stations are 800, 620, 400 and 540 mm, respectively. Determine the optimum number of gauges in the
catchment, if it is to limit the error in the mean value of rainfall in the catchment to 10%?

Example 2. A catchment has six raingauge stations.
In a year, the annual rainfall recorded by the gauges is indicated as follows:
Question: Calculate the optimum number of rain gauge stations? In estimating the rainfall, take 10% error.
Solution: For this data, m = 6 (six stations)

But Cv =? , Calculate Cv first! CV =
CV = 35.04/118.6 * 100 =29.54
= = 8.7 ≈ 9 stations.
Therefore, 3 additional stations are required

Activity! • The average rainfalls in cm at 4 existing stations in a basin are 105, 79, 70 & 66. If the average depth of
rain fall over the basin is to be estimated within 10% error, determine the additional gauges needed? A catchment
has six rain gauge stations. In a year, the annual rainfall recorded by the gauges are as follows:

2.2.3. ANALYSIS OF PRECIPITATION (RAIN FALL) DATA
1) Determining areal rainfall
• Mean areal depth of precipitation
• Precipitation is measured in mm (depth) of water.
• Rain gauge measures the amount of rain fall at single point. This means that the unit is non-spatial.
Depth is assumed to be the same as the surrounding areas.
Example: 10 mm of rainfall measured at a point by the rain gauge may fall over a small or large area
around that rain gauge.
• Since rainfall is an areal phenomenon, the point measurements of rainfall must be transformed to
areal averages. For instance, 1cm =10mm, what will be 1mm when it changed to cm
• 1 mm of rainfall over 1m2 is equivalent to 0.1*100*100=1000 cm3 or one liter (1L) of water.
• 1 mm over 1 Hectare is thus 1L*100*100=10, 000 L of water.
Thus, even small depths of water can amount to very large volumes as area increases.
Generally, Analysis of rainfall data can be seen as Rainfall during a year or season (or a number of years) consists of
several storms.
The characteristics of a rainstorm are:-
(i) intensity (cm/hr),
(ii) duration (min, hr, or days),
(iii) frequency (once in 5 years or once in 10, 20, 40, 60 or 100 years), and
(iv) areal extent (i.e., area over which it is distributed).

2) Estimation of Areal Precipitation
Mean areal depth of precipitation
Point rainfall is the rainfall at a single station.
For small areas less than 50 km2, point rainfall may be taken as the average depth over the area.
In reality, the hydrologist needs to know how much precipitation has fallen over a far larger area,
usually a catchment.
 To move from point measurements to a spatially distributed estimation it is necessary to
employ some form of spatial averaging.
Estimation of average depth of rainfall over a catchment
(Methods of Changing point rainfall to area rainfall)

As discussed earlier, rain gauges represent only point sampling of the area distribution of a storm.
In Practice, however, hydrological analysis requires knowledge of rainfall over an area, such as
over the catchment.
• To convert the point rainfall values at various stations in to an average value over a catchment
the following methods are in use.
• As the rainfall over a large area is not uniform, the average depth of rainfall over the area is
determined by one of the following three methods:
(1) Arithmetical mean method
(2) Thiessen polygon method and
(3) Isohyetal method

A) Arithmetic Mean or Average Method
• Theoretically appropriate only where precipitation gauges are randomly distributed and the
terrain is uniform, as precipitation varies with elevation.
• It is obtained by simply averaging arithmetically the
amounts of rainfall at the individual rain-gauge
stations in the area, i.e.,
Where P is precipitation, N is number of station

Example
• Calculate the average rainfall of all the records
of the four rain gauges stations shown in the
catchment?

Example 2
Arithmetic mean of point values computation of mean value precipitation for a river basin.
• The areal precipitation estimate is calculated with

this method as the arithmetic mean the five station
point measurements consider in this example. i.e.,
0.55+0.87+2.33+5.40+1.89
Mean of Precipitation = = 2.21
5
Arithmetical mean method: When the rainfall measured at various stations in a catchment show little
variation, the average precipitation over the catchment is taken as the arithmetic mean of the station
values. However, this method is used rarely in practice
When can arithmetic mean be useful?
• This method is fast and simple and yields good estimates in flat country if the gauges are
uniformly distributed and the rainfall at different stations do not vary widely from the mean.
• These limitations can be partially overcome if topographic influences and aerial representativeness
are considered in the selection of gauge sites.
B. Thiessen polygon/ area-weighted average/ method
• Thiessen was an American engineer working around the start of the twentieth century (1911) who
devised a simple method of overcoming an uneven distribution of rain gauges within a catchment.
• This method assumes that at any point in a catchment, the rainfall is the same as that at the nearest
rain gauge so the depth recorded at a given gauge is applied out to a distance halfway to the next
gauge in any direction.

• The stations are plotted on a base map and are connected by straight lines.
• Perpendicular bisectors are drawn to the straight lines, joining adjacent stations to form
polygons, known as Thiessen polygons.
• Each polygon area is assumed to be influenced by the rain gauge station inside it, i.e., if P1,
P2, P3, ....are the rainfalls at the individual stations, and A1, A2, A3, are the areas of the
polygons surrounding these stations, (influence areas) respectively, the average depth of rainfall
for the entire basin is given by
=
Thus, in general for M stations =

where, A= the total area
For the method of Theissen polygon estimates more accurate value of mean areal precipitation
when: a. the size of watershed is b/n 500 & 5000km2 area
b. The topography is flat
c. Uniform distribution of RF measuring station
Eg. Compute the value of mean areal rainfall of the following data by using Theissen Polygon
method

Eg 2 • Determine the mean areal depth of rainfall over the area by the Thiessen polygon method?
procedures
For the above figure, the “weighted” average rainfall over the catchment is determined as
𝟔𝟓𝒙𝟏𝟓+𝟕𝟎𝒙𝟏𝟐+𝟑𝟓𝒙𝟖+𝟖𝟎𝒙𝟓
Weighted average rainfall = = 10.40mm
𝟓𝟓+𝟕𝟎+𝟑𝟓+𝟖𝟎
C) The Isohyetal Method
• Isohyetal method: An Isohyet is a line joining points of equal rainfall magnitude.
• In this method, the catchment area is drawn to scale and the rain gauge stations are marked on it.
• The recorded values for which areal average is to be determined are then marked on the plot at
appropriate stations.
• Neighboring stations out side the catchment are also considered. Isohyets of various values are
then drawn by considering point rainfalls as guides and interpolating between them..
• The drawing is similar to the drawing of elevation contours based on the spot levels. The area
between adjacent Isohyets are then determined with plani-meter or any other method used to
calculate the area.

• This method is the most basic method of representing the spatial distribution.
• Although it is the most accurate method, it is the most laborious.
• This method uses isohyets constructed from the rain gauges by interpolating contour lines
between adjacent gauges.
• Once the Isohyetal map is constructed, the area between each pair of isohyets, within the
catchment, is multiplied by the average rainfall depths of the two boundary isohyets.
• The average rainfall over the whole catchment can be estimated from the weight averaged
value.
• In this method, the average rainfall between the successive isohyets taken as the average of the
two Isohyetal values are weighted with the area between the isohyets, added up and divided by
the total area which gives the average depth of rainfall over the entire basin, i.e.,

• If the Isohyets go out of the catchment, the catchment boundary is used as a bounding line the
average value of the rainfall indicated by two isohyets is assumed to be acting over the inter
isohyet’s area.
• Thus p1, p2, Pn are the values of isohyets and if a1, a2 . . . an-1 are the inter isohyet’s areas
respectively, then the mean precipitation over the catchment of area A is given by:
The isohyets method is superior to the other two methods especially when the stations are large in number.
Example: the isohyets due to the storm in a catchment is drawn and the area of the catchment bounded by isohyets
are given tabulated as below next page:
Question: Estimate the mean precipitation due to the storm.

Solution: for the first area consisting of a station Surrounded by closed isohyets, a precipitation
value of 12 cm is taken.
For all other areas, the mean of two bounding isohyets are taken
Isohyets (cm) Station 12 12-10 10-8 8-6 6-4
Precipitation (cm) 12 11 9 7 5
Area (km2) 30 140 80 180 20
Isohyets (RF) Area Fraction of total Weighted
(cm) (cm) (km2) area column
1 2 3 Column 3/450 2*4
4 5
12 12 30 0.0667 0.800
12-10 11 140 0.3111 3.422
10-8 9 80 0.1778 1.600
8-6 7 180 0.4000 2.800
6-4 5 20 0.0444 0.222
Total 450 1.00 8.844 Therefore, mean precipitation, = 8.84cm
Eg. Find out the mean areal RF of the following data by using isohyetal method
Special feature of
isohyetal methods
• It requires more number
of Rain Gauge station
• It provides more
accurate estimate than
others
• It needs experienced &
skilled staff to sketch the
isohyetal method
• It is more useful for hilly
& rugged topography
area

Example
• For the problem shown in Figure b, the following may be assumed to be the areas enclosed
between two consecutive isohyets and are calculated as under:
For Area I, we would expect rainfall to be more than 15mm but since there is no record, a rainfall depth of 15mm is
accepted. Similarly, for Area IV, a rainfall depth of 5mm has to be taken. Hence, the average precipitation by the
isohyetal method is calculated to be

2.2.3.1. ANALYSIS OF POINT PRECIPITATION
1) Frequency
• analysis of rainfall in a series of time
• how often precipitation of certain magnitude reoccurs
• # of events of a specific magnitude / specific period of time (e.g., once in ten years)
A) Moving average curve
• In this method we can see the trend of rainfall in the area.
• The moving average curve avoids the extreme values (variations) and indicates the trend (pattern).
• In order to depict a general trend in the rainfall pattern, the averages of three or five consecutive
years are found out progressively by moving the group averaged, one year at a time.
• The moving average curve is constructed with a moving period of M year where M is generally taken
to be 3 or 5 years.

If the rainfall at a place over a number of years is plotted as a bar graph, it will not show any
trends or cyclic patterns in the rainfall due to wide variations in the consecutive years.
In order to depict a general trend in the rainfall pattern, the averages of three or five consecutive
years are found out progressively by moving the group averaged, one year at a time.
In the above Figure: Example of Trends from moving mean curves

The 21-years of rainfall records at a place given as an Example.
The first five years of record are averaged as (50 + 60 + 40 + 27 + 30)/5 = 207/5 = 41.4 cm and
this average is plotted at the mid-point of the group.
• The next point is obtained by omitting the first and averaging the 2 to 6 years of record, again
plotting the average i.e., (207 - 50 + 38)/5 = 39 cm at the midpoint of this group, and so on as
shown in the previous figure.
• Thus, a 5-year moving mean curve is obtained in which the wide variations in the consecutive
years are smoothed out.
• A 3-year or 5-year moving mean curve is useful in identifying the long term trends or patterns
in the rainfall at a place.

Let x1, x2,x3, …xn be the sequence of given annual rainfall mean chorological order.
Example • Therefore; 𝑥𝑖−1+ 𝑥𝑖+𝑥𝑖+1/3
Therefore, the moving

average curve is obtained
by plotting the values of the
original record and the 3
years moving average in
relation to respective years.
B) Mass curve
• It is a graph showing the cumulative depth of rainfall against time.
• Mass curve = △𝑃 = 𝑝1−𝑝2 ;
△𝑡 = 𝑡1−𝑡2 Where; p = precipitation & t = time
2) Intensity
rate of precipitation; depth / duration (e.g., mm per hour)
• Rain fall intensity is measured in units of mm/hr or
inch/hr
• 2.5mm/hr = light rain
• 2.5-7.5 mm/hr = moderate rain
• > 7.5 mm/hr = heavy rain
- Duration of the storm= 40min • there is a negative exponential relationship between
- The total Rainfall= 46.8mm intensity and duration; i.e., decreasing in intensity with
𝑎𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 46.8𝑚𝑚 increasing duration; short duration storms (usually
Rainfall intensity = =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 40𝑚𝑖 convective) have the highest intensities
= 1.17mm/min = 70.2mm/hrs
Eg. Based on the above table, Calculate:

1. The 5 min peak intensity = the peak is 13mm if it is converted per hour
13𝑚𝑚x60mi/5𝑚𝑖 = 156mm/hr

2. The 10 min peak intensity 3. The 30 min peak intensity
𝟑𝟎 𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝒑𝒆𝒂𝒌 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚

44𝑚𝑚
= = 1.47mm/min
30𝑚𝑖
= (1.47mm/mi)x(60mi)=88.2mm/hr
𝟏𝟎𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝒑𝒆𝒂𝒌 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒚

18.8𝑚𝑚 𝑥60𝑚𝑖
=
10𝑚𝑖
=112.8mm/hr
Rainfall Hyetographs: A graph showing the variation of rainfall intensity with time.

2.2.4. Estimation of missing data
• Before using the rainfall records of a station, it is necessary to first check the data for
continuity and consistency.
• The continuity of a record may be broken with missing data due to many reasons such as
damage, fault in the rain gauge during raining period.
• The missing data can be estimated using the data of the neighboring stations.
• In this calculation the normal rainfall is used as a standard of comparison.
• The normal rainfall means average value of rainfall at a particular date, month or year over a
specified period (30-years)
• For frequency analysis of rainfall data, a sufficiently long record is required.

• It may not happen that a particular rain gauge is not operative for part of month or so, (since it
is broken or for some other reasons), when it becomes necessary to supplement the missing
record by one of the following methods:
1) Arithmetic mean method
2) Normal ratio method
3) Inverse distance weighting (IDW) method
Estimation of missing data.

1) Arithmetic mean method
Given the annual precipitation values
• P1, P2, P3---Pm at neighboring or closest m stations 1, 2, 3---m respectively, it is required to
find the missing annual precipitation Px at station x, not included in the above m stations.
The estimation is based on two basic conditions.
If the normal annual precipitations at various stations are within the variations about 10% of the
normal annual precipitation at station X, then a simple arithmetic average procedure is followed to
estimate Px. Thus, Px = (P1+P2---Pm) which is arithmetic mean method
2) Normal ratio method

If the normal average precipitations vary considerably (more than 10%), Px is estimated by
weighing the precipitation at various stations by the ratio of normal annual precipitations
𝐍 𝐈 𝐏𝟏 𝐏𝟐 𝐏𝐦 Which is Normal ratio method

Thus, Px = ( + + )
𝐌 𝐍𝟏 𝐍𝟐 𝐍𝐦

Example1. The normal annual rainfall at stations A, B, C and D in a basin are 80.79, 67.59, 76.28, and
92.01 cms, respectively.
• In a year 1975, station D was inoperative and the stations A, B and C recorded annual precipitations of
91.11, 72.21 & 79.89 cms, respectively.
• Estimate the rainfall at station D in that year.
• Solution:
• First we have to check whether the normal annual precipitation variation is more than 10% or not.
• The maximum normal annual precipitation value at station X=92.01cm but the valve at other station
(example at B is 67.59).
• Thus the maximum variation is 92.01-67.59 =24.42cm
• When this variation (the maximum variation) is evaluated with station D, it is given as
𝟐𝟒.𝟒𝟐
Variation = x100 = 27%
𝟗𝟐.𝟎𝟏
This is more than 10%. Hence, as the normal rainfall values vary more than 10%, the normal ratio
method is adopted.
𝑁𝐷 𝑃𝐴 𝑃𝐵 𝑃𝐶 92.01 91.11 72.23 79.89
𝑃𝐷 = ( + + ) 𝑃𝐷 = ( + + ) = 99.84
𝑀 𝑁𝐴 𝑁𝐵 𝑁𝐶 3 80.79 67.59 76.38
Or we can use the forms of formula
Where; • P4 is the precipitation at the missing location,

• N1 , N2, N3 and N4 are the normal annual precipitation of the four stations and
• P1, P2 and P3 are the rainfalls recorded at the three stations 1, 2 and 3, respectively.
Eg. Rain-gauge station D was inoperative for part of a month during which a storm occurred.
The storm rainfall recorded in the three surrounding stations A, B and C were 8.5, 6.7 and 9.0
cm, respectively. If the average annual rain fall for the stations are 75, 84, 70 and 90 cm,
respectively, estimate the storm rainfall at station D.
Solution: the rain-fall at station D ( PD) is estimated as
Exercise!
The annual normal rainfall at stations A,B,C and D in a basin are 80.97, 67.59, 76.28 and
92.01cm, respectively. In the year 1975, the station D was inoperative and the stations A,B and
C recorded annual precipitations of 91.11, 72.23 and 79.89cm, respectively. Estimate the
rainfall at station D in that year using Normal ratio method.

3) Inverse distance weighting (IDW) method
• Prediction at a point is more influenced by nearby measurements than that by distant
measurements.
• The prediction at an ungauged point is inversely proportional to the distance to the measurement
points.
• Steps:
1. Compute distance (di) from ungauged point to all measurement points.
2. Compute the precipitation at the ungauged point using the following formula:

2.2.4.1. Recurrence Interval (Fa) & Return Period (R)
The likelihood or probability of an event with a specified intensity and duration is called the return period
or frequency
The intensity of a storm can be predicted for any return period and storm duration, from charts based on
historic data for the location.
• It is the average time period during which precipitation of a specific magnitude will reoccur
(e.g., 100 year flood occurs on average once in 100 years)
• This is determined by analyzing past rainfalls from several events recorded at a station.
• return period and probability are inversely related; i.e., there is a small probability of a storm with a long
return period
• Probability of occurrence/Recurrence interval (Fa) in % = 100(2n-1)/2y,
where, • n = the rank of each event, • y the total number of events/no. of observation years

Return period (R)
R = 100/fa,
Where; • R= return periods in years,
• fa= probability of occurrence in%
Example: If there is a 12.5 % probability (chance) that a storm of a certain magnitude will
occur,
the return period for that storm is ; R = 100/fa = 100/12.5 = 8 years.
Mean and median of annual rainfall
The sum of all the items in a set divided by the number of items gives the mean value,

Probable Maximum Precipitation
Recurrence interval
On the other hand, if there are rainfall records for 30 to 40 years, the various storms during the
period of record may be arranged in the descending order of their magnitude (of maximum depth
or intensity).
When arranged like this in the descending order, if there are a total number of n items and the
order number or rank of any particular storm (maximum depth or intensity) is m, then the
recurrence interval T (also known as the return period) of the storm magnitude is given by one of
𝒏
the following equations (𝒂) 𝑪𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒏𝒊𝒂 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅 (𝟏𝟗𝟐𝟑), 𝑻 =
𝒎
𝒏 𝒏+𝟏
(b) Hazen’s method (1930), T = 𝟏 (c) Kimball’s method, T =
𝒎−𝟐 𝒎

and the frequency F (expressed as per cent of time) of that storm magnitude (having recurrence interval T) is given
𝟏
by F = x100%
𝑻
Values of precipitation plotted against the percentages of time give the ‘frequency curve’.
All the three methods give very close results especially in the central part of the curve and particularly if the number
of items are large
Recurrence interval is the average number of years during which a storm of given magnitude (maximum depth or
intensity) may be expected to occur once, i.e., may be equaled or exceeded.
Frequency F is the percentage of years during which a storm of given magnitude may be equalled or exceeded.
For example if a storm of a given magnitude is expected to occur once in 20 years, then its recurrence interval T = 20
yr, and its frequency (probability of exceedence) F = (1/20) 100 = 5%, i.e., frequency is the reciprocal (percent) of the
recurrence interval.

𝟏
The probability that a T-year storm (and frequency F= x100%
𝑻
may not occur in any series of N years is P  N ,0  1  F   N
 1  1  F 
N
and that it may occur is P EX
Where Pex = probability of occurrence of a T-year storm in N-years.
Eg. The probability of a 20-year storm

(i.e., T = 20, F = 5%) will not occur in the next 10 years is (1 – 0.05)10 = 0.6 or 60% and the
probability that the storm will occur (i.e., will be equaled or exceeded) in the next 10 years is 1 –
0.6 = 0.4 or 40% (percent chance).

The magnitude of the item in a set such that half of the total number of items are larger and half are smaller is called
the median.
To find the median, the items are arranged in the ascending order;
if the number of items is odd, the middle item gives the median;
if the number of items is even, the average of the central two items gives the median.
• Example The annual rainfall at a
place for a period of 10 years from
1961 to 1970 are respectively
30.3, 41.0, 33.5, 34.0, 33.3, 36.2,
33.6, 30.2, 35.5, 36.3.
Determine the mean and median
values of annual rainfall for the place.

2.3. Interception: processes and measurements
2.3.1. PROCESSES OR LOSS FROM PRECIPITATION.
During a precipitation event not all of the water contributes to runoff or reach to ground surface.
Before the rainfall reaches the out let of a basin as runoff, certain demands of the catchment such as
interception, depression storage and infiltration have to be met .
Some of it is lost through interception by vegetation, structures on land, and depressions, and lost through
infiltration into the ground.
Over a longer period water is also lost through evaporation and transpiration.
All losses that do not contribute to surface runoff are collectively called abstractions or losses.
If the precipitation not available for surface runoff is defined as “loss”, then these processes are losses but
infiltration is a gain for ground water recharge.
Losses = Abstraction = Interception + depression storage + Evaporation & Transpiration + infiltration.

Interception can be defined as that portion of the total precipitation that adheres to objects above
the ground, such as vegetation or any other cover over the drainage area, which does not contribute to
runoff but is returned to the atmosphere through evaporation.
• It is a process by which incoming precipitation is captured, stored & ‘lost’ via evaporation or
sublimation back to the atmosphere.
• Interception loss- that part of the precipitation on the canopy that doesn't reach the ground, because
it evaporates from the canopy (canopy interception loss) and from near-ground plants and leaf litter
(litter interception loss) or, to a lesser extent, is absorbed by plants
We can say Effective rain = Rainfall – Interception loss
Canopy interception
The precipitation that is intercepted by plant foliage and eventually evaporates back to the
atmosphere rather than falling to the ground. It is one of the initial losses.
• The intercepted rain may follow one of the following routes:
• It may be retained by the vegetation as surface storage and returned back to the atmosphere by
evaporation - intercepted loss.
• It can drip off the plant leaves to join the ground surface or surface flow -through fall
• The rain water may run along the leaves and branches down the stem to reach the ground
surface- stem flow.
• Interception loss is solely due to evaporation that doesn’t include transpiration, through fall
and stem flow.
• The amount of water intercepted in a given area is difficult to measure due to the complexity
of vegetation.
• It is estimated that of the total rainfall in an area during a plant growth season interception is
about 10 to 20%. Compiled By Dr. Mare Addis Desta 108
Interception rate (generally expressed in mm/hr or cm/hr) is very high at the beginning of the
rainfall, but goes on reducing as continues.
• When the surface becomes thoroughly wet, the interception rate falls down.
• The amount of water required to make the interception surfaces completely wet is known as
interception storage capacity and may be denoted by the equation
X = a + bt
Where X = total interception in cm
a = interception storage in cm
b = evaporation rate in cm/h
t = duration of showers in hr
• In the above equation, the interception depends on duration of rainfall & frequency of rainfall.
• If the total RF is more, the interception may be a little more.
Thus, the interception expressed as percentage of the total RF, reduces as the total precipitation
increases.
Eg. If the interception is 3cm in a total RF of 4cm (equal to 75%), it may rise to 3.5cm in a total RF
of 10cm (equal to 35% only), there by reducing its percentage from 75% to 35%
The amount of water intercepted is a function of: Storm character (light or heavy)
• For light shower (total precipitation P < 0-0.1 in) 100% interception might occur.
• For shower where P > 0.06 in., 10% to 40% might be abstracted.
• For very heavy precipitation, abstraction losses may be a very small percentage of total
precipitation and therefore may be neglected
Types of Species, age and density of plants and trees
• Up to 25% for dense forests
• Depends upon the density of leaves
Therefore, interception has different components
Interception components
a) Interception storage: water stored on canopy or other components/structures
b) Interception loss: The water that is retained by vegetation surfaces that is later evaporated
into the atmosphere, or absorbed by the plant.
• Interception loss prevents water from reaching the ground surface and is regarded as a
primary water loss.
c) Through fall: The water which falls through spaces in the vegetation canopy, or which drips
from the leaves, twigs/branches and stems and falls to the ground.
d) Stem flow: The water which trickles along the stems and branches and down the
main stem or trunk to the ground surface.

Controls on Interception Rate, Capacity And Loss or Factors affecting interception
a) Vegetation characteristics
• growth stage
• Plant factor: it is affected by plant phenological characteristics such as canopy, density, leaf
roughness • A plant community is a group or collection of plant species
that collectively create a relatively uniform patch within a
• plant community structure specified geographical area and can be distinguished from
b) Meteorological factors nearby patches of other vegetation types
• precipitation intensity • Season of the year: if it is
good for crop growth, then
• precipitation duration there will be more
• wind speed interception
• type of rainfall: rain versus snow
• precipitation frequency
Storm factor: RF increase & interception decrease
2.3.2. Measurement of interception
• Interception is measured by an instrument called interceptometer ..\..\Picture\agriculture-12-
01265-g002.png
• The instrument is placed on the ground surface under canopy to collect the falling rainwater
• The collected rainwater by the interceptometer is compared with rainwater caught by RG installed
in the open area.
The difference in the amount of RF collected by interceptometer & RG is considered as interception
In order to determine the secondary interception, the measurement on stem flow & through fall are
also considered
Measurement processes of a stem flow & through fall are described blow
Measurement of stem flow is falling of rainwater along the stem is called stem flow
• It depends on the roughness (more resistance) & smoothness (less resistance)
• The stem flow measurement is done by tying a metal ring around the stem in such a way that
the flowing water could not pass below the ring.
• At the conventional point, a pipe is equipped in the ring, through which the stem flow is
called in to a container
• Measurement of through fall: that part of
precipitation, which reaches to the ground surface
by passing or through vegetal cover, inter space of
crop canopy & falling of water drops from the
leaves, branches etc is known as through fall
Measurements of a through fall is carried out by putting a
tube under tree canopy.
The amount of water collected in the tube during
precipitation is denoted as through
fall..\..\Picture\Interception.mp4 Measurement procedure is shown in the figure
2.4. Evapotranspiration: Processes and measurement
2.4.1. Processes of evaporation and transpiration
2.4.1.1. process of evaporation.
• Evaporation is the process in which a liquid changes to the gaseous state at the free surface, below the
boiling point through the transfer of heat energy.
• The molecules of water are in constant motion with a wide range of instantaneous velocities. An addition
of heat causes this range and average speed to increase.
• Evaporation is a cooling process in that the latent heat of vaporization must be provided by the water
body.
• It has already been said that evaporation requires an energy source and an available water supply to
transform liquid water into water vapour.
• There is one more precondition: that the atmosphere be dry enough to receive any water vapour
produced.
• These are the three fundamental parts to an understanding of the evaporation process.
2.4.1.2. Processes of Transpiration
• Transpiration is the process by which water leaves the body of a living plant and reaches the
atmosphere as water vapour.
• The water is taken up by the plant-root system and escapes through the leaves.
• Transpiration is the process of water loss from plants through stomata.

Evapo-transpiration
Evaporation from water bodies and soil masses together with the transpiration from vegetation is
termed as evapo-transpiration and is also known variously as water loss, total loss or total
evaporation.
In hydrology and irrigation practice, it is found that evaporation and transpiration processes can
be considered advantageously under one head as evapotranspiration.
The term consumptive use is also used to denote this loss by evapotranspiration.

2.4.2. Actual and Potential evapotranspiration
• For a given set of atmospheric conditions, evapotranspiration obviously depends on the availability of water.
• If sufficient moisture is always available to completely meet the needs of vegetation fully covering the area, the
resulting evapo-transpiration is called potential evapotranspiration (PET). or
• It represents the maximum rate of evaporation possible from the land area when the available supply of moisture
is equal to or greater than the demand.
• For evaporation to occur there must be
a) A supply of water. Evaporation can only occur when water is available.
b) A source of energy from the sun or atmosphere.
• The evaporation process requires large amounts of energy. For example, the evaporation of one gram of water
requires 600 calories of heat energy.
c) Deficit of vapour pressure: It also requires that the humidity of the atmosphere be less than the evaporating
surface (at 100% relative humidity there is no more evaporation).

Why we study evaporation?
• Estimation of evaporation is important in planning and designing of water resources such as;
• Design of reservoirs
• Schedule frequency of irrigation
• Water supply
2.4.3. Factors affecting evaporation and evapo-transpiration are:
For transpiration: atmospheric vapour pressure, temperature, wind, light intensity and characteristics of the
plant, such as the root and leaf system.
For a given plant, factors that affect the free water evaporation also affect transpiration.
However, a major difference exists between transpiration and evaporation.
Transpiration is essentially confined to daylight hours and the rate of transpiration depends up on the plant.
Evaporation, on the other hand, continues all through the day and night although the rates are different.

In case of evaporation: The rate of evaporation is dependent on (i) the vapor pressures at the
water surface and air above, (ii) air and water temperatures, (iii) wind speed, (iv) atmospheric
pressure, (v) quality of water and (vi) size of the water body.
I. Vapour pressure
• The rate of evaporation is proportional to the difference between the saturation vapour pressure
at water temperature
II. Temperature
• Others factors remaining the same, the rate of evaporation increases with an increase in the
water temperature.
III. Wind: Wind removes the evaporated water vapor from the zone of evaporation and
consequently creates greater scope for evaporation.

IV. Atmospheric Pressure
• Other factors remaining same, a decrease in the barometric pressure, as in high altitudes increases
evaporation.
V. Quality of water eg. Soluble Salts
• When a solute is dissolved in water, the vapour pressure of the solution is less than that of pure
water and hence causes reduction in the rate of evaporation.
• for example, under identical conditions evaporation from sea water is about 2-3% less than that
from fresh water.
Heat Storage in water bodies
• Deep water bodies have more heat storage than shallow ones
vi. Size of the water body.
• Water body size is all about how much surface area a body of water has – the greater the surface
area, the higher the evaporation rate
• Generally, the rate of Evapotranspiration at any instant from the Earth's surface is controlled by both the meteorological and physical
factors:
1) Meteorological factors
a) Energy availability: The more energy available the greater the rate of Evapotranspiration.
b) The humidity gradient away from the surface: The rate and quantity of water vapor entering into the atmosphere both become
higher in drier air.
c) The wind speed immediately above the surface: Turbulent airflow above moist surfaces removes saturated air replacing it with
unsaturated air.
2) Physical factors
a) Type of vegetation- transpiration is a product of photosynthesis
b) Water availability: Evapotranspiration cannot occur if water is not available.
c) Water quality: If there is more solute within the water, evaporation decreases. Evaporation decreases by one percent for every one
percent increase in salinity
d) Size of water surface: The depth of evaporation from large surface area is less compared to evaporation from small surface
area, although the total volume of water evaporated will be more in the former. The reason for this phenomenon is that the air moving
across a large lake or reservoir will gradually increase its water content and thus loses its water holding capacity.
e) Depth of the water body: influences the annual variation. given very high heat capacities and thermal conductivities of water,
deep lakes maintain a lower surface temperature in summer than shallow lakes with less heat storage and closer to the surface
f) Depth to water table: water table at the surface (a wetland) or shallow depth provides almost unlimited water. evaporation
falls rapid with increasing depth to the water table to a critical depth below which groundwater is not involved in the evaporation
process
g) Nature of evaporating surface: All surfaces exposed to precipitation are potentially evaporating surfaces.
They may be broadly classified into three groups: land surfaces, snow surfaces and water bodies.

2.4.4. Evaporation Measurement
• Estimation of evaporation is of utmost importance in many hydrologic problems associated with
planning and operation of reservoirs and irrigation systems.
• In arid zones, this estimation is particularly important to conserve the scarce water resources.
• However, the exact measurement of evaporation from a large body of water is indeed one of the most
difficult tasks.
• In reality almost all the techniques used to find an evaporation rate are estimates, but some are closer
to true measurement than others.
• The amount of water evaporated from a water surface is estimated by the following methods:
 using evaporimeter data,
 empirical evaporation equations and
 analytical methods.

Evaporimeters
• Evaporimeters are water-containing pans which are exposed to the atmosphere and the loss
of water by evaporation measured in them at regular intervals.
• Meteorological data, such as humidity, wind movement, air, and water temperature and
precipitation are also noted along with evaporation measurement.
• Many types of evaporimeters are in use and a few commonly used pans are described below.
EL EL
1. Class A Evaporation Pan
PC  PC 
EP EP
2. Modified Class A pan
3. Colorado Sunken Pan
4. Pan coefficient
The Pan coefficient is defined as the ratio of lakes
25𝑚𝑚
evaporation to the pan evaporation. It is given by: 𝑃𝐶 = = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟑
30𝑚𝑚
The Class A Evaporation Pan is a standard Bureau of Meteorology Class A type for manual
measurement of evaporation.
It is normally installed on a wooden pallet set on the ground with the pan filled with water and
exposed to represent an open body of water. The pan is filled within 60mm from the top of the pan

EVAPORATION MEASUREMENT is:
A. Direct measurement
1) Lake water balance:
• measuring inputs and outputs of water, including changes in storage (lake level) caused by
evaporation
• precipitation + groundwater + surface inflow = evaporation -surface outflow –seepage +/- changes in
storage
• seepage through the lake floor is difficult to measure and there may be a large cumulative error in the
measurement of all the variables
2) Evaporation pans (Evaporimeters)
• water loss from a shallow pan, the simplest and most common method
• evaporation = change in water level – precipitation or

3) Lysimeter (evapotranspirometer): measuring evaporation from soil.
B. Theoretical (physically-based) approaches
1) Turbulent (Mass) Transfer
• turbulent diffusion as a function of wind speed and vapour pressure gradient
• this approach assumes that heat and vapour move away from the water surface in response to
decreasing air temperature and water vapour pressure; thus it does not apply to surface temperature inversions or
condensation (dew or frost)
• precise measurements of temperature and humidity over short vertical distances restrict the use of this approach to
experimental situations
2) Water Balance Method
• (ET = (P+I) – (O + ∆S);
Where; ET = evapo-transpiration; p= precipitation; I= inflow; O= out flow; & ∆S = change in storage.

• In most cases, underground inflow and out flow are not considered.
3) Energy Balance Approach
• net radiation = sensible heat +/- soil or water heat +/- latent heat ..\..\Picture\sensible and latent
heat.mp4
• measurement of the first three terms permits the calculation of latent heat, the portion of the net
radiation used for evaporation
4) Empirical methods- using various equations it provides fast estimation of evaporation.
However, their application becomes difficult if the data required in the equation is not available
at the place of interest
C. Estimating from Satellite Data

Soil evaporation
It is the evaporation takes place from wet soil surface or loss of water from the soil surface when
water table is 1 m below the ground surface.
Soil evaporation is also expressed by the term evaporation opportunity, which is given as under:
Actual evaporation fromland surfaceat a giventime

E.O  x 100
Eqivalentevaporation from free water surface
The soil evaporation mainly depends on the water table depth, soil types nature of the soil and
meteorological condition of the area.
Soil evaporation is directly proportional to soil moisture content and inversely proportional to the
m. c m.c Where, E = evaporation
time i.e. E E k m.c = moisture content of the soil
t t
k = constant
t = time
2.5. Infiltration processes and Measurement
2.5.1. Infiltration processes
• Infiltration is the process by which water on the ground surface enters the soil.
• Infiltration rate in soil science is a measure of the rate at which soil is able to absorb rainfall or irrigation.
• It is measured in inches per hour or millimeters per hour.
• The rate decreases as the soil becomes saturated.
• If the precipitation rate exceeds the infiltration rate, runoff will usually occur unless there is some physical
barrier.
• It is related to the saturated hydraulic conductivity of the near-surface soil.
• The rate of infiltration can be measured using an infiltrometer.
• Infiltration refers to the movement of water into the soil layer. • Infiltration is the means by which ground
water supplies are recharged and water is made available to sustain vegetation.

• Robert E. Horton (1933) suggested that infiltration capacity rapidly increases during the early part of
a storm and then tends towards an approximately constant value after a couple of hours for the
remainder of the event.
• Infiltration Process
It is well known when water is applied to the surface of a soil, a part of it seeps in to the soil.
This movement of water through the soil surface is known as infiltration.
Infiltration plays a very significant role in the runoff process by affecting the timing, distribution and
magnitude of the surface runoff.
• Previously infiltrated water fills the available storage spaces and reduces the capillary forces drawing
water into the pores.
• Clay particles in the soil may swell as they become wet and thereby reduce the size of the pores.
In areas where the ground is not protected by a layer of forest litter, raindrops can detach soil particles
from the surface and wash fine particles into surface pores where they can impede(hinder) the infiltration
process.
• Infiltration is the primary step in the natural ground water recharge.
• As infiltration is the flow of water in to the ground through the soil surface, the process can be
understood by a simple analogy.
• Consider a small container cover with wire gauze as shown in the figure below.
• If water is poured over the gauze, part of it will go in to the container and apart over flows.
• The terms infiltration and percolation are often
used interchangeably, however, percolation
specifically refers to the movement of water within
the soil, while infiltration refers to water entering
the soil surface.

• Further, a container can hold only a fixed quantity and when it is full no more flow in to the
container.
• This simple analogy shows two important aspects of infiltration. They are:
A. The maximum rate at which the ground can absorb water, the infiltration capacity
B. The volume of water that it can hold, the field capacity.
• The infiltration capacity of a soil is high at the beginning of the storm and has an exponential
decay as the time elapses.
• Finally it reaches a constant rate called basic infiltration.
• It is expressed in units of mm/hr.
• Infiltration refers to the movement of water into the soil layer.
• Infiltration is the means by which ground water supplies are recharged and water is made available
to sustain vegetation
Infiltration rate:
• It is the amount of water able to enter the soil in
a specified time period.
• It is expressed as depth per time; for example, 10
millimeters per hour.
Infiltration capacity is the maximum rate at
which water can enter the soil is called the
• If rainfall intensity is greater than the infiltration rate, water
infiltration capacity. will accumulate on the surface and runoff will begin.
• For example, if our rainfall rate increases to 25 millimeters
• It is the upper limit of infiltration rate. per hour but the infiltration capacity remains at 15 millimeters
per hour, then the rainfall rate is 10 millimeters per hour
• It includes surface infiltration and percolation greater than the infiltration capacity. The 10 millimeters per
and is expressed in depth per time; for example, hour that does not infiltrate becomes surface runoff.
• If precipitation rate is less than or equal to infiltration
15 millimeters per hour. capacity, no surface runoff occurs.

 Actual infiltration (Fa)
• The amount of water which is already absorbed
in a given soil; Fa <= F
• Actual infiltration (Fa) = infiltration capacity
(F), if rain fall (Rf) >= F
• Fa < F, if Rf < F.
• Infiltration capacity at a given location varies on
time, due to change in soil moisture, land use &
cover, temperature etc.

Infiltration process is affected by:
1) Surface entry: surface sealing due to rain drop impact also affects the infiltration capacity.
2) Rainfall intensity
3) precipitation type;
4) Temperature
• This is common in silty soils and more Soil Type Basic infiltration rate (mm/hr)
aggravated in arid zones (for example, this is Sand Less than 30
common in the Sahara desert). Sandy Loam 20-30
• It will also be affected by the conductivity
Loam 10-20
of the soil underneath.
Clay loam 5-10
5) Fluid characteristics: the turbidity of the water
especially the clay and colloid content is an important Clay 1-5
factor for infiltration for it clogs the fine pores of the Table basic infiltration rates for various soil types
soil.
6) Capillarity
• The process by which water is drawn into openings due to the attractive force between water
molecules and the surrounding earth materials. As the particles decrease, capillarity increases.
• When water moves upward against gravity, it is called capillary action.
7) Soil types (Texture & structure, Porosity, Shape etc)
• Round particles = more pore space, higher porosity, and more infiltration
• Angular particles = less pore space, less porosity, and less infiltration
• Hydraulic conductivity
• Moisture content in the soil/ the initial condition of soil humidity
8) The type and extent of vegetal cover;
• Vegetation- Grasses, trees and other plant types capture falling precipitation on leaves and
branches, keeping that water from being absorbed into the Earth.
If any water gets through the vegetation, the velocity of the water will be reduced and this will
give the ground more time to absorb the water. Ground without vegetation usually has high
runoff and low infiltration rates
9) The condition of the surface crust
10) Land Use- Roads, parking lots, and buildings create surfaces that are not longer permeable.
These impermeable surfaces often channel runoff.
Farming, cutting down trees and grazing animals will reduce vegetation and therefore decrease
permeability.
11) Ground slope
• The steeper the slope (gradient), the less the infiltration or seepage
• inverse or indirect relationship

2.52. Measurement of infiltration
Why we measure of infiltration?
• Soil moisture budgeting
• Estimation of ground water recharge
• Surface Runoff estimation
• Minimizing impacts of erosion.
• For efficiency of irrigation /Irrigation schedule/ and drainage,
• Optimizing the availability of water for plants.
 Infiltrometer is a device used to measure the rate of water infiltration into soil or other
porous media. Commonly used infiltrometer are single ring or double ring infiltrometer.
• It is easy to use, but soil structure could be disturbed.

Information about the infiltration characteristics of the soil at a given location can be obtained by
conducting controlled experiment on a small area.
There are two common methods of measuring infiltration.
1. Flooding type infiltrometer 2. Rain fall simulator
1. Flooding type infiltrometer: Flooding type is done by
using single infiltrometer and double ring infiltrometer
A major objection to the single ring infiltrometer is that the infiltrated water
spreads at the out let from the tube and as such the tube area is not
representative of the area in which infiltration takes place.
• To overcome this problem two concentric (double ring) infiltrometer is
used.
• This is a simple instrument consisting of metal cylinder, 30 cm and 60 cm
open at both ends.
• The two rings are inserted in to the ground to a depth of at least 15 cm.
• water is poured and maintained on the soil surface, in both the rings, to a common fixed level.
• The outer ring provides a water jacket to the infiltrating water of the inner ring and hence limits the
spreading out of the infiltrating water of the inner tube.
• As the infiltration proceeds, the volume is made up by adding from external source.
• The experiment continues until a uniform rate of infiltration is obtained and this may take 2-3hr
• Then, using the water budget equation involving the volume of rainfall, infiltration and runoff, the
infiltration rate and its variation with time are calculated.
• This method gives lower infiltration value due to the effect of rainfall impact and turbidity.
• Infiltration also can be found from the difference of inflow and out flow water volume in irrigation furrows.
Limitation of single ring infiltrometer
• The infiltrated water percolates laterally at the bottom of the ring.
• Hence, not truly represent the area through which the infiltration is taking place.
• This drawback is set right by double ring infiltrometer.
• The purpose of outer ring in the double ring is to suppress the lateral percolation of water from the inner ring.
2. Rain fall simulator
The specially designed nozzles produce
raindrops falling from a height of 2 m and
are capable of producing various intensities
of rainfall.
Experiments are conducted under
controlled conditions with various
combinations of intensities and durations
and the surface runoff is measured in each
case.

Actual moisture demand quantifies evaporative demand exceeding available soil moisture
The term climatic water deficit defined by Stephenson (1998) is quantified as the amount of water by which
potential evapotranspiration (PET) exceeds actual evapotranspiration (AET).
Soil Moisture Deficit (SMD) is the amount of rain needed to bring the soil moisture content back to field capacity.
Field capacity (FC) is the amount of water the soil can hold against gravity i.e. the maximum water a pot plant can
be watered and not leak water.
The difference between the amount of water actually in the soil and the amount of water that the soil can hold.
Moisture deficit is the difference between the measured evapotranspiration and effective precipitation.
Soil moisture is a key variable in controlling the exchange of water and heat energy between the land surface and
the atmosphere through evaporation and plant transpiration.
As a result, soil moisture plays an important role in the development of weather patterns and the production of
precipitation. Moisture Deficit = ET - Effective Precipitation

Moisture over supply and moisture saving.
• Moisture supply is the recharge season. It is a time when water is added to soil moisture storage (+ΔST).
• The recharge period occurs when precipitation exceeds potential evapotranspiration but the soil has yet to reach its
field capacity.
• Moisture saving is controlling weeds by piling mulch on open spaces 3–4 inches deep.
• Put your garden on a good organic mulch diet with organic compost and the reward will be healthy
garden soil that helps hold moisture. Conserve water with a low-maintenance
Moisture surplus and Deficit
• Deficit (D) is a soil moisture deficit occurs when the demand for water exceeds that which is actually available.
• Even there is climatic water deficit (CWD) which quantifies evaporative demand exceeding available
soil moisture.
• Moisture surplus (S) is the surplus water occurs when Precipitation exceeds Potential Evapotranspiration and the
soil is at its field capacity (saturated).

CHAPTER THREE GROUND WATER
3.1. INTRODUCTION: BASIC TERMS
• Groundwater is water occurring in the zone of saturation in an aquifer or soil.
• Groundwater flow is a Flow of water in an aquifer or soil.
• Underground water is more widely distributed than surface water.
• The Source of ground water is recharge through infiltration and percolation
• Aquifer: A permeable subsurface rock layer that can store, transmit, and supply water.
• An aquitard : transmits water at a slow rate compared to an aquifer
• Aquiclude: can absorb water but can not transmit significant amounts.
• An aquifuge: can neither absorb nor transmit. Examples are basalts, granites, etc.
• Unsaturated/ zone of aeration/ vadose zone- The space between the Earth’s surface and the zone of saturation.
• Water Table- The upper boundary of the zone of saturation.
• Capillary Fringe- a layer above the water table where capillary forces pull water in to pore space

3.1.1. Definition of Groundwater
• Water that collects or flows beneath the Earth's surface, filling the porous spaces in soil,
sediment, and rocks.
• Groundwater originates from rain and from melting snow and ice and is the source of water
for aquifers, springs, and wells.
• The upper surface of groundwater is the water table.
Groundwater is water that exists underground in saturated zones beneath the land surface.
• Contrary to popular belief, groundwater does not form underground rivers.
• is the water found underground in the cracks and spaces in soil, sand and rock.

• It is stored in and moves slowly through geologic formations of soil, sand and rocks called
aquifers.
• Groundwater is used for drinking water by more than 50 percent of the people in the United
States, including almost everyone who lives in rural areas.
• The largest use for groundwater is to irrigate crops.

• The area where water fills the aquifer is called the saturated zone (or saturation zone).
• The top of this zone is called the water table.
• The water table may be located only a foot below the ground’s surface or it can sit hundreds
of feet down.
• Aquifers are typically made up of
gravel, sand, sandstone, or fractured
rock, like limestone.
• Water can move through these materials

because they have large connected
spaces that make them permeable.
The speed at which groundwater flows depends on the size of the spaces in the soil or rock and how well the spaces are
connected. Compiled By Dr. Mare Addis Desta 149
• Groundwater can be found almost everywhere.
• The water table may be deep or shallow; and may rise or fall depending on many factors.
• Heavy rains or melting snow may cause the water table to rise, or heavy pumping of
groundwater supplies may cause the water table to fall.
• Groundwater supplies are replenished, or recharged, by rain and snow melt that seeps down
into the cracks and crevices (gaps) beneath the land’s surface.
• In some areas of the world, people face serious water shortages because groundwater is used
faster than it is naturally replenished.
• In other areas groundwater is polluted by human activities.

Components of groundwater

Groundwater characteristics:
• Occurs in most geological formations
• Does not occur as an underground river unless it is found in a cave.
• Not unlimited/ limited
• Not stagnant and motionless = in constant motion
• A dynamic part of the hydrologic system
• Gravity is the principal driving force for the flow of groundwater.
• It is an open system
• Water enters the system when surface water infiltrates the ground (recharge);
• Water moves through the system by percolating through the pore spaces of rock and ultimately leaves
the system by seeping into streams, springs or lakes (discharge).

3.1.2. Aquifer
There are Confined and Unconfined Aquifer
Unconfined Aquifer:
• overlain by permeable rocks and soils through which it can be recharged
• has no confining layers that retard vertical water movement
Confined aquifer:
Sandwiched between impervious strata
• permeable rock units enclosed within impermeable
strata.
• These layers restrict vertical water movement. eg.
Clay soils, shale, and, weakly porous igneous and
metamorphic rocks.
..\..\Picture\What is an Aquifer_.mp4
Distribution & Availability of Groundwater
Dependent on:
• Amount of precipitation
• Rate of evaporation
• Amount and type of vegetation cover
• Hydraulic conductivity
• Porosity
• Permeability
• If water easily passes through a porous material it is described as having a high

hydraulic conductivity; if water is poorly transmitted through a material it has a low
hydraulic conductivity. These conditions are also referred to as permeable or of low
permeability, respectively. Compiled By Dr. Mare Addis Desta 155
3.1.3. Water table
• The top of an unconfined aquifer; indicates the level below which soil and rock are saturated
with water.
• The top of the saturation zone.
• Water flows downward through soil and bedrock because of the force of gravity.
• It continues in that direction until a depth of about 5 kilometers (3 miles) is reached, where
porosity and permeability cease.
• The pore space above this level begins to fill progressively upward with groundwater.
• The saturated zone. The rock and soil in which all the open spaces are filled with water is
called the saturated (or saturation) zone.

• As the top of the saturated zone rises toward the surface, it reaches a level of equilibrium
with the overlying unsaturated zone.
• The unsaturated zone. The unsaturated zone (or zone of aeration) is the rock and sediment in
which pore spaces contain mostly air and some water and therefore are not saturated.
• The unsaturated zone typically starts at the surface and extends downward to the saturated
zone.
• ..\..\Picture\Water table & Aquifer_ What is water table & Aquifer_Hydrology.mp4

3.2. Ground water movement
• Groundwater moves very slowly from recharge
areas to discharge zones.
• Flow rates in aquifers are commonly measured
in feet per day.
• It might take years, decades, or even centuries
for water flow through some aquifers.
• Flow rates are much faster where large
openings exist, such as in fractured basalt or
coarse gravel. introduction.mp4..\..\Picture\Water
education_ groundwater movement introduction.mp4

3.3. Ground water recharge and discharge
• Groundwater recharge and discharge are important—although typically inconspicuous
aspects of the global hydrological cycle.
• Recharge involves the downward movement and influx of groundwater to an aquifer;
discharge involves the upward movement and out flux of groundwater from an aquifer.
• Recharge and discharge activities are usually spatially limited to a small portion of an
aquifer.
• The most common recharge areas are hills, up dip outcrops or erosional exposures of
confined aquifers, alluvial fans along mountain fronts, and ephemeral stream bottoms in dry
regions.

• Common natural discharge areas include perennial stream valleys in humid regions, swamps, springs, lakes, and
the oceans.
• Climatic factors are the key influences on groundwater recharge; in that only a small percentage of rainfall results
in recharge in arid and semiarid climates.
• Groundwater recharge and discharge are important aspects of the global hydrological cycle and are critical to the
analysis of groundwater flow systems and water budgets.
• Recharge is the replenishment of groundwater by the downward infiltration of precipitation, or by water that was
temporarily stored on the Earth’s surface.
• Natural recharge occurs without influence or enhancement by humans, while artificial recharge occurs as the
result of deliberate or inadvertent human activity, such as the direct injection of water into the subsurface or
irrigation.
• Discharge represents the upward outflow of groundwater from the subsurface that occurs naturally or as the result
of human activity, notably well

Groundwater -- Recharge and Discharge
• Water is continually recycled through aquifer systems.
• Groundwater recharge is any water added to the aquifer zone.
• Processes that contribute to groundwater recharge include
• precipitation
• stream flow
• leakage (reservoirs, lakes, canals)
• artificial means (injection wells).
Groundwater discharge is any process that removes water from an aquifer system.
• Examples: Natural springs and artificial wells are of discharge processes & pumping.
Recharge and Discharge of groundwater and stream.mp4

3.4. Problems associated with ground water withdrawal
• A variety of problems resulting from human activities alter the groundwater System
• Pollution problems;
• Groundwater pollution/changes in the chemical composition
• Ex. Material that is leached (dissolved by percolating groundwater) from waste disposal sites
such as landfill seepage, septic tanks
• Over pumping /discharge problems
• Depletion
• Changes the groundwater flow direction
• changes in the position of the water table

• Lowers the water table (making it necessary to dig a deeper well)
• Land subsidence
• Saltwater intrusion/saltwater encroachment from the sea
• Groundwater withdrawal is the process of extracting groundwater from the aquifer.
• A well is a pipe placed in a drilled hole into the lime rock of the aquifer that includes a pump to
lift water to the land's surface for human use.
• Excessive pumping can lower the groundwater table, and cause wells to no longer be able to
reach groundwater.
• Increased Costs. As the water table lowers, the water must be pumped farther to reach the
surface, using more energy.
• In extreme cases, using such a well can be cost prohibitive.

• Depletion of aquifers: Groundwater
pumping can cause the level of water
in an aquifer to drop, which can
reduce the overall water availability in
an area. How Groundwater
Moves.mp4
• Land subsidence: When groundwater
is pumped, the pressure in the aquifer
decreases, causing the land above it to
sink, or subside.

CHAPTER FOUR
4. Stream Flow Measurement
Stream flow is measured in units of discharge (m3/s)
occurring at a specified time and constitutes historical
data.
The measurement of discharge in a stream forms an important branch of

Hydrometry, the science and practice of water measurement.
Stream flow (also called discharge) is computed from measured water levels using
a site-specific relation (called a stage-discharge rating curve) developed from
onsite water level and stream flow measurements made by USGS.

4.1. Runoff & Hydrograph Analysis
4.1.1. Runoff
• Runoff occurs when there is more water than land can absorb.
• The excess liquid flows across the surface of the land and into nearby creeks, streams, or ponds.
• Runoff can come from both natural processes and human activity.
• The most familiar type of natural runoff is snowmelt.
• Mountains that cannot absorb water from heavy snowfalls produce runoff that turns into streams,
rivers, and lakes. Glaciers, snow, and rain all contribute to this natural runoff.
• Runoff also occurs naturally as soil is eroded and carried to various bodies of water.
• Even toxic chemicals enter waterways through natural processes, such as volcanic eruptions.
• Toxic gases released by volcanoes eventually return to the water or soil as precipitation.

4.1.1. Sources and Components of Runoff
• Runoff from human activity comes from two places: point sources
and nonpoint sources.
• Point source pollution is any source that empties directly into
a waterway.
• This might include a pipe from specific sewage
treatment plant, factory, or even a home.
• Nonpoint source pollution is any source where runoff does not go
directly into a waterway.
• Nonpoint sources of runoff can be large urban, suburban, or rural
areas. In these areas, rainwater and irrigation wash chemicals into
local streams. Compiled By Dr. Mare Addis Desta 167
• Runoff from nonpoint sources includes lawn fertilizer, car exhaust, and even
spilled gasoline from a car.
• Farms are a huge nonpoint source of runoff, as rainwater
and irrigation drain fertilizers and pesticides into bodies of water.
• Impervious surfaces, or surfaces that can't absorb water, increase runoff.
• Roads, sidewalks, and parking lots are impervious surfaces.
• Materials as diverse as car-washing soaps, litter, and spilled gas from a gas station all
become runoff.

4.1.1.1. Components of Runoff
There are three components of the runoff from watersheds (Dingman 2002; Rumynin 2015):
(i) surface runoff or overland flow (sometimes termed as direct runoff), (ii) subsurface runoff or interflow (through
flow), and
(iii) groundwater runoff or base flow
Runoff means the draining or flowing off of precipitation from a catchment area through a surface channel enters
into a stream channel.
It represents the output from catchment in a given unit of time. Fig. shows components of runoff.

• Consider a catchment area receiving precipitation.
For a given precipitation, when the evapotranspiration, initial loss, infiltration and detention
storage requirements are satisfied, the excess precipitation moves over the land surfaces to reach
smaller channels.
• This portion of runoff is called overland flow and involves building up of storage over the
surface and draining off the same.
• Flows from several small channels join bigger channels and flows from these in turn combine
to form a larger stream, and so on, till the flow reaches the catchment outlet.
• The flow in this mode, where it travels all the time over the surface as overland flow and
through the channels as open-channel flow and reaches the catchment outlet is called surface
runoff.

• A part of the precipitation that infilters moves laterally through upper crusts of the soil and returns to the surface
at some locations away from the point of entry into the soil.
• This component of runoff is known variously as interflow, through flow, storm seepage, subsurface flow or
quick return flow.
• Depending upon the time delay between the infiltration and the outflow, the interflow is sometimes classified
into prompt (quck) interflow, i.e. the interflow with the least time lag and delayed interflow.
• Another route for the infiltered water is to undergo deep percolation and reach the groundwater storage.
• The time lag, i.e. the difference in time between the entry into the soil and outflows from it is very large, being
of the order of months and years.
• This part of runoff is called groundwater runoff or groundwater flow.

• Based on the time delay between the precipitation and the runoff, the runoff is classified into two
categories; as (a) Direct runoff (b) Base flow.
a) Direct runoff
It is the part of runoff which enters the stream immediately after the rainfall.
• It includes surface runoff, prompt interflow and rainfall on the surface of the stream.
• In the case of snow-melt, the resulting flow entering the stream is also a direct runoff.
• storm runoff are also used to designate direct runoff.
b) Base flow
• The delayed flow that reaches a stream essentially as groundwater flow is called base flow.

Runoff is the water discharged through stream or over the land’s surface water flux over the earth's
surface.
1) Surface runoff
• all overland flow
2) Interflow/ subsurface
• water that moves laterally in the subsurface
/flow through surficial layers of soil
• It is a slower process than surface runoff.
3) Groundwater flow/Base flow
• Water flow in the zone of saturation/ground water seepage from
spring & aquifer directly to stream channel
4.1.2. Factors Affecting Runoff
Runoff rate and volume from an area are mainly influenced by the following two factors: A)
Climatic and B) Physiographical factors
A) Climatic factor:
Precipitation (rainfall) characteristics
1. Types of Rainfall- RF which occurs in the form of rainfall starts immediately as surface runoff
depending upon rainfall intensity while precipitation in the form of snow does not result in surface
runoff.
2. RF- Intensity- if the rainfall intensity is greater than infiltration rate of soil then runoff starts
immediately after rainfall.
While in case of low rainfall intensity runoff starts later.
Thus high intensities of rainfall yield higher runoff.
3. Duration of Rainfall: it is directly related to the volume of runoff because infiltration rate of
decreases with rainfall duration of rainfall. Therefore, medium intensity rainfall even result in
considerable amount of runoff if duration is longer.
4. Rainfall distribution: Runoff from watershed depends very much on the distribution of
rainfall.
• Near the outlet of the watershed, runoff will be more.
5. Direction of prevailing wind : if the direction of prevailing wind is the same as drainage
system, it results in peak flow in the direction of stream slope produces higher peak in shorter
period of time than a storm moving in opposite direction.

6. Other climate factor : other factor such as temperature, wind velocity, relative humidity, annual rainfall etc.
affect the water losses from the watershed area.
B. Physiographic Factors:
1) Shape and Size of Catchment
The runoff from a catchment depends upon the size, shape and location of the catchment. The following are the
general observations:
a. Size of watershed: A watershed takes longer time for draining the runoff to outlet than smaller watershed and
vise-versa
1) More intense rainfall events are generally distributed over a relatively smaller area, i.e., larger the area lower
will be the intensity of rainfall.
2) The peak normally decreases as the area of the basin increase. (peak flow per unit area)
3) Larger basins give a more constant minimum flow than the smaller ones. (effect of local rains and greater
capacity of the ground-water reservoir)

b. Shape of watershed: Runoff is greatly affected by shape of watershed.
• Shape of watershed is generally is expressed by the term “Form Factor and “compactness
coefficient”
There are two types of shape :
a) Fan shape (tend to produce high runoff very early)
b) Fern shape: (tend to produce less runoff)
• Fan shaped catchments give greater runoff because tributaries are nearly of same size and
hence time of concentration of runoff is nearly same.
• On the contrary, discharges over fern leaf arrangement of tributaries are distributed over long period because of
the different lengths of tributaries.

Shape of the watershed fan shape – length & width are approximately equal
Form shape = average width of the watershed/Axial length of watershed
F = B /L This F = Width (W)/Axial (L)
L = axial length of the watershed is the distance
again W= A/L then
b/n outlet & remotest point of the area
F = W/L = (A/L)/(L) means
W = width is determined by dividing the area of 𝐴 1 𝐴
𝐿 = 𝐴𝐿X =
watershed (A) with axial length 𝐿 𝐿2
𝐿

Orientation of watershed: affects evaporation & transpiration losses by affecting the amount of heat
received from the sun, wind ward side of a mountain receive greater RF creates runoff
Land use:- high forest reduce runoff
Soil moisture:- more soil moisture will create more runoff it is present
Soil type:- absorption is different eg. Sand is greater than clay soil because of particle size & pore space
different
Topographic characteristics:- undulated land surface creates less runoff
• The runoff depends upon surface condition of land features.
• Runoff will be more from a smooth surface than from rugged surface.
Slope of watershed:- if the slope is high, there will be more runoff
• Also, if the surface slope is steep, water will flow quickly and adsorption and evaporation losses will be less,
resulting in greater runoff.
• On the other hand if the catchment is mountainous, the rainfall intensity will be high and hence runoff will be
more.

Drainage density:- it is defined as the ratio of total channel length existing in the watershed to the total
area of watershed expressed as m/ha
Drainage density = total channel length / total area of watershed (Dd = L/A
At greater drainage density , the runoff yield at the outlet is more because rain water enters the
drainage channels, immediately & reaches to the outlet.
DRAINAGE DENSITY (DD)
• This refers to the average or mean length of streams in a drainage basin.
• This gives us an idea of the average length of stream per unit area; e.g. 3.2km of stream per square
kilometer.
• It is a measure of the closeness of the spacing of the stream channel
• Drainage density varies inversely as the length of overland flow and indicates the drainage efficiency
of the basin.

• Drainage density indicates
• how dissected the landscape is by channels, thus it reflects both the tendency of the drainage
basin to generate surface runoff and the erodibility of the surface materials
• The stream density is determined by the formula
• A high value indicates a well-developed network and torrential runoff causing intense floods
while a low value indicates moderate runoff and high permeability of the terrain

Higher drainage densities are expected where:
• Soils are easily eroded or relatively impermeable (limited infiltration)
• Slopes are steep
• Vegetation covers are scant
• promote considerable run-off
• Low drainage density reflects poor
drainage condition in the watershed
• Common in areas where
• soils are resistant to erosion or very permeable
• Slopes are small/gentle
• High vegetation density

STREAM FREQUENCY (SF)
• STREAM FREQUENCY (SF) = also known as stream density
• This is the mean number of stream segments in a drainage basin per unit area of the basin.
• To obtain this index, simply count the number of stream segments in the basin and divide it
by the area of the basin.
• The ratio of the number of streams to the area of the basin
• This will give us an idea of the average number of segments per unit area.

DRAINAGE INTENSITY (DI)
This is a product of the drainage density and stream frequency.
• The formula for calculating drainage intensity is:
• Di= Dd x Sf, where,
• Di= drainage intensity,
• Dd= drainage density,
• St= stream frequency
STREAM LENGTH
• It is the length measured along the main stream from the catchment outlet to the remotest
point on the catchment boundary.
• The main stream is distinguished by starting at the outlet and following the stream of highest
order. Compiled By Dr. Mare Addis Desta 185
• When a bifurcation into two streams of equal order is reached, the branch having the larger
catchment is followed.
LENGTH RATIO (LR)
• This index measures the relationship or ratio between the average length of all the stream
segments belonging to a particular stream order and the average length of all the stream
segments in the next higher stream order.
SR
186
Compiled By Dr. Mare Addis Desta

Ratio of average width to the axil length of watershed.
• the watershed length was considered as the

axial length, which is the length of the longest
straight line between any two points on the
watershed perimeter
• Area of a watershed is 28.26km2 and the
perimeter is 17km with similar area of a circle.
So, compactness Coef = ?
Compactness coefficient: Ratio of the perimeter

of watershed to circumference of a circle whose area is equal to area of watershed.

c) Geologic Characteristics
• Geologic characteristics include surface and sub-surface soil type, rocks and their
permeability.
• Geologic characteristics influence infiltration and percolation rates.
• The runoff will be more for low infiltration capacity soil (clay) than for high infiltration
capacity soil (sand).
• Bedrock permeability: Run-off will occur quickly where impermeable rocks are exposed at
the surface due to limited amount of infiltration).
• Soil permeability: Soils with large amounts of clay do absorb moisture but only very slowly -
therefore their permeability is low

Thickness: The deeper the soil the more water can be absorbed.
Infiltration capacity
• Soils which have larger particle sizes have larger infiltration capacities.
• Initial conditions (e.g. the degree of saturation of the soil and aquifers
d) Meteorological Characteristics
Temperature, wind speed, and humidity are the major meteorological factors, which affect
runoff.
Temperature, wind speed and humidity affect evaporation and transpiration rates, thus soil
moisture regime and infiltration rate, and finally runoff volume.

• Intensity Rainfall intensity influences both rate and volume of runoff.
• The runoff volume and also runoff rate will be greater for an intense rainfall event than for
less intense event.
• Areal Distribution It also influences both the rate and volume of runoff.
• Generally, the maximum rate and volume of runoff occurs when the entire watershed
contributes.
e) Storage Characteristics of a Catchment
• Presence of artificial storage such as dams, weirs etc. and natural storage such as lakes and ponds etc. tend to
reduce the peak flow.
• These structures also give rise to greater evaporation.

4.1.3. Estimation of Runoff
• It is useful for calculating volume of runoff from the land surface meets in the river or streams.
• The proposed construction of artificial recharge structures can be thought of in the given study
area.
• This output is useful for the watershed development and planning of water resources effectively

Runoff hydrograph can be defined as the direct runoff
hydrograph (DRH) resulting from one unit (e.g., one cm
or one inch) of effective rainfall occurring uniformly
over that watershed at a uniform rate over a unit period
of time.

4.2. Hydrographs Components
• Hydrograph is a graphical or tabular presentation of instantaneous runoff/discharge rate
against time.
• Sometimes, it is also known as storm hydrograph, flood hydrograph or simply hydrograph.
• A hydrograph presents the total runoff (direct + base flow) occurring at a given time.
• A hydrograph is a way of displaying water level information over time. A hydrograph plot
may display stage, stream flow, and sometimes both.
• Hydrographs can be a helpful way to show

water level observations and forecasts
visually on a single graphic.

• There are three main components to the hydrograph—rising limb, peak, and falling limb.
• The falling limb is often referred to as the recession curve, which provides information on the
configuration of the karst conduits within an aquifer system, as well as its transmissivity and
volume.
• Karst conduit systems are highly developed underground flow paths that can carry water quickly from recharge
(where water enters the groundwater system) to spring flow (where groundwater emerges at the surface).
Luckily, not all the water that enters the groundwater system comes out of springs.

4.3. Stream discharge measurement
The discharge of surface or underground streams is an important environmental variable to
measure for several key reasons.
First, one can estimate drought-flows (also called 'low flows') and flood frequency from a time-
series of stream discharge.
Second, the rate of evapo-transpiration from catchment vegetation can be estimated from the
same time-series within a water-balance equation.
Thirdly, the multiplication of a concentration of suspended-sediment or a solute with the stream
discharge gives the mass of that suspended or dissolved constituent moved over time.
Such calculations are important in erosion studies, nutrient budget estimation, and pollution
studies.

Stream discharge can be measured using:
1) volumetric gauging,
2) float gauging,
3) current metering,
4) dilution gauging (constant injection or
gulp methods),
5) structural methods, and
6) slope-area methods.
The choice of method depends on the

characteristics of the stream and on the
application.
1. Volumetric gauging: The measurement is done in a simple and uncomplicated way.
It is enough to place a container of a known volume under the water outflow to capture all the
outflowing water and measure the time in which the container fills with water.
A direct method of measuring the discharge (flow rate) of a river.
This method has a small error (<1%) but it is only applicable for discharge measurements of
small streams (with low discharge), usually of spring outflows in which the outflow occurs as a
concentrated stream or in places where all flowing water can be captured.

2) Float gauging: involves measuring the surface velocity of the water with a floating object,
and then multiplying this velocity by the width and average depth of the channel.
..\Picture\Flow rate.mp4
3) current metering,
• Current metering is the process of using one or more current meters to assess the velocity component of the
discharge determination for water in an open channel or in a pipe. The current meter can be used in a variety of
ways; the more usual forms of use are described in the following paragraphs.
• Whole Current Metering means a Metering Installation which is connected directly to the Connection Point
Metering Point circuit, measuring the whole current flowing in the primary circuit, as opposed to measurement
via a secondary circuit using a current transformer.

Determining Discharge Using Current Meters.
The most common approach to determining discharge is the so called conventional current-
meter method.
The method is based on determining the mean streamflow velocity and flow cross sectional
area; the product of these variables determines the stream discharge.
..\Picture\Discharge measurement using Currentmeter by Raj KC.mp4
4) dilution gauging (constant injection or gulp methods),
In dilution gauging by the constant rate injection method, tracer solution is introduced into the
stream at a constant rate over a period of time, and the concentration of tracer at points
downstream rises asymptotically to a limiting, plateau value.

The basic principle of dilution gauging is to add a known quantity of a tracer to a stream and
observe its concentration in the stream at a point where it is fully mixed with the flow. The
higher the flow, the more it dilutes the tracer.
In the constant injection method, the tracer with a known concentration is added to the
stream at a known flow rate. Once fully mixed, the concentration of the solute in the stream
will be diluted from the original tracer concentration in direct proportion to ratio the injection
rate to the flow rate of the stream...\Picture\QiQuac Salt Dilution Gauging Kit - Field
Measurement.mp4

5. structural methods
• Structural methods are divided into two main groups, static and dynamic.
• Dynamic ones are discussed in the next section. Static structures have parts which are mostly
fixed in relation to each other.
• The structure as a whole may move with respect to the ground, such as the main truss of the
International Space Station.

6) slope-area methods.
• The Slope Area Method uses the slope of the water and the area of a cross-section to calculate
the discharge, or amount of water that moves though a particular point of the waterway.
• This lesson discusses the Slope Area
Method to calculate the flow of a
waterway at a particular point.
• There is more than one way to
calculate this information, but the
Slope Area Method has its
advantages, especially for man-made
waterways. Area of a semicircle = pi x R² ÷ 2

• The Slope Area Method uses the slope of the water and the area of a cross-section to calculate the discharge, or
amount of water that moves though a particular point of the waterway.
• This information is key for hydrologist and hydraulic engineers, who help design and build canals and other
bodies of water.
Below is the equation, called the Manning Formula, to calculate the discharge using the Slope Area Method.
Q = (1.49/n)A(Rh^2/3)S^1/2
This equation looks a bit complicated but it's not so bad once we break it down.
Q = the discharge
A = is the area of the cross-section
S = the slope of the waterway
n = Mannings Roughness Coefficient
Rh = the hydraulic radius of the cross-section

4.4. Frequency analysis and hydrograph analysis
4.4.1. Frequency analysis
• The accurate prediction of stream flows is essential to the planning of our water resource
systems.
• Statistical relationships, empirical equations, and watershed models will be investigated as

means for predicting the peak discharges and flood hydrographs.
• Peak discharge information is required to determine the appropriate size of water

conveyance systems such as natural channels, diversion canals, storm drains, bridge
openings, etc.

• The frequency of the peak discharges is necessary to determine how often the
conveyance' system capacity is exceeded.
• Criteria for sizing conveyance systems are derived from socio-economic responses to
the inconveniences associated with the exceedence of system conveyance capacities
and the cost of providing those systems.
• Flood control studies usually base flood damages on peak discharges as representative
of damage due to several associated flood problems
• It is especially convenient to be able to express flood damages in terms of discharge

(stage), however, other factors such as flow velocities and duration of flooding may
need to be considered separately.
• Flood control measures may take the form of increasing the capacity of conveyance systems
or regulating the flood waters through storage, diversions, or local control measures.
• Flood damage reduction measures include these items plus non-structural measures such as
flood proofing structures etc.
Peak Flow Estimation Techniques: Peak flows may be estimated directly as functions of
historical stream flow records or statistical/ empirical relationships.
• The peak flow techniques referred to in this paper are those techniques which predict only the
peak flow not including the whole hydrograph.

• The techniques which predict the whole hydrograph or series of hydrographs also compute a
peak flow but they will be discussed in the Watershed Modeling sections.
• The peak flow techniques are functions of rainfa11 intensity or runoff frequency and various
geographic characteristics of the basin.
• Usually the annual peak flow frequency curve is derived either directly from an equation or
by estimating a series of flood peaks which are then analyzed with standard frequency
techniques.

4.4.2. hydrograph analysis
• A hydrograph is a continuous graph showing the properties of stream flow with respect to time at a
given location on the stream.
• There are two types of hydrograph particularly important: 1- Annual hydrographs showing the
variation of daily or weekly or mean flows over. a year.
• Hydrograph analysis is the process of studying how water levels change over time. This information
can be used to understand and control water flow in rivers, reservoirs, and other bodies of water.
• (a) A unit hydrograph is a hydrograph of surface runoff that would result at a given point in a stream
from unit rainfall excess occurring in unit time uniformly over the catchment area above that given
point. It deals only with rainfall excess and thus loss rates must be deducted from total rainfall.

Types of hydrographs include:
• Stream discharge hydrographs.
• Stream stage hydrographs.
• Precipitation hydrographs.
• Storm hydrographs.
• Flood hydrographs.
• Annual hydrographs a.k.a. regimes.
• Direct Runoff Hydrograph.
• Effective Runoff Hydrograph.
What physical factors affect a storm hydrograph? Hydrographs are affected by physical (size
and shape of drainage basin; geology; vegetation) and human (land use change and water
abstraction) factors. Compiled By Dr. Mare Addis Desta 215
What is the purpose of hydrograph?
• Hydrographs can be used to differentiate base flow, which is the relatively constant input of
water to the stream via groundwater sources, from runoff that results from snowmelt and
rainfall entering the stream via through flow and overland flow.
How to read a hydrograph?
• Peaks in the hydrograph are usually a result of precipitation events, while troughs represent
drier times.
• To read a hydrograph, pick an approximate date and trace a vertical line up to where it
intersects the graph.
• Reading horizontally to the left, you can determine the discharge of the stream for that date.

• A hydrograph is a graph of the flow in a stream over a period of time. Below is a picture of a hydrograph, with
stream flow (discharge) in cubic feet per second on the y-axis and time in months on the x-axis. Peaks in the
hydrograph are usually a result of precipitation events, while troughs represent drier times.
To read a hydrograph, pick an approximate date and trace a vertical line up to where it intersects the graph. Reading
horizontally to the left, you can determine the discharge of the stream for that date.
4.5. Floods
4.5.1. Causes of Flooding
• A number of factors can contribute to that imbalance, including:
– Heavy, intense rainfall
– Run-off from a deep snow cover
– Over-saturated soil, when the ground can't hold anymore water.
– Frozen soil
– High river, stream or reservoir levels caused by unusually large amounts of rain
– Ice jams in rivers
– Urbanization, or lots of buildings and parking lots.

4.5.2. Impacts of Flooding
• Increased temperatures driven by climate change are influencing variables that contribute to
flooding.
• Storm surges, sudden snowmelt, and atmospheric rivers can exacerbate flooding.
 The adverse effects of flooding include:
• Loss of human life
• Property and infrastructure damage
• Road closures, erosion, and landslide risks
• Crop destruction and livestock loss
• Threats to salmon and other aquatic species
• Health risks due to water contamination
• Housing displacement
• Economic impacts.
• Causes soil erosion
4.4.3. Flood return frequency analysis
• Flood frequency analyses are used to predict design floods for sites along a river.
• The technique involves using observed annual peak flow discharge data to calculate statistical information such
as mean values, standard deviations, skewness, and recurrence intervals.
• Flood frequency analysis is a technique commonly used to relate the magnitude of extreme runoff or river flow
events to their frequency of occurrence through the use of probability distribution functions.
• Frequency analysis is used to predict how often certain values of a variable phenomenon may occur and to
assess the reliability of the prediction.
• It is a tool for determining design rainfalls and design discharges for drainage works and drainage structures,
especially in relation to their required hydraulic capacity.

• Flow frequency analysis calculates the annual probability that a flow will be met or exceeded
at a specific location.
• What is the purpose of rainfall analysis? In the long run, these data are required for
development of water resources and to plan for construction for irrigation projects.
• The Ground Water Department is using the rainfall statistics for assessing fluctuations and
recharging of ground water levels.
• Rainfall frequency analysis, which aims to determine the magnitude of rainfall corresponding
to a given recurrence interval, is essential for designing hydraulic structures and flood risk
management.

4.5.4. Flood Control management
• Planting vegetation to retain extra water,
• Terracing hillsides to slow flow downhill, and
• The construction of floodways (man-made channels to divert floodwater).
• construction of levees, dikes, Flood control dams; reservoirs or retention ponds
• Flood warning
• Floodplain zoning
• Flood proofing

Chapter 5
5. Problems in water Resources Planning, Development and Management
Pollution: Introduction of waste matter into the environment
• Pollutants: A substance that have a deleterious effect on the environment.
Water Pollution
• When it is unfit for its intended use, water is considered as polluted
• Alteration in physical, chemical or biological characteristics of water
• Contamination of water bodies
5.1. water pollution

5.1.1. major types & sources of water pollution
Water pollution:- is any chemical, biological, or physical change in water quality that has a harmful effect on living organisms or makes water
unusable for desired uses.
Types of water pollution is sub-divided in to two.
1. Non point source water pollution , also known as diffuse source pollution, arises from a broad group of human activities for which the
pollutants have no obvious point of entry in to receiving water courses.
2. Point source pollution:- it represents those activities where waste water is routed directly in to receiving water bodies by, for example,
discharge pipes, where they can be easily measured & controlled
Point & non point source of water pollution
Point source s Non- point sources
VS
Easy to locate Difficult to locate
Easy to monitor or control Difficult to control or monitor
Easy to quantify Difficult to quantify

There are several classes of water pollutant
1. Disease causing agents (pathogens)
2. Oxygen demanding wastes
3. Water soluble inorganic chemicals
4. Inorganic plant nutrients
5. Organic chemicals
6. Sediment or suspended matter
7. Water soluble radio-active isotopes
8. Heat absorbed by water (thermal pollution)
5.1.1. Disease-causing agents DCA(pathogens):- are disease causing organisms that grow & multiply with in the
host, which include bacteria, viruses, protozoa & parasitic warms human & animal waste.
Common diseases transmitted to humans through contaminated drinking water

Agents Disease Effects
Bacteria Typhoid fever - Diarrhea, severe vomiting, enlarged spleen, inflamed intestine, often fatal
if untreated
Cholera Diarrhea, severe vomiting, dehydration; often fatal if untreated
Bacterial dysentery Diarrhea, rarely fatal except in infants without proper treatment
Enteritis Severe stomach pain, vomiting rarely fatal
Viruses Infectious hepatitis
Fever, severe headache, loss of appétit, abdominal pain, enlarged liver,
rarely fatal but may cause permanent liver damage
Parasitic Amoebic dysentery Severe diarrhea, headache, abdominal pain, fever, if not treated can
protozoa cause liver obsess & death
Giardiasis diarrhea, abdominal cramps, belching, fatigue
Parasitic schistososmiasis abdominal pain, anemia, chronic fatigue & chronic general ill
warm health
Classification of infectious diseases associated with water

Transmission Description Examples of diseases
mechanism
Water borne Oral ingestion of pathogens in water Cholera, typhoid, bacillary dysentery,
contaminated by urine & faeces infectious hepatitis
Water washed Disease spread enhanced by scarcity of Trachoma, scabia, dysentery,

water making cleanliness difficult infectious hepatitis
Water based Water provides the habitat for Schistosomiasis (bilharziasis),

intermediate host organisms, dracunculiasis (guinea warm)
transmission to humans through water
contact
Water related Insect vectors (eg. Mosquitoes) rely on Malaria, filariasis, yellow fever on
water for habitat, but human water choceriasis (river blindness), dengue
contact not needed

2.1.2. Oxygen demanding wastes:- one of the most important measures of the quality of water source is the amount of dissolved
oxygen (DO)
Oxygen demand wastes are substances that can be decomposed by aerobic bacteria.
During decomposition, they utilize oxygen dissolved in water, which reduces the remaining amount of DO
Effect 1. As DO drops, fish & other forms of oxygen consuming aquatic life are threatened & in the extreme case, killed

• 2. As DO levels fall, undesirable odour, tastes & colors reduce the acceptability of that water as a
domestic supply & reduce its attractiveness for recreational use.
• Source:- oxygen demanding wastes are usually biodegradable organic substances contained in
municipal waste water or influents from certain industries such as food processing, paper production
etc
• In addition to this, the oxidation of certain in organic compound may also contribute to the oxygen
demand
• Water pollution refers to any physical, chemical, or biological change in water quality that adversely
affects living organisms or makes water unsuitable for desired uses.
• It is the degradation of water quality as measured by biological, chemical, or physical criteria.
• Water pollution is generally judged in terms of the intended use, departure from the norm, effects on
public health or ecological impacts.
• Although fresh water is a potentially renewable resources, it can become so contaminated by human and natural
activities that is no longer useful for many purposes.
• Currently, pollution/contamination/ of both freshwater and saline water reservoirs/resources, especially rivers,
streams, lakes and ground waters are common problems throughout the world.
Major types of water pollutants
The following are eight common types of water pollutants:
1. Disease-causing agents: bacteria, viruses, protozoa and parasitic worms that enter water from domestic sewage
and animal wastes.
2. Oxygen-demanding Wastes: organic wastes, which when degraded by oxygen consuming bacteria can deplete
water of dissolved oxygen gas.
3. Water-soluble inorganic chemicals: acids salts and compounds of toxic metals such as lead and mercury.
4. Inorganic Plant Nutrients: water soluble nitrate and phosphate compounds that can caused excessive growth of
algae and other aquatic plants which then die and decay depleting water of dissolved oxygen and killing fish.

5. Organic Chemicals: Oil gasoline plastics pesticides clearing solvents detergents and may
other water soluble and insoluble chemicals that threaten human health and harm fish and other
aquatic life
6. Sediments and suspended matter: insoluble particles of soil silt and other solid inorganic and
organic materials that become suspended in water.
7. Radioactive Substances: radioisotopes that are water soluble or capable of being biologically
amplified in food chains and webs.
8. Heat: excessive inputs of heated water used, for example, to cool electric power plants.
The resulting increases in water temperature lowers dissolved oxygen content and make aquatic
organisms more vulnerable to disease parasites and toxic chemicals.

The effects of water pollution are not only devastating to people but also to animals, fish, and birds.
Polluted water is unsuitable for drinking, recreation, agriculture, and industry.
It diminishes the aesthetic quality of lakes and rivers. More seriously, contaminated water destroys
aquatic life and reduces its reproductive ability. Eventually, it is a hazard to environment.
5.2. Pollution of Rivers, Lakes and Groundwater
A. river/stream pollution
The major sources of surface water pollution are:
1. Sewage: emptying the drained and sewers in fresh water bodies cause water pollution which
is sever problem in cities.
2. Industrial effluents: industrial wastes containing toxic chemicals, acids, alkalis, metallic
salts, phenols, cyanides, ammonia, radioactive substances etc. are sources of water pollution.
They also cause thermal (heat) pollution of water.
3. Synthetic detergents: Synthetic detergents used in washing and cleaning produces foam
(bubbles) and pollute water.
4. Agrochemicals: agrochemicals like fertilizers (containing nitrate and phosphates) and
pesticides (including fungicides, herbicides etc.) washed by rainwater and surface run-off
pollute water.
5. Oil: oil spillage in to water bodies during drilling and shipment pollute water.
6. Waste heat: waste heat from industrial discharges increase the temperature of water bodies
and affect the distribution and survival of sensitive species.

Sewerage and Industrial effluents

Synthetic detergents

Agrochemicals

B. Lakes and Ocean Pollution
Lakes have less dilution due to water stratification and low flow. Pollution recovery can take years rather
than the days typical for streams.
Less dilution also leads to more bioaccumulation through the food chain. Even low pollution amounts in
the water lead to large levels in top-level predators.
Large amounts of nutrient-rich agricultural runoff and other human discharges cause cultural
eutrophication.
It may result in algal blooms, oxygen depletion, and fish kills.
Many lakes (about 50%) near urban areas in the U.S. are eutrophic.
Lakes can recover if nutrient input is stopped or controlled.
In the next, page ocean pollution has been indicated with picture.
ocean pollution

C. Groundwater Pollution
• Even though it seems less prone to pollution, groundwater can be polluted from potential
sources which may cause irreversible pollution of groundwater.
• Ground water contamination is nearly always the result of human activity.
• In areas where population density is high and human use of the land is intensive, ground
water is especially vulnerable.
• Virtually (practically) any activity whereby chemicals or wastes may be released to the
environment, either intentionally or accidentally, has the potential to pollute ground water.
• When ground water becomes contaminated, it is difficult and expensive to clean up.
• Ground water has the longest recovery times from pollution due to low flow, dispersion and
dilution, colder temperatures, and lower bacteria levels.
May take thousands of years to cleanse itself of degradable wastes and non-degradable waste is
permanent.
For all intents and purposes, once groundwater is polluted, it stays that way indefinitely.
How does ground water become contaminated?
Depending on its physical, chemical, and biological properties, a contaminant that has been
released into the environment may move within an aquifer in the same manner that ground water
moves.
(Some contaminants, because of their physical or chemical properties, do not always follow
ground water flow.)
It is possible to predict, to some degree, the transport within an aquifer of those substances that
move along with ground water flow.
For example, both water and certain contaminants flow in the direction of the topography from
recharge areas to discharge areas.
Soils that are porous and permeable tend to transmit water and certain types of contaminants
with relative ease to an aquifer below.
Under certain conditions, pumping can also cause the ground water (and associated
contaminants) from another aquifer to enter the one being pumped.
This phenomenon is called interaquifer leakage.
Thus, properly identifying and protecting the areas affected by well pumping is important to
maintain ground water quality.

Sources of ground water contamination
• Groundwater contaminated from a number of sources, both on the surface and buried.
• Often attempts to control surface water pollution (injection or ponding of hazardous waste)
results in groundwater pollution.
• Unconfined aquifers are more susceptible to contamination from the surface than confined
ones.
• Ground water can become contaminated from natural sources or numerous types of human
activities.

Generally the sources of ground water contamination can be
Natural Sources: Some substances found naturally in rocks or soils, such as iron, manganese,
arsenic, chlorides, fluorides, sulfates, or radionuclides, can become dissolved in ground water.
Other naturally occurring substances, such as decaying organic matter, can move in ground
water as particles.
Ground water that contains unacceptable concentrations of these substances is not used for
drinking water or other domestic water uses unless it is treated to remove these contaminants.
Septic Systems; One of the main causes of ground water contamination in many countries is the
effluent (outflow) from septic tanks, cesspools, and privies.

Improper Disposal of Hazardous Waste
• Releases and Spills from Stored Chemicals and Petroleum Products
• Landfills; Solid waste is disposed of in thousands of municipal and industrial

landfills throughout a country.
• Chemicals that should be disposed of in hazardous waste landfills sometimes end up

in municipal landfills.
• In addition, the disposal of many household wastes is not regulated.
• Once in the landfill, chemicals can leach into the ground water by means of
precipitation and surface runoff.

• Surface Impoundments; Surface impoundments are relatively shallow ponds or lagoons used
by industries and municipalities to store, treat, and dispose of liquid wastes.
• Like landfills, new surface impoundment facilities are required to have liners, but even these
liners sometimes leak.
• Sewers and Other Pipelines; Sewer pipes carrying wastes sometimes leak fluids into the
surrounding soil and ground water.
• Sewage consists of organic matter, inorganic salts, heavy metals, bacteria, viruses, and
nitrogen.
• Other pipelines carrying industrial chemicals and oil brine have also been known to leak,
especially when the materials transported through the pipes are corrosive.

• Pesticide and Fertilizer Use; A number of these pesticides and fertilizers (some highly toxic) have
entered and contaminated ground water following normal, registered use.
• Some pesticides remain in soil and water for many months to many years.
• Drainage Wells; Drainage wells are used in wet areas to help drain water and transport it to deeper
soils.
• These wells may contain agricultural chemicals and bacteria.
• Mining Activities; Active and abandoned mines can contribute to ground. water contamination.
• Precipitation can leach soluble minerals from the mine wastes (known as spoils or tailings) into the
ground water below.
• These wastes often contain metals, acid, minerals, and sulfides

5.1.2 Impacts of water pollution
Some of the effects of water pollution are;
1. Oxygen demanding waste: organic matter which reaches water bodies is decomposed by micro-organisms
present in the water.
For this degradation, oxygen dissolved in water is consumed.
Dissolved Oxygen (DO) is the amount of oxygen dissolved in a given quantity of water at a particular temperature
and atmospheric pressure.
Amount of DO depends on aeration, photosynthesis activity in water, respiration of plants and animals and ambient
temperature.
The saturation value of DO varies from 8-15 mg/L for active fish species (trout and salmon) 8-15 mg/L of DO is
required where as less desirable species like crap can survive at 3 mg/L of DO.
→Lower DO may be harmful to animals specially fish population.
→Oxygen depletion (deoxygenation) facilitates the release of phosphates from bottom sediments and caused
eutrophication.
2. Nitrogen and phosphorus compounds (nutrients): addition of compounds containing nitrogen and
phosphorus facilitates the growth of algae and other plants which when die and decay consume oxygen
of water.
Under anaerobic condition foul (polluted) smelling gases are produces. Excess growth or
decomposition of plant materials will change the concentration of CO2 which will further pH of
water.
Changes in pH, oxygen and temperature will change many physical and chemical characteristics of
water.
3. Pathogens: Many waste waters especially sewage contains many pathogens (disease causing) and
non-pathogenic micro-organisms and viruses. Water born diseases like cholera, dysentery, typhoid,
jaundice etc are spread by water contaminated with sewage.

4 Toxic compounds: pollutants such as heavy metals, pesticides, cyanides and many other
organic and inorganic compounds are harmful to aquatic organisms.
The demand of DO increases with addition of biodegradable organic matter which is
expressed as biological oxygen demand (BOD).
Generally impacts occurred on Health, Environmental & Economics
1) Health Impacts
• Water-borne diseases/ health problems like nausea, lung irritation, skin rashes, diarrhea,
vomiting, dizziness, cancer, birth defects and gastro-intestinal diseases. (e.g. like skin
lesion, cholera and diarrhea)
• Diseases arising from the ingestion of pathogens
• Disease and deaths from consumption of contaminated

2) Environmental Impacts
• poisoning of aquatic organisms by toxic compounds = death of marine plants and fish decline of fishing industry
• Poison the soil and contaminate agricultural crops and plants
• affects the chemistry of water
• Discharges from power stations reduce the availability of oxygen in the water body
• atmospheric air pollution deforestation from acid rain
3) Economic Impacts
• Impaired health often lowers human productivity
• Environmental degradation reduces the productivity of water resources used directly by people.
• Decline of tourism industry
• Costs of treatment
• Workdays may be lost due to water-related diseases
• Decrease in production

5.2. Water Resource conservation and Management
Water Conservation
• The minimization of loss or waste
• The care and protection of water resources
• The efficient and effective use of water
Watershed Management
• Limiting the impacts of drought and flood
• Slow soil erosion in the watersheds,
• Augment groundwater recharge
• Moderate runoff and potential flood damage,
• Improve infiltration of water into soils and groundwater acquifers.
• Reduce sedimentation rates, (increase useable capacity of reservoirs and reducing water treatment
plant costs) Compiled By Dr. Mare Addis Desta 257
5.3. Integrated Water resource management
• Water is a key driver of economic and social development while it also has a basic function in
maintaining the integrity of the natural environment.
• Integrated water management is a collaborative approach to the way we plan, manage and deliver
water services.
• Population growth and climate change are putting pressure on our water supplies.
• An integrated water management approach helps us to address these challenges
• Management considers all the different uses of water resources together.
• Integrated water resources management is a systematic process for the sustainable development,
allocation and monitoring of water resource use in the context of social, economic and environmental
objectives.

• Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) promotes the coordinated development and management
of water, land and related resources to maximize economic and social welfare in an equitable manner, without
compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems.
• However, water is only one of a number of vital natural resources and it is imperative that water issues are not
considered in isolation.
• Managers, whether in the government or private sectors, have to make difficult decisions on water allocation.
Water Resource Management Options
• Reused of water • Building dams and reservoirs – To store water for irrigation,
• Recycling of water drinking, provide power and help control floods,
• Rainwater harvesting • But they can also bring about undesirable social and
• Diverting surface water into the ground environmental impacts.
• Desalinated water

• More and more they have to apportion (allocate) diminishing supplies between ever-
increasing demands.
• Drivers such as demographic and climatic changes further increase the stress on water
resources.
• The traditional fragmented approach is no longer viable and a more holistic approach to water
management is essential.
• This is the rationale for the Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) approach that
has now been accepted internationally as the way forward for efficient, equitable and
sustainable development and management of the world's limited water resources and for
coping with conflicting demands.

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Compiled By Dr.

Mare Addis Desta

1.1. Definition and Scope of Environmental Hydrology

Therefore, Hydrology represents the science of water

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• Definition of Environmental Aspect. Environmental Aspect is an element of an organization's activities, products

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Therefore, 97% of water is in ocean

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• 29% gardening & 2% is for drinking

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5.2.2. Agricultural Uses of Water

• Industrial cities, it may be as high as 450 liters /day

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1.6.1. The Hydrologic cycle is a central focus of hydrology

 P = R+E where R = runoff

E = loss through evaporation & transpiration

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Evaporation & transpiration

2. Surface water system comprises the processes of

 ground water outflow

 runoff to streams, oceans

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• Water evaporates as water vapor into the air.

• Ice and snow can sublimate directly into water vapor.

• Runoff and groundwater are stored as freshwater in lakes.

..\..\Picture\The Water Cycle- How rain is formed-Lesson for kids.mp4

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2. Transpiration is essentially evaporation of water from plant leaves.

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• As a result, excess water vapour condenses to form cloud droplets

9. Surface flow is ground water outflow and runoff to streams, oceans.

10. Subsurface flow is the flow of water underground

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water that goes into the water cycle.

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• A watershed carries water “shed” from the land after rain

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• The water balance is an accounting of the inputs and outputs of water.

• The major input of water is from precipitation and output is evapotranspiration.

in storage during a time interval.

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Ground water divide can coincide with surface divide

Depth of water = Volume/area