US-LER_version_1_point_3

LUNAR EXPLORATION ROADMAP EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The Lunar Exploration Roadmap, jointly developed by engineers, planetary

scientists, and policymakers, is the cohesive plan for using the Moon and its
resources to sustainably enable the exploration of all other destinations
within the Solar System, leveraging steady affordable investments in lunar
infrastructure. Implementing the Roadmap will preserve American
leadership in space, engage and inspire the public, open the space frontier to
the energy and vitality of commercial enterprise, and enhance international
partnerships.
Much like testing in analog field sites on Earth, lunar

exploration lets us test technologies needed for journeys to
Mars and beyond.
By bootstrapping lunar resources, the United States can
efficiently and cost-effectively field systems in cislunar space
Feed Forward: Use the Moon to Prepare for that are significantly more capable for voyages to Mars and
Future Missions to Mars and Other beyond.
Destinations. Sustainability: Use the Moon to learn how

The Moon is a convenient deep space test to live and work productively off-planet,
bed that can be used to reduce risk by enabling human settlement.
testing technologies, systems, and The Moon has abundant natural resources
operations. This lunar training ground that can be used to increase cost
enables sustained human space effectiveness and facilitate Solar System
exploration beyond low Earth orbit. exploration. Lunar resources offer an
Many physical and biological systems are enduring opportunity for commercial
known to be sensitive to the magnitude, investment. Commerce is an indispensable
direction, and temporal characteristics of aspect of sustainable activities on the Moon
gravity. The Moon’s combination of and beyond. Innovative public-private
radiation, hard vacuum, and low gravity partnerships, growing from initial
provides a unique laboratory to study government investment, can be used to
physiological, biological, and biomedical exploit lunar resources and sustain
aspects of long-duration space travel. infrastructure.
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Science: Use the Moon for scientific

research that address fundamental
questions about the Moon, the Solar
System, and the Universe.
A sustained program of lunar exploration
will yield significant scientific advances, as
the Moon retains a record of the formation,
evolution, and impact history of the
terrestrial planets, as well as an otherwise
inaccessible record of the Sun’s evolution
and activity. The Moon provides a unique
and stable platform for observations of the
Earth, the Sun, and the Universe. In
particular, the radio-quiet far side of the Astronaut Harrison H. “Jack” Schmitt, the only geologist to
Moon offers unique opportunities to study serve as an Apollo crew member, explores the Moon in the
valley of Taurus-Littrow.
the earliest universe.
A New Paradigm
The Moon enables an approach to Solar System exploration through a
succession of logical steps. This initial destination is reachable with current
technology and the lunar resources enable exploration of more challenging
destinations.
Inclusion of the commercial sector will have a positive impact on society
through job creation and technology spin-offs, as already demonstrated by
the Apollo program.
Implementation of the Roadmap on the basis of milestones rather than a
strict timetable would allow early progress to be made even in lean budget
years.
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The Lunar Exploration Roadmap:
Exploring the Moon in the 21st Century: Themes, Goals, Objectives,
Investigations, and Priorities, 2016
A Community Endeavor Coordinated by the Lunar Exploration Analysis Group (LEAG)
VERSION 1.3
Lunar Exploration Roadmap Steering Committee
Paul Abell – NASA Johnson Space Center
Brad Bailey – NASA Lunar Science Institute, NASA Ames
Dave Beaty – Jet propulsion Laboratory
Dallas Beinhoff - Boeing Corporation
Mary Sue Bell – NASA Johnson Space Center
Mike Duke – Colorado School of Mines
Paul Eckert – Boeing Corporation
Dean Eppler – NASA Johnson Space Center -
John Gruener – NASA Johnsons Space Center
Jeff Jones – J NASA Johnson Space Center
Robert Kelso – NASA Johnson Space Center
Kurt Klaus – Boeing Corporation
David Kring – Lunar and Planetary Institute
Sam Lawrence – Arizona State University
Dan Lester – University of Texas at Austin
Steve Mackwell – Lunar and Planetary Institute
Clive Neal – University of Notre Dame
Paul Neitzel – Georgia Tech.
Lewis Peach - NASA's Academy for Program/Project and Engineering Leadership
Neal Pellis – NASA Johnson Space Center
Mike Ramsey – University of Pittsburgh
Nicola Rayl - NASA Ames
Debra Reiss-Bubenheim – NASA Ames
Jim Rice – Arizona State University
Gerald Sanders – NASA Johnson Space Center
Kurt Sacksteder – NASA Glenn
Greg Schmidt – NASA Lunar Science Institute, NASA Ames
Charles Shearer – University of New Mexico
Kelly Snook - MIT
Jim Spann – Marshall Space Flight Center
Paul Spudis – Lunar and Planetary Institute
George Tahu – NASA Headquarters
Jeff Taylor – University of Hawaii
Lawrence Taylor – University of Tennessee, Knoxville
Jeff Volosin – Honeywell Corporation
Michael Wargo – NASA Headquarters
The Lunar Exploration Roadmap Version 1.3 is the fourth version of a living document that will be
updated and further developed over time as more data becomes available from current missions, as
further analyses by LEAG Specific Action Teams impact the roadmap, and as other relevant analyses
are reported. Suggestions for revisions to the Lunar Exploration Roadmap Version 1.1 can be given to
the LEAG Chair, the LEAG Executive Secretary or via the e-mail address at the LEAG website
(http://www.lpi.usra.edu/leag).
The three themes described below and in the companion Excel spreadsheet, are at various degrees of
fidelity. The Science Theme has a long heritage of study, including NRC studies, and represents
community consensus. The Feed Forward Theme has been presented to the Mars Exploration Program
Analysis Group and their comments have been incorporated. This theme is now expanded to include
using the Moon to go to other airless bodies. The Sustainability Theme is at the lowest fidelity,
representing a small (but growing) body of opinion, and will require refinements, which have begun at
the LEAG Annual Meetings.
Overall the roadmap is intended to layout an integrated and sustainable plan for lunar exploration that
will allow NASA to transition from the Moon to Mars (and beyond) without abandoning the lunar assets
built up using tax payer dollars. As such, the roadmap will enable commercial development, through
early identification of “commercial on ramps”, that will create wealth and jobs to offset the initial
investment of the taxpayer. In addition, the roadmap will, with careful planning, enable international
cooperation to expand our scientific and economic spheres of influence while enabling an expansion of
human and robotic space exploration.
The Lunar Exploration Roadmap builds upon previous work over the last several decades that has been
devoted to lunar exploration. It does not represent a reinvention of past efforts to return to the Moon, but
rather it incorporates these efforts into an integrated plan for sustained plan for lunar exploration. The
roadmap has traceability back to such documents as:
• The Report from the Lunar Geoscience Observer Workshop (1986);
• The Status and Future of Lunar Geoscience (1986);
• A Site Selection Strategy for a Lunar Outpost: Science and Operational Parameters (1990);
• Geoscience and a Lunar Base: A Comprehensive Plan for Lunar Exploration (1990);
• A Planetary Science Strategy for the Moon by the Lunar Exploration Science Working Group
(LExSWG, 1992);
• Lunar Surface Exploration Strategy (LExSWG, 1995);
• New Frontiers in the Solar System: An Integrated Exploration Strategy (2003) (Decadal Survey);
• A Renewed Spirit of Discovery: The President’s Vision for US Space Exploration (2004);
• The Vision for Space Exploration (2004);
• Solar and Space Physics and its Role in Space Exploration (NRC Report) (2004)
• US National Space Policy (2006);
• New Views of the Moon (2006);
• LEAG GEO-SAT (2006);
• Proceedings of the Conference on Astrophysics Enabled by the Return to the Moon (2006)
• The Global Exploration Strategy: The Framework for Coordination (2007);
• NASA Advisory Council Workshop on Science Associated with the Lunar Exploration
Architecture, Tempe, AZ (2007);
• National Research Council: The Scientific Context for Exploration of the Moon (2007).
• The NEXT Workshop in Washington DC, August 2010.
• Results of recent (since 2000) lunar missions.
The Lunar Exploration Roadmap is a hierarchical document that is comprised of three themes with
subsequent goals, objectives, and investigations or initiatives (where appropriate). The three themes
address the question “Why should we go back to the Moon?” and focus on Science, Feed Forward (to
Mars and beyond) capabilities, and Sustainability (see below).
There are a number of cross cutting themes that permeate throughout all three main themes:
• Learn to live and work successfully on another world.
• Expand Earth’s economic sphere to encompass the Moon, and pursue lunar activities with direct
benefits to life on Earth.
• Strengthen existing and create new global partnerships.
• Engage, inspire, and educate the public.
This document is arranged by theme where the goals, objectives and investigations are outlined for each
theme. The objectives and investigations are, where possible, prioritized and time phased. Next, the
time phasings and prioritizations are used to create the roadmap (in the companion Excel spreadsheet).
Time Phasing Criteria

In many cases, Investigations and Objectives have been time phased using Early Stage, Middle Stage,
and Late Stage. Definitions of these terms are:
EARLY: Robotic precursors and up to the second human landing (≤1 lunar day).
MIDDLE: Initial outpost build-up to including stays of 1 lunar day and including part of the lunar night,
as well as Robotic missions.
LATE: Outpost established, stays of >30 days, including Robotic missions.
In the discussion of the various Themes, time phasing and prioritization of the Objectives and
Investigations are given. If the Investigations under a given Objective have variable prioritizations and
time phasings, these will be given for each Investigation. Investigation prioritization and time phasing
will not be given if they are all the same as those for the Objective.
For roadmapping efforts, the Early Stage has been subdivided into pre-Early (Robotic Precursor
Missions) and Early (Robotic & Short Human Sortie ≤1 Lunar Day).
Prioritization Criteria
Low, medium, and high prioritizations have been assigned by the LEAG roadmapping team to the
Objectives and Investigations in terms of what we have interpreted, through contact with leaders in the
community, as general thinking of how particular science communities (i.e., Earth Observing,
Heliophysics, and Astrophysics) could best use the Moon. For lunar science, we defer to the NRC
(2007) Scientific Context for the Exploration of the Moon report for prioritization of science
concepts and goals, which specifically studied the issue of prioritization. The priorities are
intended to help gauge, within the range of uses of the Moon that have been proposed over the years
within these communities, which concepts appear to offer the most promise.
Low Priority: Would be good to do, but is not essential for habitat/exploration development;
Would only give an incremental advance to our scientific knowledge;
and/or Could be conducted more efficiently elsewhere.
Medium Priority: Falls in between Low and High Priority. Could be enabled with sufficient
infrastructure investment.
High Priority: Is essential to do in order to make progress in habitat/exploration development;
Would facilitate a fundamental advance in our scientific knowledge;
Is facilitated by or should be facilitated by the Lunar Architecture;
and/or Is best done on the lunar surface.
Given these criteria, an integrated roadmap is being developed that maps between themes and shows
how objectives/investigations in one theme impact those in another. As an example of this, Objective
Sci-A-4 (Understand the dynamical evolution and space weathering of the regolith), a high priority
objective, is taken as a starting point (Figure 1).
A summary of the Themes, Goals, and Objectives within the roadmap are given below:
SCIENCE (Sci) THEME: Pursue scientific activities to address fundamental questions about the solar
system, the universe, and our place in them.
GOAL Sci-A: Understand the formation, evolution, and current state of the Moon:
Objective Sci-A-1: Understand the environmental impacts of lunar exploration (2 Investigations);
Objective Sci-A-2: Development and implementation of sample return technologies and protocols (4
Investigations);
Objective Sci-A-3: Characterize the environment and processes in lunar polar regions and in the lunar exosphere (4
Investigations);
Objective Sci-A-4: Understand the dynamical evolution and space weathering of the regolith (5 Investigations);
Objective Sci-A-5: Understand lunar differentiation (5 Investigations);
Objective Sci-A-6: Understand volcanic processes (4 Investigations);
Objective Sci-A-7: Understand the impact process (5 Investigations);
Objective Sci-A-8: Determine the stratigraphy, structure, and geological history of the Moon (4 Investigations);
Objective Sci-A-9: Understand formation of the Earth-Moon system (3 Investigations).
GOAL Sci-B: Use the Moon as a “witness plate” for solar system evolution:
Objective Sci-B-1: Understand the impact history of the inner Solar System as recorded on the Moon (4
Investigations);
Objective Sci-B-2: Regolith as a recorder of extra-lunar processes (5 Investigations).
GOAL Sci-C: Use the Moon as a platform for Astrophysical, Heliophysical, and Earth-Observing studies;
Objective Sci-C-1: Astrophysical and Basic Physics Investigations using the Moon (8 Investigations);
Objective Sci-C-2: Heliophysical Investigations using the Moon (12 Investigations);
Objective Sci-C-3: Use the Moon as a platform for Earth-observing studies (8 Investigations).
GOAL Sci-D: Use the unique lunar environment as research tool.
Objective Sci-D-1: Investigate and characterize the fundamental interactions of combustion and buoyant convection
in lunar gravity (4 Investigations);
Objective Sci-D-2: Perform tests to understand and possibly discover new regimes of combustion (3
Investigations);
Objective Sci-D-3: Investigate interactions of multiphase combustion processes and convection at lunar gravity (3
Investigations);
Objective Sci-D-4: Use the unique environment of the lunar surface to perform experiments in the area of
fundamental physics (4 Investigations);
Objective Sci-D-5: Obtain experimental data to anchor multiphase flow models in partial gravity environment (3
Investigations);
Objective Sci-D-6: Study interfacial flow with and without temperature variation to anchor theoretical/numerical
models (3 Investigations);
Objective Sci-D-7: Study behavior of granular media in the lunar environment (2 Investigations);
Objective Sci-D-8: Investigate precipitation behavior in supercritical water in partial gravity environment (2
Investigations);
Objective Sci-D-9: Investigate the production of oxygen from lunar regolith in lunar gravity (2 Investigations);
Objective Sci-D-10: Investigate the behavior of liquid-phase sintering under lunar gravity (1 Investigation);
Objective Sci-D-11: Study and assess effects on materials of long-duration exposure to the lunar environment (2
Investigations);
Objective Sci-D-12: Study effect on microbes of long-duration exposure to the lunar environment (3
Investigations);
Objective Sci-D-13: Assess effect on plants of long-duration exposure to the lunar environment (2 Investigations);
Objective Sci-D-14: Study the fundamental biological and physiological effects of the integrated lunar environment
on human health and the fundamental biological processes and subsystems upon which health depends (2
Investigations);
Objective Sci-D-15: Study the key physiological effects of the combined lunar environment on living systems and
the effect of pharmacological and other countermeasures (3 Investigations);
Objective Sci-D-16: Evaluate consequences of long-duration exposure to lunar gravity on the human musculo-
skeletal system (3 Investigations);
Objective Sci-D-17: Study the effects of lunar radiation on biological model systems (5 Investigations);
Objective Sci-D-18: Use biological model specimens to conduct single and multigenerational studies on the long
term effects of the lunar environment and transportation to and from the Moon on biological processes (4
Investigations);
Objective Sci-D-19: Understand the effects/interactions of lunar gravity and the transitions between lunar gravity,
microgravity; and Earth-normal gravity on reproduction and development, genetic stability, and aging (2
Investigations;
Objective Sci-D-20: Study the influence of the lunar environment and its effects on short and long-term plant
growth, productivity (as a food source), palatability, and nutrition (1 Investigation);
Objective Sci-D-21: Understand the impact of Lunar environments on terrestrial life forms and multiple generations
of life that impact human health (2 Investigations);
Objective Sci-D-22: Monitor real-time environmental variables affecting safe operations, which includes
monitoring for meteors, micrometeors, and other space debris that could potentially impact the lunar surface (2
Investigations).
FEED FORWARD (FF) THEME: Use the Moon to prepare for future missions to Mars and other
destinations.
GOAL FF-A: Identify and test technologies on the Moon to enable robotic and human solar system science
and exploration:
Objective FF-A-1: Develop surface life support systems to reduce risks associated with long duration Martian
surface stay times (7 Investigations);
Objective FF-A-2: Develop Crew Health Systems That Enable Safe, Long Duration, Surface Stays
(4 Investigations);
Objective FF-A-3: Develop surface mobility capabilities that allow human crews to efficiently and safely explore
the surface of Mars (3 Investigations);
Objective FF-A-4: Develop the capability to acquire and use local resources to sustain long-term exploration and
habitation of planetary surfaces (6 Investigations);
Objective FF-A-5: Develop the capability to produce adequate levels of power on planetary surfaces to allow
human crews to work and live productively (3 Investigations);
Objective FF-A-6: Develop the capability to autonomously land safely and accurately on Mars (3 Investigations);
Objective FF-A-7: Develop the capability to provide or construct structures on planetary surfaces adequate for
long-duration habitation by humans, and made of materials that will endure extended exposure to the deep-
space environment (2 Investigations);
Objective FF-A-8: Develop the capability for crews on Mars to communicate with other assets on the surface, and
navigate to and from those assets (5 Investigations);
Objective FF-A-9: Develop the capability for human crews to operate safely on planetary surfaces, protected from
the extreme environment and hazards (5 Investigations).
GOAL FF-B: Use the Moon as a test-bed for missions operations and exploration techniques to reduce the risks and
increase the productivity of future missions to Mars and beyond:
Objective FF-B-1: Develop the capability for autonomous crew operations on the Moon and Mars
(5 Investigations);
Objective FF-B-2: Develop the capability for productive and efficient human-robotic interaction in the exploration
of planetary surfaces (4 Investigations);
Objective FF-B-3: Establish an administrative structure and cost effective surface systems to facilitate strong
international cooperation (4 Investigations).
GOAL FF-C: Preparing for future missions to other airless bodies:
Objective FF-C-1: Ability to operate on a geologic surface (3 Investigations);
Objective FF-C-2: Develop the capability for autonomous crew operations (Corollary to Feed-Forward Objective
FF-A-6) (6 Investigations);
Objective FF-C-3: Development and implementation of sample return technologies and protocols (Corollary to
Feed-Forward Objective Sci-A-2) (4 Investigations).
Objective FF-C-4: Understand planetary differentiation (Corollary to Feed-Forward Objective Sci-A-5)
(1 Investigation);
Objective FF-C-5: Regolith as a recorder of Solar-System processes (Corollary to Feed-Forward Objectives Sci-A-
4 & Sci-B-2) (3 Investigations);
Objective FF-C-6: Develop the capability for human crews to operate safely on planetary surfaces, protected from
the extreme environment and hazards (Corollary to Feed-Forward Objectives Sci-D-11, Sci-D-14, Sci-D-18)
(4 Investigations).
Objective FF-C-7: Develop the capability for productive and efficient human-robotic interaction in the exploration
of planetary surfaces (Corollary to Feed-Forward Objective FF-B-2) (6 Investigations);
Objective FF-C-8: Develop Crew Health Systems that enable safe, long duration, missions (Corollary to Feed-
Forward Objective FF-A-2) (3 Investigations);
Objective FF-C-9: Establish an administrative structure and cost effective surface systems to facilitate strong
international cooperation (Corollary of Feed-Forward Objective FF-B-3) (4 Investigations).
Objective FF-C-10: Develop the capability to acquire and use local resources to sustain long-term exploration
crews (Corollary of Feed-Forward Objective FF-A-4) (3 Investigations);
Objective FF-C-11: Establishment of in-situ resource utilization systems (Corollary to Feed-Forward Objectives
Sust-A-3, Sust-B-9) (7 Investigations);
SUSTAINABILITY (Sust) THEME: Extend sustained human presence to the Moon to enable eventual
settlement.
GOAL Sust-A: Maximize Commercial Activity:
Objective Sust-A-1: Establish policies and implementation of comprehensive, coordinated governmental and
intergovernmental action to foster space commerce (3 Initiatives);
Objective Sust-A-2: Preparation for Commerce I: Conduct a comprehensive resource and market assessment of
commercial support for scientific and exploration activities on the Moon (3 Initiatives);
Objective Sust-A-3: Preparation for Commerce II: Conduct small-scale demonstrations of potentially commercial
lunar support services for scientific and exploration activities on the Moon (2 Initiatives);
Objective Sust-A-4: Transition to Commerce I: Conduct pilot-plant scale demonstrations of potentially commercial
lunar support services for scientific and exploration activities on the Moon (6 Initiatives);
Objective Sust-A-5: Transition to Commerce II: Commercially provided lunar support services for scientific and
exploration activities on the Moon (5 Initiatives);
GOAL Sust-B: Enable and Support the Collaborative Expansion of Science and Exploration:
Objective Sust-B-1: Implementation of comprehensive, coordinated integration of diverse scientific and exploration
activities to maximize complementary operations and minimize operational and environmental conflicts
(5 Initiatives);
Objective Sust-B-2: Establishment and implementation of comprehensive site-selection criteria and processes
(2 Initiatives);
Objective Sust-B-3: Development of surface power and energy storage systems (9 Investigations);
Objective Sust-B-4: Establishment of sustainable transportation between Earth and the lunar surface (6 Initiatives);
Objective Sust-B-5: Deployment of Robotic Facilities for Science and Exploration Operations (12 Initiatives);
Objective Sust-B-6: Establishment of Global Communications and Navigation Capability (5 Initiatives);
Objective Sust-B-7: Establishment of sustainable human transportation between lunar sites (4 Initiatives);
Objective Sust-B-8: Deployment of habitat and laboratory facilities for human science and exploration operations
(9 Initiatives);
Objective Sust-B-9: Establishment of in-situ production of life-support, power system reagents, propellants and
related resources (10 Initiatives);
Objective Sust-B-10: Establishment of in-situ food production capability (2 Initiatives);
Objective Sust-B-11: Establishment of in-situ repair, fabrication, manufacturing and assembly capability (8
Initiatives);
Objective Sust-B-12: Establishment of integrated design, development and testing capability (5 Initiatives).
GOAL Sust-C: Enhance Security, Peace and Safety:
Objective Sust-C-1: Detection and mitigation of threats from Near-Earth objects (2 Initiatives);
Objective Sust-C-2: Beamed power and other lunar-based energy sources for terrestrial consumption (commercial
on ramp) (2 Initiatives);
Objective Sust-C-3: Remote and Hazardous Research and Testing (e.g., bio/nano technology) (2 Initiatives);
Objective Sust-C-4: Applied Earth observations (1 Initiative);
Objective Sust-C-5: Archiving of Critical Human Records and Biological Samples (2 Initiatives).
Figure 1
Figure 1: An example of roadmapping between Objectives.

Science (Sci) Theme: Pursue scientific activities to address
fundamental questions about the solar system, the universe, and
our place in them.
Goal Sci-A: Understand the formation, evolution,

and current state of the Moon.
The Moon has been and will continue to be the scientific foundation for our knowledge of the early
evolution and impact history of the terrestrial planets. Remotely sensed, geophysical, and sample data
allow us to define investigations that test and refine models established for lunar origin and evolution.
For example, documenting the diversity of crustal rock types and the composition of shallow and deep
lunar mantle will allow refinement of the lunar magma ocean hypothesis. Dating the formation of large
impact basins will relate directly to the crustal evolution of all the terrestrial planets and, possibly, to the
bombardment history of the outer Solar System. The rationale for studying the Moon and a list of major
problems to address has been presented in many previous reports, most recently by the NASA Advisory
Council’s 2007 Workshop on Science Associated with the Lunar Exploration Architecture and the
National Research Council’s The Scientific Context for Exploration of the Moon (National Academies
Press, 2007).
A note about time phasing of science investigations: Time phasing of objectives Sci-A-1 through Sci-A-
3 is driven by human environmental impact, architectural considerations, and operational protocols and
do not reflect a prioritization based on science. All other science objectives can and should be done
during all time phases—they are not prioritized because all are pursued simultaneously during all phases
of lunar exploration. All require similar exploratory infrastructure (tools, equipment, procedures, etc.).
Objective Sci-A-1: Understand the environmental impacts of lunar exploration.

ISRU (In-Situ Resource Utilization) operations and extensive settlement will affect the environment of
the Moon, creating a new field of lunar environmental science. Tracking environmental changes
associated with human activity will entail installation of sensors at varying distances from an outpost or
settlement. Lunar exploration provides an important opportunity to monitor the effects of human
presence on biological and organic contamination, and to develop ways to mitigate them. This activity
will help prepare for human missions to Mars by developing methods to test and minimize
contamination and to understand the nature of such contamination.
Time Phasing:
Early: Earth-based observations, orbital observations (e.g., LRO,
LADEE), soft lander with, for example, volatile sensor/mass spectrometer.
Middle: Early human missions deploy sensor network, volatile
release experiment.
Late: Monitor, expand the network.
Science Priority: Medium
Rationale: Extensive activity will change the lunar environment, so we need to
understand the natural state as early as possible. Will help to develop methods to test and
minimize contamination of Mars by human missions.
Investigation-A: Characterize the lunar exosphere and current gas/surface interactions to

determine baseline lunar environment
Characterize the composition and spatial and temporal variability of the natural lunar exosphere
including electrostatically lofted dust prior to large-scale human presence on the Moon. Conduct
controlled volatile-release experiments to understand surface transport of volatile atoms and molecules
in the lunar environment, including movement to polar cold traps under varying magnetospheric
conditions. It may also be useful to do a controlled dust experiment. Understand original lunar
“atmosphere” before it is irrevocably changed. Characterize transport of volatile elements on the lunar
surface as a guide toward understanding the genesis and chemical processing of polar volatile deposits
on airless planets. Note that this investigation requires modern instruments to measure exospheric
composition in situ, and that such instruments need to be developed. Meteoroid bombardment, solar
flare events, and large moonquakes are all potential hazards for occupants at a lunar outpost or
permanent settlement. It is important to determine before human habitation the environmental effects of
such events, to help in designing systems to mitigate their effects.
Time Phasing:
Early: This needs to be done early prior to human return and can be conducted using
Earth-based observations, orbital observations (e.g., LRO, LADEE), soft lander.
Science Priority: Medium (establishes a baseline for the lunar environment)
Rationale: See the Objective Rationale.
Investigation-B: Determine how the environment changes after the return of humans to the Moon.
Monitoring environmental changes associated with human activity will entail installation of sensors at
varying distances from an outpost or settlement, beginning before human arrival and continuing
afterwards. Measurements need to include volatiles and organic compounds and how their
concentrations vary with distance from a lunar outpost and the extent to which they react with lunar
materials and migrate into the regolith. Instruments used for this characterization must have gone
through appropriate contamination control so we know what was brought along or developed on the
surface in order to identify and quantify what is currently on the surface. Any material released on the
surface or in the atmosphere should not occur in nature and should provide a unique signature to ensure
that their source in future missions is known.
Time Phasing:
Middle & Late: Monitor the lunar environment as landings increase and human
presence becomes more long term.
Science Priority: Medium (as a follow on to Investigation A). Early human missions
deploy sensor network, volatile release experiment followed by monitoring and
expanding the network of sensors.
Rationale: See the Objective Rationale.
Objective Sci-A-2: Development and implementation of sample return technologies

and protocols.
The geological exploration of the Moon or any other planetary body will involve field observations and
measurements, deployment of geophysical equipment, and sample collection. Sampling involves
understanding how to collect samples, documenting their geologic context, lunar surface curation of the
samples, outpost laboratory characterization, and protocols for their transport to Earth. Samples will be
collected for geological, materials science, and biological studies. Acquisition, storage, return, and
curation of samples requires the development of protocols and technologies that allows selection of
appropriate materials and protects their integrity.
Investigations A-D are all relevant to the sampling of any planetary body.
Time Phasing (applies to all Investigations):

Early: All investigations need to be started early.
Middle: Modify techniques as experience with in situ sample analysis improves and
infrastructure develops.
Late: Continue to modify techniques as experience with in situ sample analysis
improves and infrastructure develops.
Science Priority (applies to all Investigations): High (enables high priority science).
Rationale: This activity can influence mass, volume, and structural issues associated with
Altair lander and crew rovers.
Investigation-A: Develop a sampling strategy

Geologic investigations will be a prime scientific function of crews on the lunar surface. This includes
extensive field observations that guide sample selection. It is important to have a guiding strategy for the
interplay of field observations by humans and by robotic devices with sample collection and
documentation. It is critical to understand the geological style of the Moon, including the nature of
impact mixing at all scales, the contribution of distant events to site geology, and nature of complex,
polygenetic regional units. Determine which sample targets on the Moon are appropriate for
reconnaissance sampling versus detailed field study (see Ryder, Spudis, and Taylor, 1989).
Investigation-B: Understand the scientific requirements for sample curation, packaging, and
transport to Earth.
Provide the capability to curate samples on the Moon before transporting them to Earth. Such curation
involves protecting samples from contamination while on the Moon and during preparation for shipping
and transport to Earth. It also requires development of an information system to document samples
(collection locality, specimen type, location in curatorial facility, etc.). It applies to biological and
engineering, as well as geological samples, and to samples relevant for resource extraction experiments.
To make accurate analyses of geological samples collected on the Moon, the samples must be kept clean
from contamination by other samples and habitat gases, dust, and other human-generated materials. A
large number of samples will be collected, so it is also important to keep track of each one and its
collection location to avoid confusion during later analysis. For successful planning, we must determine
what analyses will be made on geological, materials science, and biological materials to establish
appropriate controls on contamination.
Investigation-C: Understand what analyses (field and laboratory) need to be done in situ to aid
field studies and optimize the value of samples returned to Earth.
Develop reliable and largely automated analytical instruments for use on the surface to screen samples
to choose which to return to Earth. Analytical instruments at a lunar base (or Mars) will allow us to
optimize the samples to be returned to Earth, making the best use of cargo space and mass. It also allows
the crew to use preliminary data on samples to help plan additional field observations. A high degree of
automation is required so that astronauts do not have to spend significant amounts of time analyzing
rocks and soils. However, it is crucial to determine the optimal types of analyses and instruments
needed.
Investigation-D: Enhance curatorial facilities on Earth to handle environmentally-sensitive

samples (e.g., ices)
It may be necessary to transport environmentally-sensitive samples to Earth for detailed analysis.
Examples include volatiles and ices from permanently-shadowed regions at the poles and regolith
samples for studies of loosely-bound solar wind products. Thus, sample packaging and transport
methods and equipment need to be designed and implemented. Once received on Earth, they must be
curated under appropriate conditions.
Objective Sci-A-3: Characterize the environment and processes in lunar polar

regions and in the lunar exosphere.
The Moon’s spin axis is nearly normal to the ecliptic (88.5° inclination), resulting in locations of
permanent darkness and quasi-permanent sunlight near the poles. The dark regions are extremely cold
and if any volatile material gets into them, they cannot escape, becoming “trapped” for geological time
spans. The possibility of trapped volatiles in the lunar polar regions is important for both scientific and
operational reasons. They record the history of the influx of volatile components on the Moon for at
least the last two billion years, possibly yielding clues to source regions and their evolution with time.
Lunar polar volatiles are also important as a resource to support human habitation and exploration of the
Moon and the industrialization of cislunar space.
Time Phasing:
Early: Orbital mapping and characterization of cold traps, sunlight, polar deposits.
Surface characterization from lander.
Middle: Bedrock geology during early human missions.
Late: Active volatile release experiment and network.
Science Priority: High
Rationale: See individual Investigations.
Investigation-A: Map and characterize polar cold traps

Determine the extent, settings, physical properties and locations of permanently dark cold traps near the
lunar poles. Understand the thermal environment of these areas, including the effects of this thermal
regime on lunar regolith and geotechnical properties. Understand the temporal history of lunar cold
traps.
Time Phasing:
Rationale: It is likely that new and unexpected science will result from study of this
unique environment. We need to understand early the nature of polar volatiles and the
environment to make ISRU architectural decisions.
Investigation-B: Map and characterize quasi-permanently illuminated areas

Determine the extent and location of permanent and quasi-permanently sunlit areas near the poles, with
particular emphasis on their physical and morphological properties with an eye towards their use as sites
for a lunar outpost. Map the time history of any eclipse periods in these areas. Understand the thermal
and electrical environment of these areas, including the charging history and any dust phenomenology
induced by it.
Time Phasing:
Rationale: Characterizing all aspects of the lunar poles is critical in determining if the
North/South Pole should be the site of the lunar outpost.
Investigation-C: Determine bedrock geology of polar regions

Understand the geological setting of both polar areas, including their relation to local and distant
impact craters and basins and regional compositional provinces. Map and determine the structure of
local geological features and their relation to polar volatile deposits and micro-environments.
Time Phasing:
Middle-Late: This Investigation will build upon the Early ones and will require more
infrastructure in order to undertake more detailed studies of the polar regions.
Rationale: It is likely that new and unexpected science will result from study of this unique
environment.
Investigation-D: Understand volatile sources and mechanisms of transport and deposition

Characterize the volatile phase in the permanently shadowed regions near the lunar poles, and determine
their concentrations, chemistry, mineralogy, phase relations, temperatures, and geotechnical properties.
It is important to characterize volatiles possibly present in lunar polar regions because they may be of
considerable value to the lunar exploration program, and because they may reveal the chemical nature of
impactors on the Moon through time. This investigation has significant value to Lunar Resource
Utilization. It requires measurement of the concentrations of volatile species from the solar wind, the
regolith, volcanic deposits, present-day degassing of the lunar interior, and exogenic sources such as
comets.
Time Phasing:
Middle-Late: This Investigation will build upon the Early ones and will require more
infrastructure in order to undertake more detailed studies of the polar regions.
This will require landers to undertake detailed examinations of the permanently
shadowed regions.
Rationale: This Investigation also builds upon the earlier ones and requires detailed
analyses of the deposits in the permanently shadowed regions.
Objective Sci-A-4: Understand the dynamical evolution and space weathering of the
regolith.
Impacts produce a surface regolith on all planetary objects without atmospheres. Because such regoliths
are an important part of local surface geology on such bodies, it is important to study the processes and
end products associated with them.
Time Phasing:
Early: Orbital remote sensing, surface lander characterization (inc. geotechnical).
Middle: Comprehensive sampling around lander (100’s m) to depths up to 3 m (e.g.,
trenching, drilling, crater walls), geotechnical, ability to sample steep slopes,
geophysical profiling, robotic sampling of remote sites.
Late: Comprehensive sampling to greater ranges (km) to depths up to 10’s of m (e.g.,
trenching, drilling, crater walls), regolith/bedrock interface, extensive and
intensive sampling, paleoregolith identification and sampling, ability to sample
steep slopes, geophysical profiling, robotic sampling of remote sites.
NOTE: Overall timing applies to all, except Investigation D, which is Middle-Late.
Rationale: This objective helps us to understand lunar processes and history;
Investigations 1 and 5 affect surface operations such as trafficability.
Investigation-A: Characterize the structure and layering of the regolith, including the interface
with underlying bedrock
Determine lunar regolith properties, such as structure (layering and depth variations), composition, and
properties of dust, and modes of formation and evolution of the regolith. Understand the extent of
vertical and lateral mixing of materials. Determine the temporal history of regolith components,
including the production and nature of “paleoregolith.”
Time phasing: Detailed study of in place regolith is an important priority at a lunar outpost site; this can
be done by large-scale digging (10’s of meters) of a section of regolith, including trenching and pit
excavation. Drilling through the regolith, which might be done for resource exploration, will also be
useful. Detailed studies require the existence of a permanently-occupied lunar facility, hence late in the
program.
Investigation-B: Determine the compositional variability of the regolith and how it relates to
underlying rock
An important part of understanding the composition of the crust and how the regolith is produced is to
determine the details of how it relates to the underlying rock. This includes the extent of mixing from
different depths and from more distant sources. Assess the efficacy of lateral and vertical mixing of
materials.
Investigation-C: Characterize the lunar regolith to understand space weathering processes in

different crustal environments
Characterize the space weathering process for the exposed lunar surfaces at various ages, which is
caused by micrometeorite impacts, solar-wind implantation, and solar irradiation. The lunar regolith
bears witness to the process of space weathering, the interactions between the surface and space. Such
interactions can be extrapolated to other airless bodies such as Mercury. These interactions preserve a
record of solar activity and evolution. Because impacts produce a variety of surface ages on the lunar
surface, from very new to ancient, the Moon is the best available laboratory to study the space
weathering that has occurred on all of the airless bodies in the solar system.
Investigation-D: Characterize volatile concentrations and transport mechanisms

The dynamic surface environment may lead to redistribution of solar-wind and other volatiles within the
regolith. Little is known quantitatively about the extent of mobilization and the transport mechanisms, so
detailed measurements of the volatile abundances are needed. The current lack of quantitative
understanding limits our ability to extract the past record of the Sun or of volatile release from the lunar
interior. In particular, we don not fully understand the nature and efficacy of the retention mechanisms
for solar wind gas in soils of varying types; this topic is critical to assessing techniques of in situ
resource utilization. Migration of volatiles in the lunar regolith also bears on the transport of volatiles
through the exosphere as the regolith may be an important source of volatiles.
Investigation E: Determine the geotechnical properties of the lunar regolith.

The geotechnical properties are important for understanding the formation of the regolith and for
designing construction and excavation techniques. Pertinent properties include grain size distribution,
particle shapes, density, bearing capacity, cohesion, shear strength, and thermal conductivity (all as a
function of depth), and slope stability and trafficability (the capacity of a soil to support a vehicle and to
provide sufficient traction for movement).
Objective Sci-A-5: Understand lunar differentiation.

The Moon is a small, differentiated planet; study of its crust will allow us to better understand early
planetary evolution and crustal genesis. The Moon presents the best opportunity to geochemically
characterize early fundamental processes in a planetary body of substantial size, including the
differentiation into component parts, the production of a crust, and the genesis of basalts from various
depths in the mantle. It also allows us to study the processes involved in its earliest differentiation
(probably involving a globe-encircling magma ocean) and the transition to subsequent magma
production by a series of magmatic events probably driven by convection in the mantle.
Time phasing (applies to all Investigations):

Early: Remote sensing of rock types, robotic sample return, global network, surface
rovers (Lunakhod).
Middle: Search for and sampling of bedrock, comprehensive sampling near lander, field
relations of bedrock geology, emplace network stations, geophysical profiling of
lunar interior, robotic sampling of remote sites.
Late: Search for and sampling of bedrock, extend range of field mapping and
sampling, regional geophysical network, robotic sampling of remote sites.
Rationale: Understand lunar processes and geological history.
Investigation-A: Inventory, relationships, and ages of nonmare rocks

Rocks in the lunar crust shed light on the processes that operated in the lunar magma ocean, the range of
magma compositions subsequent to primary differentiation, and the chemical and mineralogical
composition of their mantle source regions. This investigation involves synthesizing remote sensing and
sample data to inventory and map rock types, determine their sequence and structure within the crust,
and reconstruct crustal evolution in space and time. Using remote sensing as a guide, it is necessary to
sample the crust broadly to determine lateral or regional variations, using ejecta from craters and basins
to access varying depth levels. Precise age determinations require returning samples for analysis in
terrestrial laboratories.
Investigation-B: Inventory, relationships, and ages of mare volcanics and related intrusive rocks
Mare volcanic deposits contain information about the composition and thermal history of the lunar
mantle and hence, its bulk composition. Map the sequence, thicknesses, and ages of volcanic units in the
maria. Establish the spatial and temporal variations in mare basalt composition. Map the extent and
composition of ancient (pre-3.9 Ga) mare volcanism and determine its possible relation to the last of the
basin-forming impacts or to the insulation characteristics of the megaregolith. Map the extent and
composition of lunar pyroclastic deposits, including their associated crystalline components. Understand
the physical processes involved in the generation, ascent, eruption, and emplacement of mare magmas
and deposits and how they change with time.
Investigation-C: Determine the composition, structure, and variability of the crust

This investigation involves detailed study of the variability of the thickness and composition of the lunar
crust, both vertically and laterally. It requires a synthesis of remote sensing, geophysical measurements,
sample analysis, and in the long term, drilling to depths of a few hundred meters.
Investigation-D: Determine the composition, structure, and variability of the mantle

Determining the composition of the mantle is essential for determining the bulk composition of the
Moon, which is a major piece of information for understanding the physical and chemical environment
during the formation of the Earth-Moon system. Knowledge of the composition of the lunar mantle, as
inferred from its melt products, and the lateral and vertical variations that exist, can be used to place
important constraints on the Moon’s thermal and internal evolution. Central topics include core-mantle-
crust transitions, differences between the lower and upper mantle (if any), phase heterogeneity, degree
of seismic activity, the foci for Moonquakes, lower crust/upper mantle interactions, planetary
anisotropy, and seismic hazards for future experiments and structures.
Investigation-E: Determine size and composition of the core

Unequivocally establishing the presence or absence of a lunar core, its physical state (e.g., solid or
liquid, with or without a silicate component), its size and chemical composition and density, and
establishing the nature of the deep lower mantle will aid in estimating the bulk composition of the Moon
and global differentiation processes. It will also help to understand the lunar magnetic record. This
investigation involves geophysical measurements of the deep lunar interior and sample analyses of the
paleomagnetic properties of lunar rocks. Rock measurements should focus on oriented samples,
although still provide important information about the intensity of the magnetic field, hence test the
possibility of a core dynamo.
Objective Sci-A-6: Understand volcanic processes.

The physical volcanology of the Moon includes study of mare basalt lavas and pyroclastic eruptions.
This work sheds light on lava flow emplacement mechanisms, eruption fluxes, the rate of magma
production in the mantle and their variation through time, magma migration mechanisms, and the
thermal history of the mantle. A particularly important area to study is the nature and source of volatiles
associated with volcanic eruptions of both lava flows and pyroclastic deposits. The concentration of
volatiles in the Moon has great bearing on testing ideas for planetary accretion and lunar origin.

Early: Remote sensing of rock types, robotic sample return, geomorphology of
volcanic landforms, surface rovers (EGA/MS).
Middle: Search for and sampling of oriented bedrock, volcanic stratigraphy,
comprehensive sampling near lander, field relations of bedrock geology,
emplace network stations, geophysical profiling of lunar interior, robotic
sampling of remote sites.
Late: Search for and sampling of bedrock, extend range of field mapping and
sampling, regional geophysical network, robotic sampling of remote sites.
Investigation-A: Determine how magma is generated and transported to the surface

Understand the physical processes involved in the generation, ascent, eruption and emplacement of mare
magmas and deposits and how these processes change with time. Understand the variety, geometry,
locations, and processes associated with volcanic vents, including magma devolatilization and the
possibility of mantle xenoliths.
Investigation-B: Determine how lava flows are emplaced on the Moon

This investigation involves mapping the sequence, thickness, and age of volcanic units in the maria,
establishing the spatial and temporal variations in mare basalt composition, and mapping the extent and
composition of lunar pyroclastic deposits. We must develop criteria to distinguish between fissure-fed,
flood lava eruptions and low effusion, central vent volcanism. It also includes mapping the extent and
composition of ancient (pre-3.9 Ga) mare volcanism and determine possible relations with the last of the
basin-forming impacts.
Investigation-C: Determine the physical characteristics of pyroclastic deposits and vents

Pyroclastic volcanism has produced local and regional dark mantle deposits, comprising particles of
negligible to significant crystallinity. Such eruptions are thought to be driven by CO+CO2± SO2, which
either produce energetic fountains of rapidly-quenched glassy droplets or become trapped in the near
surface to produce discrete explosions dominated by disaggregated crystalline cap rock. This
investigation aims to place constraints on pyroclastic deposit thicknesses, particle size distributions, and
cooling histories, all of which will allow us in principle to constrain the locations of source vents. One
issue that needs to be resolved is whether a deposit is the result of a single protracted eruption at a single
site or multiple eruptions from distributed sources.
Investigation-D: Assessment of the volatiles driving lunar volcanic eruptions

Determine the origin of endogenous lunar volatiles (e.g., degassing of the mantle) and the redistribution
of these volatiles by geologic processes operating over time. Knowledge of the origin and distribution
processes of volatiles will lead to predictive models of their distribution on a broad scale. Although the
Moon is a volatile-poor body, characterizing the uncommon occurrence of its more readily volatilized
elements can address questions of lunar origin and the chemical nature of its interior. Of special
significance for investigation are the volcanic glass deposits because in some cases these represent deep
and relatively unfractionated mantle materials. This task includes study of reported modern gas
emissions from the Moon and includes typical volcanic gases (H2O, CO, CO2 and SO2), as well as other
gases that may serve as tracers of gas release (e.g., 222Rn, 40Ar).
Objective Sci-A-7: Understand the impact process.

Study and understand the various phases of the impact process at all scales, from initial contact to final
modification and adjustment. The fundamental issues for this interpretation are how primary ejecta from
basins and craters are distributed; how the deposits vary with distance from the structure; the extent of
vertical mixing; how the megaregolith can be geochemically deconvolved to assess the bulk
composition of the crust; how the basin, large crater ejecta, and central peak compositions can be used to
deduce crustal stratigraphy. Furthermore, well-preserved craters on the Moon provide us with a natural
laboratory to understand the impact process and a large range of scales. The intense bombardment of the
lunar highlands crust has left little bedrock intact. Thus, to interpret the present surface, it is essential to
understand how cratering mixed the original igneous rocks and obscured the original distribution of the
products of primary differentiation and subsequent magmatic activity.

Early: Map crater and basin geology, compositions, geophysical state, robotic sample
return, robotic surface rovers.
Middle: Field study of simple to complex craters (1-10’s km); sampling ejecta, melt
sheets, bedrock in walls, central uplifts, basin massifs (robotic and human);
geophysical profiling.
Late: Field work at large and basin-scaled craters (100-1000’s km). Study and sample
melt sheets, ejecta, secondaries (robotic and human). Use geophysical profiling
the characterize regional scale variations. Search for potential deposits for
ISRU in differentiated melt sheets in large impact craters.
Investigation-A: Determine and understand the stages of formation of simple and complex craters,
and multi-ring basins
Determine the processes associated with, and the geologic results of, shock, material flow, rim uplift,
and, where relevant, the structural uplift of crater floors and modification of crater walls on the Moon.
Delineate variations in these processes that are responsible for simple craters, complex central peak
craters, complex peak ring craters, and multi-ring basins. Use this structural information to map impact
crater units (e.g., central peak and basin massifs) to deduce other properties (e.g., stratigraphy) of the
lunar crust and mantle.
Investigation-B: Determine how impacts modify, redistribute, and mix materials

Determine the shock-metamorphism, melting, and mixing of excavated materials in craters of different
sizes in different terrains. Likewise, determine the distribution of those materials beyond the crater rim
and the mixing of them with other regolith components. These results will provide a baseline for using
impact products to assess other properties (like the variable composition) of the lunar crust.
Investigation-C: Determine the origin and evolution of basin melt sheets

Impact theory suggests large basin-forming events may have melted rocks in the lower crust and,
possibly, the upper mantle, sampling deeper levels than structural uplifts in craters. Geologic mapping
and sample analyses are needed to determine the depth and volume of that melting. These analyses will
also provide the information needed to determine how melted portions of the Moon were mixed and how
basin melt sheets subsequently evolved, potentially differentiating to form large layered igneous
deposits within the crust of the Moon.
Investigation-D: Assess the possibility of impact-triggered magmatism

Determine the composition and age of magmatism within basins and along their margins to determine if
large basin-forming events are responsible for some post-impact magmatism.
Investigation-E: Determine the production and evolution of the megaregolith

Determine the volume and distribution of large scale ejecta and impact-reworked crustal units that
comprise the megaregolith and distinguish that material from the underlying crust that was structurally
disturbed by large subsurface displacements caused by large impact events.
Objective Sci-A-8: Determine the stratigraphy, structure, and geological history of

the Moon.
Study and understand lunar stratigraphy on global, regional and local levels. Map the principal units of
the Moon, including their geometric shape and distribution, relative and absolute ages, and sequence.
Define and study lunar terrains and the time- and rock-stratigraphic units that comprise them. Map lunar
structural features and how they interact with stratigraphic units to derive a time history and sequence of
lunar tectonism. Determine the geological history and evolution of the Moon.
Early: Re-map geology of Moon from new orbital data, robotic sample returns
(calibrate remote data), determine relative ages of individual features using
crater densities.
Middle: Determine and sample bedrock lithology and structure near lander, robotic
sampling of remote sites, geophysical profiling.
Late: Investigate regional units via human field work and robotic reconnaissance, map
lateral and vertical extent of units, geophysical profiling.
Investigation-A: Understand the impact history of the Moon

The Moon has been bombarded with debris from the beginning of its history. This impact record was
critical not only to lunar history, but by inference to the impact histories of all the inner planets.
Determine the impact flux as a function of time, including possible episodicities and periodicities in the
cratering rates. Assess the nature and duration of an early cataclysm (if any). Understand the recent flux
and calibrate the various relative age scales by deciphering the detailed flux as a function of absolute
time. This investigation is very similar to Objective Sci-B-1, but has more emphasis on how the
bombardment history has affected the geologic evolution of the lunar crust.
Investigation-B: Determine the stratigraphy of the lunar maria

Determine the sequence, relative and absolute ages, and compositions of the lunar maria, including both
lavas and pyroclastics. Map lateral extent and thicknesses of mare color units. Use relative crater
densities to distinguish ages. Identify possible sites for sample return and absolute age calibration.
Examine and study exposed sections of mare stratigraphy in crater, rille, and graben walls. Sample and
date multiple lava flows and dark mantle deposits form around the Moon.
Investigation-C: Determine the stratigraphy of the lunar highlands

Determine the sequence of the earliest units of the lunar highlands, including ancient feldspathic terrain
on the lunar far side, the South Pole-Aitken basin floor, and subsequent younger basin materials and
interbasin terrains. Map the large craters of the Moon in terms of relative age, with calibration by sample
collection and radiometric dating of key selected features. Understand the origins of unusual terrains
(e.g., Descartes Formation) and the extent of ancient, pre-Orientale maria. Calibrate the recent time scale
and possible recent lunar geological activity (e.g., volatile release, young highland faults) by
understanding the flux of very young, rayed craters (e.g., North Ray and younger).
Investigation-D: Determine the tectonic history of the lunar crust

Map the distribution and ages of lunar tectonic features, including both compressional (wrinkle ridges)
and extensional (graben) features and determine their ages through their interaction with regional
stratigraphic units. Determine the stress history of the crust as a function of time. Determine if the
current Moon is undergoing global compression, as suggested by the presence of young thrust faults in
the highlands and if so, how much. Assess the strength of the lunar lithosphere by estimating the loading
of the crust by mascons.
Objective Sci-A-9: Understand formation of the Earth-Moon system.

Although the consensus is that the Moon formed by the impact of a Mars-sized planetary embryo with
the proto-Earth, the details of how the Moon accreted from the debris around the Earth or the chemical
processes in the proto-lunar disk have not been worked out. The lunar composition depends on (1) the
composition of the impacting planetary embryo (and to a lesser extent the primitive Earth), (2) the extent
of the fractionation of elements during formation of the Moon, (3) how completely or whether volatiles
were lost, (4) whether the Moon could accrete with compositional heterogeneities, and (5) whether the
Moon was essentially totally molten, before, during, and after accretion. Thus, determining the bulk
composition of the Moon, the depth of the magma ocean, and the distribution of volatiles in the upper
and lower mantle allows us to understand the conditions existing in the proto-lunar disk after the giant
impact, and more generally to test whether that model is correct. This objective requires the
investigations discussed under Objective Sci-A-1.

Early: Refine estimate of lunar bulk composition from remote sensing and robotic
sample return. Heat flow of Moon.
Middle: Sampling of compositionally and geographically diverse lithologies, geophysical
network.
Late: Continued sampling of compositionally and geographically diverse lithologies,
geophysical network: increase number and density of stations.
Rationale: Understand lunar processes and geological history, and provide insight into
how planets formed.
Investigation-A: Determine the bulk composition of the crust

Although the crust comprises only about 10 wt% of the Moon, its bulk composition is an important
component of the total lunar composition, particularly in assessing the abundances of elements
concentrated in it, which geochemists call incompatible lithophile elements (e.g., rare earth elements).
Available sample, geophysical, and remote sensing data indicate that the crust is highly variable in
composition. This investigation requires determining the compositional layering and thickness of the
crust and how they vary laterally.
Investigation-B: Determine the bulk composition of the mantle

The chemical and mineralogical heterogeneity of the crust indicates that the lunar interior is also highly
variable in composition. This reflects the combination of primary differentiation and subsequent
dynamics, including convection, partial melting, and magma migration and emplacement. Assessing its
overall composition (differences between upper and lower mantle, and variation in both between the
nearside and farside) requires studies of samples derived from a variety of depths within the Moon. It is
particularly important to understand the distribution of volatile elements and water inside the mantle,
which can be addressed through studies of volatiles in volcanic deposits and inferring their source
regions in the mantle (depth, mineralogy, chemical and isotopic composition). This study includes ejecta
from large basins and geophysical measurements.
Investigation C: Determine the early thermal history of the Moon

The thermal history of the Moon has important implications for primary differentiation, the genesis of
crustal rocks, and (most importantly for understanding lunar origin) the initial thermal state of the Moon.
This investigation is an integration of other investigations coupled with thermal modeling.
Goal Sci-B: Use the Moon as a “witness plate” for

solar system evolution.
As the Moon has been tectonically quiet over the last 3.8 Gy, it contains a record of extralunar processes
that occurred early in the history of the solar system to the present day. For example, lunar cratering
history can be extrapolated to other planets in the inner solar system, its regolith contains a record of
solar activity and evolution, and the materials on the lunar surface bear witness to the process of space
weathering that can be extrapolated to other airless bodies. In essence, the Moon contains a record of
processes stretching back to the first 500 My after solar system formation.
Objective Sci-B-1: Understand the impact history of the inner Solar System as
recorded on the Moon.
The Moon retains the history of the early impact environment and flux of the inner solar system, at a
time when life may have first arisen on Earth and perhaps Mars. The changes in this impact environment
over 4.5 billion years have implications for the evolution of life and potentially for events in the outer
solar system.

Early: Geological mapping of impact units, relative age dating from remote data,
robotic sample return.
Middle: Field study and sampling of geographically and temporally diverse impact
targets.
Late: Field study and sampling of geographically and temporally diverse impact
targets.
Rationale: Use the Moon to characterize the history of the inner Solar System.
Investigation-A: Determine the impact flux during the basin-forming epoch

Characterize the crater production function (i.e., impactor flux as a function of size) for the Moon during
the basin-forming epoch and determine the duration of the basin-forming epoch. Was it distributed over
the first half billion years of the Moon’s history or was the bulk of the basin-forming impact events
concentrated in a short period of time approximately 4 billion years ago? This characterization requires
quantitative dating of impact basins and ancient large craters. Better understanding of the crater
production function during the basin-forming epoch will help calibrate the use of impact ejecta surfaces
as chronostratigraphic tools and help calibrate crater counts as a chronological tool, on the Moon and
other planetary bodies in the solar system. On Earth, ancient rocks and evidence for early life have been
mostly destroyed, but the basin-forming period of impacts may have jettisoned that material to the Moon
where it can be found today. This evidence can constrain theories regarding the potential interplanetary
transfer of life due to meteoritic exchange between Earth and Mars. Data supporting or rejecting
evidence of past life might be obtained without the complicating factor of contamination.
Investigation-B: Determine the impact flux throughout the post-basin-forming epoch

Characterize the flux of impacting bodies in the Earth-Moon system after the basin forming epoch or
throughout the past 3.8 billion years. This will calibrate crater counting tools for the Moon and other
solid planetary surfaces in the solar system. It will also provide a baseline for evaluating the role of
impact cratering in the evolution of life on Earth (and possibly Mars). The Moon is the best available
laboratory for such studies.
Investigation-C: Determine the composition and source of impactors

Determine the timing and composition of the impactors that hit the Moon to reveal the source of
impacting debris and the mechanisms that generated the flux of debris. The information may define the
accretion and early orbital evolution of planets throughout the solar system and elucidate any differences
that may have existed in the flux of material to the inner and outer solar system. The data will also
provide a measure of the flux of volatile, biogenic, and siderophile elements to the Earth, Moon, Mars,
and other planetary bodies as a function of time.
Investigation-D: Characterize the impact hazard to the Earth-Moon system

Determine the properties of the recent flux of impactors to the Moon to evaluate current hazards to the
Earth. The record on the Moon is much better preserved than on the Earth, where other geologic
processes rapidly erase evidence of the most frequent types of impact events. What is the true rate of
impact for objects of different sizes? Is the size distribution of impacting debris different today than it
was in the past and, if so, what does that tell us about the mechanisms delivering material to near-Earth
space? Do those mechanisms alter objects delivered to near-Earth space in ways that make them
stronger or weaker (and, thus, may affect our choice of mitigation techniques for any threatening
object)?
Objective Sci-B-2: Regolith as a recorder of extra-lunar processes.

The regolith contains information about the history of the Sun, variations in cosmic ray flux,
astronomical events such as supernova and gamma-ray bursts, changing compositions of impactors with
time, and possibly even the nature of the early Earth. It is a complicated record, but long-term
investigations can shed light on important issues in planetary science and astronomy.

Early: Identify targets for future surface exploration from remote data (magnetic
anomalies, paleoregoliths).
Middle: Precision sampling of regolith at different stratigraphic levels, identify and
sample paleoregolith.
Late: Precision sampling of regolith at different stratigraphic levels, identify and
sample paleoregolith at new and wider areas; potential ISRU tie-in for
extralunar material search.
Rationale: Use the Moon to characterize the history of the inner Solar System and the
galaxy.
Investigation-A: Characterize volatile concentrations and their variability

Characterize the volatile phase in the permanently shadowed regions near the lunar poles, and determine
the concentration, chemistry, phase relations, temperatures, and geotechnical properties. These volatiles
may reveal the chemical nature of impactors on the Moon through time.
Investigation-B: Assess temporal variations in the Sun through studies of solar wind and solar
flare products in the regolith
Study the records of past solar particles and irradiance, and galactic cosmic rays preserved in lunar
regolith. This work involves searching for identifiable layers of "fossil regolith" that can be dated to
track changes in the Sun and galactic cosmic rays through time. This objective is synergistic with use of
the lunar regolith as an in situ resource and with use of the Moon as a platform for heliophysics
observations. The lunar regolith preserves the composition and flux of solar wind particles over the past
~4 billion years, a record that may elucidate the evolution of the sun and the sources of cosmic rays.
Investigation-C: Assess variability in the solar constant through detailed, long-term heat flow
measurements
In principle, borehole temperature measurements can be used to determine the solar constant as a
function of time over the last hundreds to thousands of years. Climate reconstruction from subsurface
temperatures is a well-developed technique for Earth. Variability in the solar constant is an important
input parameter for models of terrestrial paleoclimate.
Time phasing: Middle and advanced lunar base.
Investigation-D: Assess variations in cosmic radiation through time

Variations in the dose of cosmic radiation through time, including from supernova, may be recorded in
grains in the regolith. This requires detailed sampling and measurements of radiation damage and
cosmic ray products in the regolith.
Investigation-E: Search for meteoritic material (including terrestrial debris) in the regolith
The lunar regolith may contain small quantities of materials derived from Earth and possibly other
terrestrial planets, delivered to the Moon’s surface as planetary meteorites. Samples from the early Earth
could provide windows into our planet’s early history, including the nature of early life and the
composition of the atmosphere.
Goal Sci-C: Use the Moon as a platform for Astrophysical, Heliophysical,
and Earth-Observing studies
The Moon provides a unique and relatively stable platform for observations of the Earth, the Sun and the
Universe. While distant from the Earth, observatories on the Moon are able to provide important data on
Earth’s surface, atmosphere and magnetosphere, complementing and enhancing satellite and ground-
based observations. The Moon’s position relative to Earth’s magnetosphere makes it an excellent
location to study the solar wind, characterize the effects of the Moon on the local plasma environment,
and perform observations of the Sun and extra-solar system planets over a broad frequency spectrum.
Astrophysical studies may be performed from the Moon, especially at frequency ranges not favorable
for space-based telescopes. In particular, the lunar surface offers unique opportunities for long-
wavelength radio astronomy from the radio-quiet far side of the Moon.
Investigations using the Moon as a platform are described below. They are organized by disciplines,
however it should be recognized that overlapping observation requirements and implementation
strategies exist and these could be coordinated within and across the science disciplines to maximize the
science return.
Additionally, we call attention to the fact that the transportation system being developed by the agency
for the return to the Moon will be a tremendous asset for additional science payloads to locations beyond
the lunar environment. This particularly applies to opportunities for missions with large aperture
telescopes, and capable payloads to other solar system bodies. As an example, an 8-meter monolithic
telescope has been suggested for a possible astrophysics mission.
Finally we note that the astrophysical, heliophysical and Earth observing science investigations
articulated in this section have not been prioritized relative the broader spectrum of the science of those
disciplines. We expect that this roadmap will provide input for consideration in the associated decadal
surveys as they are performed.
Objective Sci-C-1: Astrophysical and Basic Physics Investigations using the Moon.
The lunar surface offers some enabling opportunities for astrophysical investigations. Certain
applications derive special benefit from lunar surface basing. In general, for telescopes that require
frequent oversight, maintenance, and hands-on attention, having such telescopes at an occupied site
could be advantageous. But for telescopes that can be largely tele-operated, requiring infrequent repair
and or servicing, free space is probably a more friendly place, with regard to thermal equilibrium, power
availability, and cleanliness. The lunar surface offers, however, a large platform, a large mass that can
be used for shielding, and surface materials that can be used for construction, whether refined or not.
Investigation A: Viewing the Universe and the Seeds of Galaxy Structure in the "Dark Ages"
In this investigation, a large, low frequency interferometer dipole array is used to image the 21cm HI
line at 15<z<150 in absorption against the cosmic microwave background. While this work is being
attempted from the surface of the Earth, the far side of the Moon offers enormous advantages. The Earth
produces a tremendous amount of radio noise at these wavelengths, both natural, though the geocorona,
as well as radio transmissions from communications hardware. On the far side of the Moon, this
radiation is largely blocked, and RF noise levels are vastly (at least several orders of magnitude) lower
than anywhere else in cis-lunar space in what has been termed the QZM (quiet zone of the Moon).
Performance of such an array would be best during lunar night, when the Sun is below the horizon.
Several Ares V launch vehicles and cargo landers needed. This work would be very difficult to do in
free space, as the lunar surface provides a ground plane that ensures that the telescope only sees in one
direction. In order to provide the requisite spatial resolution and sensitivity, the telescope concept
consists of a total of several thousand antenna elements spaced out in a 3km area.
Infrastructure Prerequisites:
• Capability to install equipment on the lunar farside, or highly capable correlator hardware that
can do signal combining from the antenna elements on-site.
• High speed communication links to Earth from the farside.
• ??kW of continuous power. Power is needed for communications, and tele-operations, and
especially for preprocessing of high bandwidth interferometric data.
• Assessment of infrastructure sharing opportunities.
Site Qualification Prerequisites:
• Improved assessment of RF noise as a function of time and farside location; RF noise levels
last determined in the 1960s, with primitive equipment, over short time periods.
• Characterization of lunar ionosphere, and possible opacity.
• Assessment of QZM protection and management strategies; as lunar surface is developed,
how much radio noise will come with that development?
Development Issues and Trades:
• In-situ fringe preprocessing? Computation speed versus communication speed tradeoff?
• Efficacy of RF noise filtering on the surface of the Earth?
• Architecture of array: individual interconnected dipoles on separate structures, or electrode
imprinted unrollable mylar sheet? Deployment strategies?
• Lunar night operation and survival.
• Telerobotic versus human deployment?
• To what extent does required far-side infrastructure introduce the kind of RF noise that the
observatory is sited to avoid? What part does far-side development play in the lunar
exploration effort?
Possible Precursors:
• A few nearside dipoles. Global signature of Dark Ages, lunar ionosphere.
• Small nearside interferometer for Heliophysics and observations of selected radio galaxies.
Time Phasing:
Early à Late: Precursors needed to establish optimal design. Deployment will require
mobility and interconnection. If human oversight required, may require a habitat
site.
Science Priority: High. The science from this observatory would be of the highest
caliber.
Rationale: Questions this observatory would answer are among the most important
astronomical questions. Though extremely ambitious, such an observatory appears to
have unique and powerful capabilities.
Investigation B: Probing the Universe at the Highest Energies
In this investigation a high energy electromagnetic and particle detector is proposed that would (1)
search for cosmological backgrounds in the diffuse extragalactic gamma-ray radiation, (2) provide
dramatically improved sensitivity for GeV emission from short transients such as gamma-ray bursts over
that now available, (3) give sensitivity to the relatively weak signals expected from dark matter
annihilation in the galactic substructure and from extragalactic sources. In addition, this hadronic
calorimeter would provide unprecedented sensitivity to the composition of cosmic rays at and beyond
the knee. The observatory would be constructed out of “bricks” of lunar regolith that would act as an
absorbing medium. The bricks would be fabricated in-situ, with regolith-miving equipment required for
other outpost activities. High precision temperature sensors layered between these bricks would form a
tracker-calorimeter. The support structure and 4500 kg of active scintillator would be transported from
the Earth to the Moon. In addition the detector would use 145,000 kg of passive material of excavated
lunar regolith. The architecture for the telescope has strong heritage from GLAST/FERMI.
• Capability to excavate regolith, compress into bricks, and hoist those bricks into a 5 x 5 x 5m
cube.
• Capability to deliver and deploy support structure.
• Modest power and communications infrastructure.
Site qualification Prerequisites:
• None.
• Optimal structure to support regolith bricks.
• Optimal strategy for regolith excavation and compression.
• GLAST/FERMI has largely proved the general architecture.
Time Phasing:
Middle. Deployment requires substantial regolith-moving, and on-site construction
effort.
Science Priority: Medium.
Rationale: Moderate importance. While scientifically important, the observatory may be
better put in LEO, as GLAST/FERMI is sited, by a single Ares V. This option needs
further study.
Investigation C: Key Tests of the Strong Equivalence Principle in Gravitational Field Theory
Laser ranging between the Earth and Moon provides a direct test of Einstein’s theory of general
relativity by accurately measuring the shape of the Moon’s orbit. Multiple lightweight retroreflectors or
transponders located on the lunar surface will increase the existing number of lunar surface targets
available to ground-based laser systems, enhancing the long-term evaluation of this foundational
physical theory. At present, with Apollo retroreflectors, ranging can be done to within about a
centimeter. With better equipment, with optimal spacing, ranging accuracy can improve by two orders
of magnitude. For nearly four decades, lunar laser ranging (LLR) has been used to test the strong
equivalence principle, which underpins the general theory of relativity. The strong equivalence principle
in essence states that the results of all local experiments in a frame of reference in free fall are
independent of the motion, and the results are the same for all such frames at all places and at all times.
The strong equivalence principle is explicitly required by general relativity but can be violated in other
metric theories of gravity, hence measuring SEP predictions with ever-increasing accuracy is crucial to
our fundamental understanding of gravity and the search for new physics.
• Ideally 5-10 sites over near face of Moon, include with lunar geophysical network.
• Though not evidently a problem for Apollo retroreflectors, more information about natural
dust levitation and deposition could inform reflector design.
• Passive retroreflector versus active transponder.
• If active transponder, then lunar night survival strategy, LSSO next gen ranging system.
• Packages will require at least approximately pointed deployment.
• Apollo era retroreflectors are sufficient (<100 kg each).
Time Phasing:
Early. Deployment is simple (proven with Apollo), and just requires visits to well
separated sites. Robotic deployment a clear possibility.
Science Priority: High. Essential to include this with future lunar geophysical network.
Rationale: High importance. Best way to answer a fundamental question of relativistic
physics.
Investigation D: Large Telescope at Earth-Sun L2

Though such a telescope is not lunar surface based, it would rely strongly on Constellation architecture,
and in that respect may bear on lunar surface efforts. Ares V can launch 65 mt to Earth-Sun L2, which is
understood to be a prime site for astrophysical work, because of the extraordinary thermal stability,
opportunity for high performance passive cooling, continual solar illumination, and continual line-of-
sight for Earth comm. A related opportunity would be for servicing of such a telescope, to keep
functionality and keep the telescope instrumentation at the cutting edge (e.g. as for HST servicing). Such
astronaut servicing could be done conveniently by a suitably equipped Orion spacecraft at an Earth-
Moon L1 or L2 jobsite, moving the observatory there and back on a low Δv path. Human operations at
these Earth-Moon Lagrange points could bear on lunar provisioning and depoting, perhaps with ISRU
products, and provide a natural escape route in case of solar storms.
• None for launch – Ares V availability is assumed.
• For human servicing, zero-g EVA suits will need development.
• For servicing, stowage strategies for replacement instruments and subsystems in Orion.
• Earth-Sun L2 is well characterized.
• Navigation systems and constellation management at jobsite.
• None required.
Time Phasing:
Early. This is not directly related to the Moon, but requires a heavy-lift launch
capability, such as provided by Ares V.
Science Priority: High. Unique capability for high scientific importance, with few
additional prerequisites.
Rationale: High scientific importance. In the absence of revolutionary technologies that
drastically reduce kg/m2 of mirror substrates, and robotic assembly of large telescopes at
a Lagrange point, heavy lift is essential to our hopes for larger, more capable telescopes.
Investigation E: Ultra high-resolution optical imaging of astronomical objects

The highest spatial resolution will be achieved using a distributed array of apertures, optically coupled in
an interferometer. A 3km baseline interferometer working at optical wavelengths would allow 1AU
resolution for targets across our galaxy. This would have huge astronomical value, with moderate sized
elements (e.g. 1m). For optical wavelengths, such coupling is just now being achieved on the surface of
the Earth with much smaller baselines, but seismic activity, atmospheric perturbations, and thermal
variation make the effort extremely difficult. A space interferometer can mitigate these concerns. It has
been proposed that a lunar surface array of telescopes will make such optical coupling possible, using
the Moon as an optical bench that keeps the apertures precisely phased. Atmospheric perturbations and
most natural seismic activity are thus avoided. But for a finite number of apertures at a given lunar site,
filling the UV plane for highest quality imaging would require changing the array pattern, and
compensation for the track of the target source across the sky. These major operational functions
strongly argue for a free-space array which can be reoriented and redistributed freely. Technologies for
precision constellation management are becoming understood (e.g. DARWIN), and sites with low
external torques (e.g. ES L2) are available.
• Major deployment hardware. Cranes, mobility vehicles.
• Major maintenance needs. Many precision moving parts.
• Power, communications, ideally during lunar night
• For short wavelength work, natural and induced dust levitation is an important concern.
Scattered light a serious issue for daytime operation.
• Dust contamination is also a potential issue for precision fringe and target tracking
mechanisms.
• Mitigation of day/night and even sun angle thermal instabilities.
• Night survival. Low temperature operation of bearings.
• Induced seismic activity from launchers and vehicular traffic.
• Two-element interferometer with modest baseline could provide proof-of-concept.
Time Phasing:
Late. Deployment is time consuming, and the array will require regular redeployment
for optimal use.
Science Priority: Low. Free space implementation involves some constellation
management and formation flying challenges, but these are not insurmountable. Once
achieved, telescope operation would be far more flexible than for lunar surface operation.
Rationale: High scientific importance. High spatial resolution addresses many important
astronomical questions.
Investigation F: Detect gravitational waves

It has been suggested that a precision lateral interferometer be used to measure baselines that could
reveal passage of gravitational waves. The 3-element interferometer would be modeled on the terrestrial
LIGO facilities, though would have the advantage of not needing an evacuated tube for the beam, and
would benefit greatly from the low seismic activity on the Moon. With a several kilometer baseline,
0.256-3Hz gravitation waves would be sampled. This would detect merging neutron stars throughout the
nearby universe, and the gravitational wave signature of local group supernovae. The concept is in
interesting one, but especially with the increased vibration isolation now being retrofitted on LIGO,
accessible frequencies and sensitivity are not unlike LIGO.
• Power, communications, ideally during lunar night
• Handling and transport equipment for deployment of ~few hundred kg stations
• Dust contamination is also a potential issue for precision fringe and target tracking
mechanisms.
• Two-element interferometer with modest baseline could provide proof-of-concept.
Time Phasing:
Middle. Deployment is time consuming, but once set up, ideally can be left alone.
Science Priority: Low. Recent developments on LIGO should make this Earth-bound
facility equally capable.
Rationale: High scientific importance.
Investigation G: Large Lunar Optical Telescope
Lunar-based counterpart of Investigation E. Historically, putting a large telescope on the lunar surface
was seen to be advantageous because of the relatively stable surface, and simplification of pointing and
tracking such stable surface provided. If associated with an outpost, there would be clear routes for
frequent human maintenance and servicing. In fact, pointing and tracking of free-space telescopes is
now well understood, and can be done more precisely than for ground based telescopes. The lunar
surface involves very significant contamination risks from dust, and lunar gravity, though small, causes
deformations in telescopes as they track across the sky. Parts for the telescope require special effort to
land and deploy safely. Thermal control is a serious issue, with wide fluctuations in temperature over the
lunar cycle. One architecture, that of a liquid mirror, is actually enabled by the lunar gravity, but such a
telescope points only at the zenith and is difficult to clean.
Infrastructure Prerequisites
• Deployment hardware – cranes, mobility and assembly vehicles
• Power, comm, ideally during lunar night
• Dust contamination is an extremely serious issue for such a telescope.
• Nothing observatory-specific; smaller telescope is of very limited scientific use.
Time Phasing:
Late. Major construction project.
Science Priority: Low. Free space opportunities have much more value.
Rationale: High scientific importance. See above.
Investigation H: Search of exotic stable states of matter.

It has been proposed to use seismic stations space around the Moon to do seismic tomography in order
to identify “linear” seismic events that could be consistent with collisions with the Moon of “nuggets” of
strange quark matter. The sensitivity and bandwidth of these stations are generally consistent with
geophysical needs. Such tomography is most effective when there are a rich collection of stations. At
least half a dozen stations, spread all over the lunar surface, are needed for this. This work uses the
Moon as a detector, and is essentially impossible on the Earth because of seismic noise. Surface events
like meteorite impacts should be easily distinguishable from a quark nugget event that would leave an
accoustical trail through the Moon.
• Ideally 5-10 sites over near face of Moon, include with lunar geophysical network
• None
• Lunar night survival strategy, power
• First lunar return geophysical seismic station would verify architecture
Time Phasing:
Early. Deployment is simple (proven with Apollo), and just requires visits to well
separated sites. Robotic deployment a clear possibility.
Science Priority: Low. The evidence for such events from Apollo seismometers is mixed,
at best, and such particles have not yet been shown to exist. Such an array would best
follow up analysis from the lunar geophysical network. In many respects, such a network
will already be capable of making these tests, such that a separate experiment is not
currently justified.
Rationale: Quark nuggets have never been convincingly identified in accelerators on
Earth, so the experiment should not be mounted just to look for them.
Objective C-2: Heliophysical Investigations using the Moon.
Preamble: The Moon is immersed in a plasma environment — the local cosmos — that is
“magnetized.” It is threaded with magnetic fields that are often “frozen” into the plasma, a state of high
electrical conductivity that effectively couples the motions of the plasma and the magnetic field. This
inherently strong coupling means that the structure and evolution of magnetic fields (of the Sun, of the
Earth, and even of the Moon itself) play an essential role in organizing and regulating the local
environment of the Moon — the environment to be experienced by our explorers. By working to
understand, and so predict, the variations that occur from day to day, and from region to region, the
productivity and overall success of future lunar robotic and manned missions can be significantly
enhanced.
The most interesting challenge of the lunar plasma-field environment is that it is alternately dominated
by the extended, but variable, outer atmosphere (the “magnetosphere”) of the Earth and by the extended,
but highly variable, atmosphere of the Sun (the “heliosphere”). The Moon spends nearly 25% of its
orbital period immersed within the Earth’s magnetosphere, which offers some degree of shielding from
heliospheric effects; the remaining time is spent exposed to the full effects of the Sun’s radiation and
interplanetary fields. Thus, the lunar plasma environment offers unique opportunities to study a variety
of fundamental plasma physics processes — processes that have application to many other objects
throughout the universe.
In our quest to understand our space environment, our first challenge is to understand the basic physics
behind the plasma processes of magnetic reconnection, the mass loading of solar and stellar winds, and
plasma-dust interactions. These processes play fundamental roles in the explosive processes at the Sun,
and in planetary accretion. Increasingly, as we probe more deeply into the underlying plasma-field
interactions, heliophysicists are guided by comparisons of plasma processes in the Earth’s
magnetosphere, in the solar corona, in the magnetospheres of other bodies in the solar system (the Moon
and planets), and in distant astrophysical environments. This comparative approach creates a rich variety
of unique opportunities for lunar-based heliophysics science.
With its lack of an absorbing atmosphere, the Moon provides a natural observation platform from which
to observe the sky, the Sun, Geospace, and the Earth. Furthermore, the Moon is locked into synchronous
rotation with respect to the Earth and therefore always displays the same side to Earth. The Moon has
many uses as a platform that would greatly benefit heliophysics.
Traceability to the Heliophysics Decadal Survey: The heliophysics science associated with the return to
the Moon is directly relevant to the 2003 Decadal Survey Challenge to understand the basic physical
principles manifest in processes observed in solar and space plasmas, and to the 2009 Heliophysics
Roadmap Research Focus Area: understand and characterize the space weather effects on and within
planetary environments to minimize risk in exploration activities.
Input from the scientific community regarding recommendations for science investigations associated
with the return to the Moon has been distilled into a series of recommended scientific objectives, each
with specific science goals and benefits, and implementation considerations. Those objectives are
articulated in a report called Heliophysics Science and the Moon (NP-2007-07-80-MSFC, Pub 8-40716):
A. Near-Lunar Electromagnetic and Plasma Environment

B. The Moon’s Remanent Crustal Magnetic Fields
C. Magnetotail Dynamics at Lunar Orbit
D. Dust-Plasma Interaction on the Surface & Exosphere of the Moon
E. Imaging the Heliospheric Boundary
F. Low-Frequency Solar and Exoplanet Radio Astronomy
G. Imaging Geospace from the Moon
H. Analyze the composition of the Solar Wind
I. High-Energy Optical Solar Observatory
J. Sun’s Role in Climate Change
K. Understand and Predict Space Weather Impact on Robotic and Human Productivity
L. Characterize Radiation Bombardment on the Lunar Surface
The Heliophysics Science and the Moon report team and the NAC Heliophysics Subcommittee
subsequently assessed the science objectives of the Moon report by categorizing them into one of four
categories:
(1) Compelling science and should be done at the Moon;
(2) Compelling science but better done elsewhere;
(3) Interesting science and should be done at the Moon; and
(4) Interesting science better done elsewhere.
The science objectives that are evaluated to be compelling science and should be done at the Moon fell
into three distinct areas of research:
(1) Investigate plasmas near or on the lunar surface including interaction of plasma and dust
grains,
(2) Observe radio emissions of solar flares and coronal mass ejections, and
(3) Characterize the radiation bombardment on the lunar surface.
Achieving them will provide the foundational understanding of the “perilous ocean” which spacefaring
spacecraft and crews must traverse in order to reach their destinations within the solar system.
These three areas of research are represented by the following 4 investigations that were categorized as
being compelling science to be done at the Moon by >75% of the respondents:
• Investigation A. Near-Lunar Electromagnetic and Plasma Environment
• Investigation L. Characterize Radiation Bombardment on the Lunar Surface
• Investigation D. Dust-Plasma Interaction on the Surface & Exosphere of the Moon
• Investigation F. Low-Frequency Solar and Exoplanet Radio Astronomy
Other investigations that were categorized as compelling, whether they are conducted at the Moon or
elsewhere, by >50% of the respondents are:
• Investigation B. The Moon’s Remanent Crustal Magnetic Fields
• Investigation J. Sun’s Role in Climate Change
• Investigation G. Imaging Geospace from the Moon
• Investigation E. Imaging the Heliospheric Boundary
• Investigation I. High-Energy Optical Solar Observatory
• Investigation H. Analyze the composition of the Solar Wind
Note that objectives included in the Heliophysics Science and the Moon report associated with
investigating historical record of the Sun, solar wind and the local interstellar medium using the lunar
regolith were not considered in the Heliophysical science evaluation since these investigations are being
articulated elsewhere in this roadmap.
Investigation A: Near-Lunar Electromagnetic and Plasma Environment

Interaction with the ambient plasma and incident solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation causes the lunar
surface to become electrically charged (Manka, 1973; Stubbs et al., 2007a). This creates different and
complex environments on the sunlit and shadowed side of the Moon. On the dayside, photoelectric
processes driven by solar UV radiation typically dominate, so that the surface becomes positively
charged (Singer and Walker, 1962). On the nightside, interactions with ambient plasma electrons usually
dominate, leading to the surface acquiring a negative charge (Halekas et al., 2002). This interaction is
complicated by variations in solar UV intensity, the characteristics of the ambient plasma, surface
composition and topology, magnetic anomalies and the lunar wake, and by the formation of dusty
plasmas. In general, the surface electric potential is confined to a near-surface sheath region. The
vertical extent of this region, which is controlled largely by the ambient plasma density and temperature,
in turn determines the surface electric field strength (Nitter et al., 1998).
Like any object immersed in a plasma, the surface of the Moon charges to an electric potential such that
the total incident current is zero (Whipple, 1981). The charging currents come from four main sources:
(1) photoemission of electrons,
(2) plasma electrons,
(3) plasma ions, and
(4) secondary electrons (arising from surface ionization by plasma electrons).
Due to photoionization by solar UV radiation, the lunar dayside typically charges to a few volts positive
with a “photoelectron sheath” extending to ~1 m in altitude (Freeman and Ibrahim, 1975). On the
nightside, however, interaction with the charged particles in the solar wind leads to surface charging to
several hundred volts negative, with a “Debye sheath” extending up to ~1 km in altitude (Halekas et al.,
2003). This rudimentary picture comes from application of basic plasma theory to Apollo era and Lunar
Prospector observations.
Surface charging is a fundamental universal process affecting all airless regolith-covered bodies, and it
is believed to drive the transport of micron-scale dust, a recognized potential hazard for operations on
the lunar surface (Stubbs et al., 2007b). In addition, differential charging of objects on the surface could
lead to unanticipated electrical discharges. However, here remain significant uncertainties in lunar
surface charging processes, and relatively little is known about either spatial or temporal variations in
the charge density, electric potential, or field strength. Lunar surface charging in the solar wind is
complicated by variations in the solar spectrum, in the ambient plasma environment, in surface
composition and topography, by magnetic anomalies, and by the formation of a lunar wake and dusty
plasmas. In addition to these effects, when the Moon passes nightside of the Earth, it traverses the tail
lobes and plasma sheet of the Earth’s magnetosphere. The plasma sheet is much more tenuous and
significantly hotter than the solar wind, and observations from Lunar Prospector indicate that nightside
potentials can reach a few thousands of volts (negative), both during space weather events and during
plasma sheet passages (Halekas et al., 2007). Surface charging processes may be a major driver of the
transport of charged dust (e.g., Stubbs et al., 2007b), as observed during the Apollo era (also see section
1.5). The most probable mechanism for dust transport involves the like-charged surface and small (<10
micron) dust grains acting to repel each other. Hazards could arise both due to the differential charging
of surface equipment, resulting in unanticipated electrical discharges, and to the transport of charged
dust with its adhesive and abrasive properties. Since the lunar surface is an insulator, finding a common
ground for electrical systems is much more difficult than on Earth.
Observations needed to characterize the near lunar plasma environment can be carried out both from
orbit (providing a global-scale view) or from the surface (providing a complementary local view). To
optimize the characterization of the lunar plasma environment, it is recommended that measurements
from orbit and the surface be coordinated, so that the connection between processes on different scales is
understood. Not every point on the lunar surface experiences the same conditions; for example, locations
near the poles will be quite different from those nearer the equator. Hence, it is advantageous to deploy
surface-based instrumentation over a wide range of lunar sites.
Time Phasing:
Early: Understanding the electromagnetic/plasma environment near the lunar surface
will therefore be of benefit both to manned and robotic surface exploration
activities and to scientific investigations conducted on the lunar surface.
Science Priority: High.
Rationale: The characterization of the lunar electromagnetic/plasma environment, and
the resulting development of dust mitigation technology, permits a sustainable
exploration program requiring surface operations, particularly astronaut extra-vehicular
activities (EVAs). This study impacts other lunar science activities (e.g., Earth
observation, astronomy, and astrophysics), environmental characterization, and
operational environmental monitoring. It also paves the way for future missions, for In
Situ Resource Utilization (ISRU) activities, and ultimately for the commercialization of
the Moon.
Investigation B: The Moon’s Remanent Crustal Magnetic Fields
Preamble: The discovery of lunar magnetism was a major scientific surprise of the Apollo program.
Solving the enigmas of this remanent field will provide fundamental insights into the thermal history of
the lunar core/dynamo and crust, and into the processes of magnetization and demagnetization in large
basin-forming impacts. This will require systematic high-resolution mapping of crustal magnetic fields
from orbit, surface magnetometer surveys of select regions, and the return of oriented samples.
The Moon does not have an active core dynamo. However, like Mars, it has numerous localized
remanent crustal magnetic regions distributed over its surface, with a spatial scale of a few kilometers
well below the solar wind thermal ion gyro-diameter, to a few hundred kilometers, large enough to
produce shocks for some solar wind conditions (Colburn et al.,1971; Russell and Lichtenstein, 1975; Lin
et al., 1998; Halekas et al., 2006). The existence of these regions points to the presence of strong
magnetizing fields in the past (Hood et al., 2001; Halekas et al., 2001).
Measurements of remanent magnetism on the Earth provided crucial evidence for sea floor spreading
and plate tectonics that led to a greatly increased understanding of the evolution of the Earth’s interior
and surface. New measurements of lunar and Martian magnetism hold similar promise. Low-resolution
orbital mapping by the Apollo 15 and 16 subsatellites and by Lunar Prospector using magnetometers
and electron reflectometers shows strong surface magnetic fields in regions antipodal to the large impact
basins formed ~3.65–3.85 billion years ago and in some of the ejecta from those impacts. At the same
time, the basins themselves are at best weakly magnetized, suggesting that the antipodal magnetism
results from shock remanent magnetization (SRM), possibly together with amplification of ambient
magnetic fields by plasma produced in the impact process (Lin et al., 1988; Hood et al., 1991, 2001).
However, other evidence indicates a quite different source of the lunar magnetic field. Measurements of
Apollo lunar samples suggest thermal remanent magnetization acquired in a strong (of order ~1 Gauss)
core dynamo magnetic field during the same era (Fuller, 1974).
Resolving these puzzles and understanding the origins of lunar magnetism would provide the basis for
unraveling the thermal history of the lunar core/dynamo and crust, as well as the physics of basin-
forming impacts. Both these effects are likely to be important for Mars as well.
A focused three-part program, including targeted near surface, high-resolution orbital measurements,
surface magnetometer traverses, and laboratory analysis of oriented samples, would allow a
determination of the properties of surface crustal remanent magnetization. Knowing the mode of
remanent field acquisition (shock, thermal, etc.), and its strength, age, direction, coherence, and spatial
scale would allow us to understand the physics of crustal magnetization and the magnetic history of the
Moon. Initially (Early), a small lunar-orbiting spacecraft with magnetometers and electron
reflectometers would provide high spatial resolution mapping of the intensity and orientation of the
crustal field by targeting low periselenes (less than ~15 km) over the key South Pole Aitken region and
encompassing the strongly magnetized regions antipodal to the Crisium, Imbrium, and Serenitatis
basins. Preferably the spacecraft would also measure the nearby demagnetized Orientale basin and two
basins with central magnetic anomalies: Moscoviense and Mendel-Rydberg. These measurements would
be compared with surface geology in order to constrain the age distribution of crustal magnetism and to
quantify its relationship with impact basins, ejecta, and antipodal regions. Later (Middle), robotic rovers
or humans would conduct magnetometer traverses over selected surface locations. Finally, oriented
samples from cores or deep craters would be returned from key antipodal regions, mare basalts,
magnetized ejecta, and large impact basins for analysis.
Time Phasing:
Early à Middle: Lunar magnetism provides a powerful tool for probing the thermal
evolution of the Moon’s crust, interior, and core, as well as illuminating the
physics of large basin-forming impacts. Insights into the lunar field will
certainly help us understand Mars, which exhibits similar but much stronger
crustal magnetism. The same processes will likely apply to other terrestrial
bodies and to impact processes in general. Determining the distribution and
properties of strong magnetic anomalies will clarify the potential magnetic
shielding benefits for lunar bases.
Rationale: Many strong crustal magnetic anomalies are correlated with surface albedo
markings, or “swirls.” This strongly suggests that these larger, more intense field regions
act as mini-magnetospheres that effectively shield the surface from solar wind ions, and
thus may be relevant for lunar base site selection. Furthermore, these varied regions
provide fixed plasma laboratories that will allow us to explore interesting and
fundamentally different parameter regimes.
Investigation C: Magnetotail Dynamics at Lunar Orbit
Preamble: The dynamical behavior of the Earth’s distant magnetotail, where about half of the total
energy coupled into the magnetosphere from the solar wind is stored, is completely different from the
near-Earth [<30 Earth radii (Re)] tail and is presently not understood. Magnetic reconnection occurs
nearly continuously in the distant magnetotail and the reconnection process there is fundamentally
different from what occurs elsewhere. Observations around the Moon as it traverses the Earth’s distant
magnetotail have unique advantages for understanding the physics of this essentially unexplored and
poorly understood region.
The energy coupled from the solar wind into the Earth’s magnetosphere goes primarily into the
formation of a long (>200 Re) magnetotail. In the near-Earth Magnetotail (<30 Re), the stored energy is
released in transient substorms, but the distant tail undergoes near-continuous magnetic reconnection.
Thus, despite the sparse spacecraft coverage, the Earth’s magnetotail provides some of the best
measurements possible of the reconnection process (Øieroset et al., 2001, 2002). Magnetic reconnection
in the distant magnetotail is physically different (Egedal et al., 2005) from that which occurs in other
environments, and it is associated with the acceleration of electrons to energies of hundreds of
kiloelectron volts (similar to what is observed for solar flares). Observations in the lunar environment
thus provide a probe for fundamental plasma physics and magnetospheric physics. In addition, lunar
shadowing of ambient electrons provides a unique and powerful probe of the topology and convection
velocity of magnetic fields (McCoy et al., 1975; Lin et al., 1977). The Moon spends ~5 days each month
crossing the distant magnetotail, enabling the extensive observations needed to understand the physics.
Observations at lunar orbit should also be ideal for studying the dynamics of plasmoids that travel down
the Earth’s magnetotail after a substorm occurs closer to the Earth.
Time Phasing:
Early à Middle: Initial (Early) studies would involve detailed plasma, energetic
particle, and electric and magnetic field measurements by one or more lunar
polar orbiting spacecraft to use lunar shadowing of electrons to uniquely
determine magnetic topology and field line velocities. Later (Middle) studies
involve arrays of detectors or multiple orbiters at different spatial locations to
look at small-scale structures in the plasma. In the long term, the release of
barium clouds may be used to trace the plasma flows. This investigation also
complements Investigations A, B, and D as well as make observations of the
lunar exosphere.
Rationale: The study of magnetic reconnection in the lunar environment is an exciting
new research area for fundamental plasma physics and magnetospheric physics. Lunar
shadowing of ambient electrons also provides a unique and powerful probe of the
topology and convection velocity of magnetic fields. Finally, observations at lunar orbit
are ideal for studying the dynamics of plasmoids that travel down the Earth’s magnetotail
after a substorm occurs closer to the Earth.
Investigation D: Dust-Plasma Interaction on the Surface & Exosphere of the Moon
Preamble: The ambient plasma environment and solar UV at the Moon cause the regolith on the lunar
surface to become electrically charged (Manka, 1973; Stubbs et al., 2007a). This can result in the
electrostatic transport of charged dust (<10 µm) in the lunar exosphere, which has been observed to
reach altitudes >100 km (McCoy and Criswell, 1974; McCoy, 1976; Zook and McCoy, 1991) and
speeds of up to 1 km/s (Berg et al., 1976). However, the dominant mechanisms that drive this behavior
are unknown.
From the Apollo era it is known that dust will have an immediate impact on surface exploration
activities and must be addressed to ensure mission success (Bean et al., 1970; Goodwin, 2002). During
Apollo, electrostatic processes are thought to have increased the problems with dust, such as adhesion to
suits and equipment (Stubbs et al., 2007b). It was also discovered that sunlight was scattered at the lunar
terminator, giving rise to “horizon glow” and “streamers” above the surface (e.g., McCoy and Criswell,
1974). This scattering is most likely caused by electrically charged dust grains originating from the
surface (Zook and McCoy, 1991; Rennilson and Criswell, 1974). The lunar surface is electrically
charged by the local plasma environment and the photoemission of electrons by solar UV. Under
certain conditions, the like-charged surface and dust grains act to repel each other, thus transporting the
dust grains away from the surface. The limited observation of this phenomenon, together with laboratory
and theoretical work, suggest that there are two modes of charged dust transport: “levitation”
(Sickafoose et al., 2002) and “lofting” (Stubbs et al., 2006), both of which are driven by the surface
electric field. Micron-scale dust is levitated to ~10 cm, while ~0.1-µm dust is lofted to altitudes >100
km. The Apollo 17 Lunar Ejecta and Meteorites (LEAM) surface experiment directly detected the
transport of charged lunar dust traveling at up to 1 km/s (Berg et al., 1976). The dust impacts were
observed to peak around the terminator regions, thus suggesting a relationship with horizon glow.
All the existing observations of the transport of charged dust were acquired by instruments designed to
measure something else (e.g., LEAM was set up to detect hypervelocity impacts). Therefore, it is
necessary to make targeted measurements of dust-plasma-surface interactions on the Moon in order to
fully understand this alien environment. They can be achieved from orbit to give a global-scale view, or
from the surface for a local perspective. To optimize the characterization of this environment, it is
recommended that measurements from orbit and the surface be coordinated, so the connection between
processes at these scales can be understood. Since not every point on the lunar surface experiences the
same conditions (e.g., locations near the poles will be quite different from those nearer the equator),
observation from several landers would be advantageous.
Time Phasing:
Early: Characterizing the surface electric field and the electrostatically transported
dust’s grain size, charge, and spatial distribution, as well as the perturbation of
man-made structures to these measurements, is required to provide an
understanding of the lunar dust-plasma environment and its impact
Rationale: This work has significant implications for the design and implementation of
experiments in other fields, such as astronomy and astrophysics, lunar geology, lunar
environmental characterization, and operational environmental monitoring. It will also
further our understanding of the environments of other airless bodies, such as Mercury
and the asteroids (Colwell et al., 2005). The characterization of this environment, and the
resulting development of dust mitigation technology, will permit a sustainable
exploration program requiring surface operations, particularly astronaut EVAs. This will
pave the way for future missions, ISRU activities, and the ultimate commercialization of
the Moon. Horizon glow and other unexplained phenomena caused by the electrostatic
transport of lunar dust discovered during the Apollo era hold a great fascination for the
general public (Bell, 2006); therefore, this work will also be of great benefit to NASA’s
Education and Public Outreach program.
Investigation E: Imaging the Heliospheric Boundary
Preamble: The heliospheric boundaries can be imaged in extreme ultraviolet (EUV) and energetic
neutral atoms (ENAs) from either the lunar surface or from a satellite in lunar orbit. Due to the sheer
size of our heliosphere and the difficulty in observing its boundaries, very little is known about how it
interacts with the local interstellar medium. Basic knowledge about the heliospheric boundaries is
required to compare our heliosphere with astrospheres of other stellar systems. Such comparisons
provide critical information on the current evolutionary stage of stellar winds and stellar mass loss rates,
give insight into the stars’ local interstellar environments, and possibly enable the assessment of the
habitability of other solar systems.
The heliosphere is the three-dimensional magnetic cavity that the magnetized solar wind forms when it
expands out into the denser interstellar plasma. At the heliosphere’s inner interface, the solar wind
plasma slows down abruptly at the termination shock, through which Voyager-1 passed recently at ~94
AU distance from the Sun (Decker et al., 2005). Beyond this region, the solar wind heats up and
becomes relatively dense and turbulent in a region called the inner heliosheath (the thickness is most
likely 10–100 AU). The final boundary, called the heliopause, separates the outermost extension of the
solar wind from the region of space that is completely dominated by the interstellar plasma.
The sheer size of the heliosphere makes remote sensing the only viable strategy for globally imaging
these enormous structures that shelter our solar system from the local interstellar medium. To date, there
are two promising techniques for imaging the heliospheric boundary: through the detection of Energetic
Neutral Atoms (ENAs) and in the Extreme Ultraviolet (EUV):
1) Hydrogen ENAs are produced in the heliosheath through charge-exchange between the shocked
solar wind protons and the cold, neutral interstellar hydrogen gas. The shocked protons in this
region are mostly isotropic, and some fraction of the resulting ENAs will propagate radially
inward, where they can be detected by space-based platforms. The most promising energy range
for studying the interactions in the heliosheath is from approximately 0.1 to 6 keV. Although the
anticipated ENA intensity from the heliosheath is low, ENA cameras on the Interstellar
Boundary Explorer (IBEX) mission have already been designed to meet the requirements of
imaging these ENAs with a 6-month exposure time per all-sky image. IBEX is the first dedicated
mission that will utilize ENA imaging to remotely probe the heliosheath structure and, thereby,
infer fundamental properties of the complex interstellar interaction.
2) He+ ions from the interstellar plasma emit light at 30.4-nm wavelength through excitation by the
corresponding solar line, and subsequent reemission. A large increase in number density is
anticipated at the heliopause because the interstellar plasma cannot flow across this boundary.
Interstellar He+ ions beyond the heliopause would be a sizeable and measurable source of this
glow, which provides a way to globally map the heliopause. It has been shown that appropriately
designed instruments would be capable of measuring the milli-Rayleigh range intensity of the
He+ line with the high spectral resolution required to subtract other EUV contributions. In
addition to the He+ emissions from the interstellar plasma, there are also observable sources
from the solar wind within ~20 AU from the Sun and the galactic emissions. These can be
distinguished from the desired He+ glow by their different spectral and spatial signatures
(Gruntman et al., 2005). Due to the enormous size of the heliospheric boundary, variations in its
intensity and morphology are anticipated, likely on the order of years.
Time Phasing:
Middle àLate: The deployment and installation of instrumentation on the lunar surface
would most likely depend on some level of human assistance. A significant
development would be required to achieve a dust-controlled environment.
Science Priority: Low.
Rationale: The structure of the heliospheric boundary, and its implications for other
astrospheres, is relevant to astrophysical studies of other stars and beneficial for future
missions to the heliospheric boundary. The variations of the heliospheric boundary are on
the time scales of years and therefore long-duration observations are also required. The
Moon and the anticipated lunar architecture infrastructure provide a platform that meets
the instrument requirements (in particular, mass), and, perhaps more important, meets the
requirement for long-duration observations. Observatories near the equator on the far side
of the Moon would require data downlink through a relay satellite, but would be
protected from unwanted terrestrial EUV and ENA emissions. A desired location for
lunar deep-sky observations is in one of the deep craters at one of the poles. This location
provides an acceptably quiet measurement environment while maintaining a continuous
downlink directly to Earth. Since dust scatters EUV and ENAs, the spatial distribution
and temporal evolution of suspended or lofted dust layers must be well characterized in
order to assess the feasibility of a lunar-based observatory. Satellite based
instrumentation in lunar orbit would benefit from avoidance of the dust-related problems
and from a much shorter development time, since designs could be based on existing
flight hardware. On the other hand, mass constraints would be greater, which would
affect geometrical factors and thus sensitivity. The Ares transportation architecture could
facilitate orbital observatories such that this investigation might be better conducted from
space rather than the lunar surface.
Investigation F: Low-Frequency Solar and Exoplanet Radio Astronomy
Preamble: Radio emissions from solar CMEs and solar flares below 10 MHz can be imaged from the
lunar surface in order to probe space from a few solar radii out to 1 AU. Observations of radio emissions
from the Sun allow improved space weather forecasting, improve our understanding of shock formation
and evolution in the solar wind, and enable detailed time-dependent mapping of the interplanetary
electron density and magnetic field topology.
Radio observations of solar activity and solar eruptions have played an important role in understanding
the Sun and the Sun-Earth connection. However, the terrestrial ionosphere blocks all radio frequencies
below 10–20 MHz. Frequencies below this ionospheric cutoff correspond to all radio emissions
originating above 1 to 2 solar radii from the Sun’s surface. Natural radio emissions occurring in this
enormous volume have been observed only by spacecraft flying outside of the ionosphere. However,
single spacecraft are NOT capable of imaging the radio sources. Just like an AM radio, they can detect
signals at many frequencies, they can determine their strength, and they can provide some indication of
where the radio signal is coming from, but low-frequency radio observations made from a single point
cannot be turned into images of the source. Consequently, an image of a solar radio burst at low
frequencies has never been made. Even though radio emissions from a CME-driven shock can be
tracked without imaging the radio source below the cutoff, there is no way to use the details of the radio
emission structure to improve understanding of space weather events or to improve prediction of their
potential encounter with Earth or Mars or any other solar system location.
Low-frequency observations from the Moon would open the door on imaging of the regions of particle
acceleration in the 2 to 10 solar radii altitudes of the extended solar corona. In this region, the primary
radio sources are fast (2–20 keV) electrons from solar flares and suprathermal electrons (~100 eV)
accelerated by shocks. The associated radio emissions are called “type III bursts” and “type II bursts”,
respectively. Both sources produce a plasma instability, which leads to amplification of electrostatic
waves, some of which are then converted to electromagnetic (radio) waves. The process takes place at
the characteristic frequency of the plasma called the electron plasma frequency; thus, the frequency of
the radio emission indicates directly the density of the source, and imaging the radio source would map
the extent of the acceleration region.
To make such images at low frequencies, we need to “synthesize” an aperture that is large compared to
the wavelengths in question. Large arrays are required to provide the desired angular resolution. An
angular resolution of 1 degree at 1 MHz requires a minimum diameter of 15 km. The design for the first
(test) array would be based on the designs of Earth-based arrays (working at higher frequencies)
currently in development. Subsequent deployment of each phase of the observatory would be carried out
after several years, permitting one to maximize lessons learned from implementing each phase.
In addition to images of CME and other solar-related radio emissions, nearly identical equipment could
also be used to greatly improve our understanding of the magnetized planets. Earth, Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus, and Neptune all have their main nonthermal emissions from their auroral zones below 10 MHz.
Also, imaging emissions from galactic and extragalactic objects in this low-frequency range would open
a new window in astrophysics, since there are essentially no existing observations of these objects. In
this frequency range, many steep spectra objects like pulsars should dominate the sky and background
emissions should exhibit important absorption modifications of the spectrum.
Time Phasing:
Middle à Late: An array ≥ 15 km diameter can most efficiently be implemented on the
Moon in a phased approach, such as:
• Initial test array of 16–32 elements, operated at a number of fixed, narrow-band
frequencies, with data downlink to Earth of ~8 Mbps;
• Increasing the size of the array by adding elements. This yields higher angular
resolution and better imaging capability. The increased data volume would require
more sophisticated onsite data processing to keep the Earth downlink requirement to a
reasonable data volume;
• Implementing a second array, to provide full-sky coverage. This array would likely be
located on the far side of the Moon, requiring a data downlink relay. An additional
advantage of the lunar far-side location is that all interfering terrestrial radio noise is
blocked by the Moon.
Rationale: The Moon offers a large, relatively stable surface on which to build a large,
capable, low-frequency radio array, for the purpose of imaging solar, heliospheric, and
other astrophysical sources at wavelengths that cannot be observed from the Earth’s
surface.
Investigation G: Imaging Geospace from the Moon
Preamble: Photon and particle imaging of geospace, the extended region around Earth that includes the
ionosphere and magnetosphere, can be accomplished from the lunar surface or from free-flier spacecraft.
Such imaging can address several compelling science questions related to large-scale coupling
mechanisms between various complex regions in Geospace from the ionosphere and extending into the
magnetosphere.
Global observations of ionospheric and magnetospheric phenomena provide measurements that are key
to understanding the hazards and impact of space weather in the regions of space where most space
agency, commercial, and military space operations occur. These measurements also provide constraints
to global ionospheric and magnetospheric models and provide keys to solving compelling science
questions associated with the coupling between the solar wind, magnetosphere, and ionosphere and
coupling of the high and mid-equatorial regions of the ionosphere (Meier, 1991; Su et al., 2001).
Imaging of geospace with optical Ultraviolet (UV), Extreme Ultraviolet (EUV), and Energetic Neutral
Atom (ENA) instruments from the lunar surface, from lunar orbiting, or from free-flier spacecraft can
address several compelling science questions. These include, but are not limited to: large-scale coupling
mechanisms between various regions in geospace from the ionosphere and extending into the
magnetosphere (using UV and EUV global images); mesoscale coupling between high, mid, and
equatorial regions of the ionosphere (UV images and spectral signatures); largescale magnetospheric
configuration during magnetically disturbed periods (UV, EUV images); development and evolution of
ionospheric disturbances that impact communications and GPS signals (UV images); and ring current
and plasma sheet dynamics (ENA images). Lunar surface operation enables new opportunities for
enhanced communication bandwidth, instrument “staring,” and simplified subsystem design owing to
the simplicity of fixed site operation when compared to a free-flier.
Far ultraviolet remote sensing from the Moon offers the means to observe the signatures of the energetic
and dynamical properties of the ionosphere/thermosphere (IT) system (Carruthers and Page, 1972). The
lunar vantage point allows nearly every point on the Earth to be examined at all local solar times during
each month, thus removing seasonal effects. Designing a sensor with a spatial resolution of 10–100
arcseconds is well within our current capabilities. Such a sensor would provide real-time IT
specification as well as addressing key, driving science questions about the response of the IT to
geomagnetic and solar disturbances. Other sensors could readily be envisioned such as those capable of
imaging the geocorona (Carruthers et al., 1976) and the plasmasphere. It may even prove practical to
image the polar outflow signatures of some ions.
There are many benefits to imaging geospace beyond advancing knowledge and understanding of this
complex coupled region, such as:
• The identification and specification of ionospheric structure and irregularities that impact GPS
signals, at all scales from 25 km to thousands of kilometers.
• The identification and tracking of changes in composition that affect the amount of drag seen by
satellites in low Earth orbit.
• The identification of the location of the equator-ward edge of the aurora for radio frequency
propagation (for both civil aviation and over-the-horizon radar applications).
Time Phasing:
Early: Could occur Early if deployed in lunar orbit by the Ares transportation system.
Science Priority: Low (from the lunar surface).
Rationale: There are two types of geospace imaging missions that will be enabled by
missions to the Moon: (1) those that can best be done from the surface and (2) free-flier
or lunar orbiting missions that are enabled by the journey to the Moon. While the lunar
surface provides a seismically quiet, largely jitter free platform for the observation of
geospace via remote sensing, such observations could be better achieved from lunar orbit,
with sensors being deployed by missions en-route to the Moon.
Investigation H: Analyze the composition of the Solar Wind
Preamble: The solar wind reflects the composition of the Sun and physical processes in the corona.
Analysis will help differentiate between several theories of solar system formation and physical
processes in the solar corona. Ions will be collected on various materials and analyzed on return to
Earth. For a good overview, see Wiens (2004) and Geiss (1972).
It is believed that the highly diverse objects of our solar system originated from a relatively
homogeneous solar nebula. Ultimately, the correct theories for the origins of these objects, including
planetary atmospheres, will be validated by their predictions of chemical and isotopic compositions
relative to the average nebular composition preserved in the surface layers of the Sun.
The basic feasibility of an experiment to address this issue has been demonstrated by the short (2–40
hour) exposures of foils during Apollo missions and by the Genesis mission in 2001–2004. Foils were
flown on Apollo 11, 12, 14, 15, and 16. The mass for Apollo 16 was 450 g for a foil that was exposed
for 45 hours. Net exposure times of several weeks to months were achieved during the Genesis mission.
However, much longer exposure times to the solar wind are needed to provide sufficient data to achieve
the science objectives.
The proposed investigation provides solar abundances at the level of precision required to discriminate
among competing theories. Moreover, the experiment will test fundamental assumptions, such as
whether or not solar and nebular compositions are identical. The experiment will return solar matter for
compositional analysis in terrestrial laboratories. Ultra-pure materials, such as those utilized on the
Genesis mission, will be exposed to the solar wind for varying periods, under varying solar wind
conditions, and at different parts of the solar activity cycle. Average and near-instantaneous solar system
isotopic and elemental compositions will be obtained. Samples will be analyzed when returned to Earth.
The associated laboratory analytical instruments will be patterned after those established for the Genesis
samples.
Time Phasing:
Middle: These instruments can be set out on the lunar surface, either robotically or by
humans. They should remain deployed for months to years, be recovered, and
then be returned to Earth. Recovery is probably best done by humans, rather
than robotically, in order to assess the condition of the instruments and their
environment. Experience has already shown, via Apollo and Genesis, that
robotic deployment is feasible and relatively simple.
Rationale: May only provide incremental science as the analysis of Genesis samples is
continuing.
Investigation I: High-Energy Optical Solar Observatory
Preamble: The Sun can be observed with optical and UV telescopes and coronagraphs, vector
magnetographs, and x-ray and gamma-ray imaging spectroscopes from the Moon.
Solar flares and CMEs are the most powerful explosions in the solar system. Over a period of minutes,
they accelerate copious quantities of electrons, protons, and heavier ions (Miller et al., 1997). Although
the physical processes by which this is achieved are not fully understood, the general scientific
consensus is that the energy originates in stressed coronal magnetic fields and is released through a
process known as magnetic reconnection. Understanding the processes through which magnetic energy
is converted into accelerated particles is fundamental to understanding particle acceleration in general,
and in particular, in planetary magnetospheres and in other astrophysical sources.
Larger flares are usually associated with CMEs that propagate outwards into the interplanetary medium,
producing shock-accelerated particles at their leading edges (Zank et al., 2000). Both particles
accelerated directly in the flare and those produced by the CME can have devastating effects on
spacecraft instrumentation and on astronauts who are not adequately shielded. The electric and magnetic
disturbances caused by the interaction of the CME with the Earth’s magnetosphere can create havoc on
terrestrial communications and power networks (Joselyn, 1992).
Therefore, the benefits of undertaking this investigation are hence twofold:

1) Enable fundamental advances in our scientific understanding of the processes that lead to energy
release and the acceleration of energetic charged particles by the Sun and hence in other, more
distant and more energetic, astrophysical objects; and
2) Allow us to further our understanding of the conditions that lead to hazardous eruptive solar
events, and hence to provide operationally useful warnings (or “all-clears”) to enhance the safety
and productivity of manned missions to the Moon and Mars (see Introduction to the Feed
Forward Theme).
A return to the Moon will permit the construction of telescopes and instrumentation designed to observe
the high-energy emissions produced by the Sun during flares and other eruptive events. Although many
of the necessary observations can be carried out using free-flying instrumentation, there are some
significant advantages to deploying such instrumentation on the lunar surface:
• Observing from the Moon will permit us to extend the energy range of solar (and cosmic ray)
spectra below the energy cutoffs imposed by the Earth’s atmosphere and also permit
observations to be made free of complicating geomagnetic effects and the day/night observing
cycles in all but Sun-synchronous Earth orbits.
• The Moon, because it is seismically quiet (relative to Earth) and has no wind, provides an
exceptionally large and relatively stable platform on which to position observing
instrumentation.
• Deploying instrumentation near the “peaks of eternal light” at the lunar South Pole permits a
continuous, unobstructed view of the Sun with relatively constant background. Instrumentation
deployed at sortie sites would also be able to observe the Sun for half a lunar day, i.e., ~14 days.
Coincidentally, this is also half the solar rotation period, so that a long-lasting solar active region
could be observed uninterrupted by night or increases in background from its first appearance
over the East limb to its disappearance over the West limb some 13 days later. Much of this time
would be when the region is most strongly connected magnetically to the Earth-Moon system
and so presents the greatest hazards to communications, space-borne instrumentation, and
astronaut health in the near-Earth space environment.
• The slow rotation rate of the Moon also allows horizon occultation measurements (at a drift rate
~0.5 arcseconds/second) to be made at nonpolar sortie sites. This would permit the study of fine-
scale features in solar active regions.
Together, this complement of instruments will permit a thorough study of the magnetic precursors to
solar eruptive events, the particle acceleration processes that occur within the flare itself and at the
CME-associated shock, and the relationship between solar conditions and the probability of hazardous
particle events at 1 AU. During certain times of the year (depending on planetary alignment), it will also
provide important diagnostic information on active regions that pose a hazard for spacecraft en route to,
and orbiting, Mars.
To provide nearly continuous coverage, some or all of the instrument packages could be replicated and
reside near opposing limbs of the full Moon within contact of ground stations on Earth, thereby enabling
quasi-continuous monitoring of solar activity.
Because of the need to transport such instrumentation to the Moon on a lander spacecraft, typical
instruments would have dimensions comparable to those on Earth orbiting unmanned spacecraft, viz.
size from <1 m to ~10 m and mass in the range of 10 kg to 1000 kg. However, these values could be
extended through lunar surface assembly of modular subcomponents (e.g., interferometer components).
The instrumentation would need <1 kW of power to operate. The large data collection rates (in excess of
10–1000 GB/day) could be accomplished through in situ storage for collection by astronauts on EVA
activity and subsequent return to the Earth.
Time Phasing:
Middle à Late: Human involvement is necessary to put the instruments in appropriate
locations and possibly to retrieve data on a periodic basis. Real-time analysis of
the data to provide operationally useful products will require the presence of a
trained scientist-astronaut.
Rationale: The experiential learning earned during lunar missions will be invaluable for
later Mars missions, when real time risk evaluation and operational decisions will have to
be made by the crew on the Martian surface independent of ground control at Earth. This
investigation will also play a major role in safeguarding astronauts and spacecraft from
radiation hazards associated with violent solar activity through the ability to develop real-
time reliable forecasting of hazardous radiation events
Investigation J: Sun’s Role in Climate Change
Preamble:
The whole Earth reflectance is measurable from the Moon for the full range of reflection angles through
each lunar month.
In general terms, Earth’s climate is driven by the Sun’s output, the Earth’s reflectance, and thermal
emission. Of these three fundamental climate variables, the Earth’s reflectance is the least well studied.
In fact, variations in reflectance are being implicitly ignored when solar cycle variables are treated as
proxies for the net sunlight reaching Earth. Currently, the value of Earth’s reflectance is a combination
of localized measurements and modeling. By measuring the reflectance from the Moon, one can obtain a
value for the whole Earth each 24-hour period, and through the lunar month, one can measure the
reflection as a function of phase angle. These earthshine observations would provide the most thorough
and complete measurements of the Earth’s reflectance and its seasonal changes, as well as its longer
term evolution. This investigation is focused on providing important information needed to fully
characterize global climate change and the Sun’s role.
Variations in the solar irradiance have been precisely measured for more than a quarter century,
combining observations from various satellites, and it appears that the Sun’s irradiance has
climatologically insignificant variations over the solar cycle. These observations do not explain the
terrestrial signatures of the solar cycle in climate records. If the recent irradiance variations are typical,
the logical effect to search for is a corresponding, or even amplified, solar driven change in the much
less well-studied reflectance of the Earth. Answers here require precise measurements of the global
reflectance of the Earth. Several indirect mechanisms have been proposed in the literature to produce
such amplification, ranging from changes in EUV radiation tied to ozone, to changes in cosmic rays and
atmospheric ionization tied to cloud formation, to changes in storm tracks and atmospheric circulation,
or changes in the Earth’s global electric circuit. But, so far, the possible causal role of each mechanism
remains ambiguous, at best.
Ideally, to determine the Earth’s reflectance, it would be necessary to observe reflected radiances from
the Earth, from all points on the Earth and at all angles. An Earth-facing part of the edge of the Moon
would provide an ideal platform from which to measure the Earth’s reflectance. To determine the Bond
albedo (reflection in all directions) from earthshine, one would integrate over all phases of the Moon and
get a large-scale value for the parts of the Earth contributing to the earthshine. Measuring the resolved
earthshine would provide the reflectance for small patches of Earth, which would be of central
importance in climate modeling. At present, there is difficulty in treating clouds in climate models, and
it is the behavior of clouds that the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) says is the
greatest uncertainty in climate modeling. The resolved earthshine would provide direct measure of local
reflectances/cloud cover. These observations would be an excellent complement to data from satellites
in LEO, where determining albedo from the measured radiances is more complicated, because modeling
of bi-directional radiative transfer through the atmosphere is required, and that has its own difficulties.
Time Phasing:
Early à Middle: The instrumentation could be set up robotically or by humans, but
observations need to be made for years.
Rationale: While the Moon provides a unique platform from which to measure the
Earth’s reflectance in both high and low resolution, as well as the entire spectrum of solar
output from hard x-rays to the infrared and from the various components of the solar
wind, these observations could be better made from orbital assets.
Investigation K: Understand and Predict Space Weather Impact on Robotic and Human
Productivity
Preamble: Space weather impacts the productivity of human and robotic explorers. Understanding and
being able to predict space weather and associated impacts will mitigate operational risks at the Moon.
Steps to achieve this include:
• Use the coordinated, distributed, simultaneous measurements provided by the heliospheric great
observatory to drive predictive models of space radiation at the Moon;
• Use real-time measurements on the Moon to account for the effect on the local environment of the
anisotropy in solar particle events and for redundant nowcasting of space weather;
• Use real-time measurements on the Moon to determine the radiation hazards, the electrodynamic
plasma environment, and effects of dust dynamics and adhesion;
• Characterize the dust environment at several locations on the lunar surface to better understand
the operational environment of the Moon.
Mitigating the exposure risk requires the delivery of reliable operational products, based on monitoring
of hazardous radiation, to mission operators, planners, and crews. It will also require a dedicated effort
to generate near real time operational data that are supported by a fundamental understanding of the
underlying physics. The infrastructure to monitor space weather over timescales of days to hours to even
minutes exists.
The Moon’s tenuous exosphere is immersed in the plasma and energetic particle environment of the
heliosphere. The hazardous radiation from intense SEPs arises from solar events such as flares and
CMEs generated through the dynamic and often explosive reorganization of intense magnetic fields at
the Sun. CMEs plow through the solar wind, forming shocks, which, in turn, accelerate protons to
energies typically in the range from less than 50 to 1000 million electron volts. These high-energy
protons interact with the material of spacecraft, the components of the spacecraft control systems, space
habitats, space suits, and human tissue. In doing so, they produce dangerous secondary particles that can
cause radiation effects in spacecraft electronics and damage DNA throughout the human body. In
humans, the radiation can produce acute effects such as sickness, fatigue, and damage to the skin and
eyes, as well as chronic effects including cancer, damage to the central nervous system, cataracts, and
heart disease (NCRP Report No. 153, 2006). To mitigate the harmful effects of radiation, the
heliophysics science community is advancing its understanding of the sources of particle radiation and
developing predictive models of the solar and Heliospheric phenomena that generate this radiation.
At present, we do not fully understand the mechanisms that trigger CMEs or solar flares. We have
preliminary models of energetic particle acceleration at the shocks driven by CMEs, but these models
are still primitive in their predictive capabilities. Current and future Science Mission Directorate (SMD)
missions will attempt to fill holes in our understanding, paving the road to predictive models of space
weather. The current Solar Terrestrial Probe (STP) STEREO and Hinode (Solar-B) missions, the future
Living With a Star (LWS) Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) and Radiation Belt Storm Probe (RBSP)
missions, and the Solar Sentinels mission concept may help develop the physical understanding
necessary to reliably model and predict the radiation environment at 1 astronomical unit (AU) and
understand the dominant mechanisms associated with the energization of particles that produce harmful
radiation. This information will then be used to specify the physics-based space environment models
that will be driven by coordinated, distributed observations from a space monitoring system (Baker et
al., 2006). The targeted outcome is reliable predictions of space weather in support of human and robotic
mission operations in the lunar environment. This network of coordinated space weather observations
and models is a first step for the more comprehensive forecasting needed to support missions to Mars.
The highly variable plasma environment at the orbit of the Moon is due both to the changing conditions
of the impinging solar wind and traversals of the Earth’s magnetosphere. (Stubbs et al., 2007a) The
Moon can enter the hot and tenuous plasma sheet in the Earth’s magnetotail, causing increased
electrostatic potentials. The resulting surface charging can drive the electrostatic transport of charged
lunar dust. The lunar dust-plasma is highly susceptible to space weather. Therefore, observations of the
dust-plasma environment during a range of different solar and magnetospheric activity conditions are
needed. A space weather monitoring system using the Moon as a platform can provide redundant
actionable information for mission management.
The interaction of solar wind and energetic particles with the lunar surface produces large surface
electric fields (analogous to spacecraft charging). The electric fields were remotely sensed by Lunar
Prospector (Halekas et al., 2005a). The lunar surface potentials are large (up to many kilovolts negative
on the night-side hemisphere that is immersed in hot energetic plasma). In sunlight, where
photoemission dominates, the lunar surface potentials are typically a few volts (positive). This large
potential difference at the day-night terminator causes very large electric fields, with associated hazards
to astronauts and equipment, and these fields affect the transport of charged dust grains on the lunar
surface and in the tenuous lunar atmosphere. The charged dust grains pose significant hazards to
machinery and lunar inhabitants; the nature of this dust hazard depends on the properties of both the
lunar plasma environment and the dust grains. The electrostatic plasma-dust interactions are complex,
often mitigated by SEP events (Halekas et al., 2007), and are neither well characterized nor well
understood.
The colliding solar wind produces an ion-free cavity behind the Moon, but solar wind electrons traveling
along the magnetic field (which is generally not parallel to the solar wind) can enter the cavity. Very
large charge separation electric fields, critical to kinetic-plasma interactions, are produced at the solar
wind terminator, and these in turn produce a variety of intense plasma waves and beams.
Time Phasing:
Early à Middle: Measurements of space weather phenomena provide direct input to
predict the effects on the lunar dust-plasma environment and information for
mission management.
Rationale: This science is of high intrinsic value because developing such a predictive
capability requires the solution of many as yet unsolved and longstanding problems in
heliophysics. Deployment of onsite resources that will accurately measure the local
radiation environment will be invaluable in the event of geocommunication disruptions,
when lunar inhabitants must rely only on local resources to manage their radiation
exposure (Neal and Townsend, 2001). Onsite measurements would also provide direct
input to predict the plasma and electrodynamic effects on the lunar dust environment, and
provide a redundant forecasting capability and training for future Mars missions. The
current SMD Solar Terrestrial Probe (STP) STEREO and Hinode (Solar-B) missions, the
future Living With a Star (LWS) Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) and Radiation Belt
Storm Probe (RBSP) missions, and the Solar Sentinels mission concept, makes this a
medium Science priority for the lunar surface.
Investigation L: Characterize Radiation Bombardment on the Lunar Surface
Preamble: The overarching goal is to characterize the radiation bombardment on the lunar surface and
subsurface in order to better understand the operational environments on the Moon, to validate and
improve radiation models, and to improve our understanding of the radiation environment of Mars. We
describe here a scientific investigation to study, characterize, and monitor the lunar radiation
environment by understanding the effects of solar activity, radiation from extra-solar sources, and
induced radiation from the lunar surface on the operational environment.
The radiation environments at the Moon and Mars originate from GCRs and the solar particle events
(SPEs). The primary effects are total radiation dose (dominated by protons) and single-event effects in
electronics (due principally to ions with higher atomic numbers). The total dose and effects from
individual, highly-ionizing particles are important for both the human component and the electronic
systems components of long-duration lunar missions, as the crew will depend on the health of both for a
successful mission.
In addition to the primary, incident radiation, one must consider the lunar albedo radiation (principally
neutrons) produced by the interactions of GCRs and SEPs in the surface. The neutron albedo can
contribute as much as ~18% to the effective dose received by crewmembers when the radiation
environment is dominated by GCRs. When SEPs dominate, the neutrons contribute ~2% to the total
dose (Adams et al., 2007b). The case for Mars is more complex because the Martian atmosphere
attenuates GCRs and SEPs observed at the surface, but atmospheric nuclear interactions generate
neutrons, adding to the albedo from the surface (Saganti et al., 2004). Therefore, secondary neutrons
make a larger contribution to the environment at Mars. Prediction of the environment in subsurface or
shielded locations on the Moon and Mars relies on radiation transport codes. These codes (Townsend,
2005; Tweed et al., 2005; Andersen et al., 2004; Townsend et al., 2005) require models of the relevant
nuclear fragmentation crosssections and knowledge of the energy spectra (composition and distribution
in energy) in the radiation environment.
During the onsets of some SPEs, the highest energy (>100 MeV) particles exhibit a large anisotropy as
they stream along the interplanetary magnetic field (S´aiz et al., 2005). The anisotropy, combined with
the shadowing effects of the entire Moon and local topography, can lead to differences in the actual
exposure to lunar-based assets when compared to interplanetary measurements. While these shadowing
effects are expected, their details have not been quantified nor modeled, thus emphasizing the
importance of monitoring the radiation environment at the locations of interest.
This investigation will address the radiation environment outside a solid body (space vehicle, Moon, or
planet) and address the interactions of that environment with nearby material. The specifications of the
outside environment, coupled with better models of the interactions with matter derived from both
ground-based testing and measurements at the locations of interest, are necessary for applying our
knowledge to future landing sites such as Mars and longer duration missions anywhere in the
heliosphere.
Time Phasing:
Early: Results of this investigation, plus an understanding of the biological effects of
this environment, will enable the creation of specifications for radiation
shielding, mitigation techniques, and countermeasure strategies.
Rationale: Appropriate radiation mitigation techniques are essential for ensuring crew
health and the prevention of instrumentation malfunctions during extended stays on the
Moon. These measurements will be used to improve and validate predictive radiation
transport models.
Objective C-3: Use the Moon as a platform for Earth-observing studies.
Preamble: The goal of NASA Earth Science research is to observe, understand, and model the Earth
system to: (1) monitor its processes and discover the way changes occur; (2) enable accurate prediction
of these changes; and (3) understand the consequences for life on Earth. Currently, the space-based data
used for this research is gathered from instruments in low Earth orbit (LEO) or geostationary orbit
(GEO). With a return to the Moon, NASA is in a position to enable a relatively stable, longer-lived
Earth viewing observatory, the data from which would address a range of Earth-science issues over
time; provide instrument synergy among multiple LEO and GEO satellites for cooperative operations
and enhanced calibration/science; as well as provide views of the Earth’s surface and numerous limb
occultation opportunities not obtainable from either LEO or GEO.
The lunar surface offers a relatively stable, serviceable platform for global, continuous, full-spectrum
monitoring of the Earth over a long time scale, which allows a broader suite of instruments to be
deployed and upgraded. The rotation of Earth as seen from the Moon, provides unprecedented temporal
views of transient phenomena such as natural hazards, pollution, climate change, and vegetation/land
surface changes. Unlike LEO/GEO-based instruments, an instrument suite on the Moon could be
serviced/upgraded to provide long term measurements at a reduced cost. And unlike GEO instruments,
only one instrument is required on the lunar surface (or positioned at the lunar L1 point) to image the
Earth. Furthermore, the Earth’s orbital precession allows full observations of the polar regions, which
are not observed with either GEO or LEO satellites, enabling measurements of the variability of large
ice sheets, glaciers, and sea ice.
A lunar based Earth observatory could be implemented using a phased approach from relatively simple
instruments deployed by robotic or human sorties to the surface to more complex instruments housed
within a permanent observatory (or at sortie locations on the lunar near-side) with near-full views of the
Earth. These imaging opportunities also provide a critically-important education and public outreach
(E/PO) opportunity operating in the most simplistic form as a Blue Planet Webcam, which would allow
anyone one Earth to observe their planet. In a more complex application, the data from the possible
instrument suite would be vital for climate change studies and compiling integrative spectral datasets
that could be used for future planet finder missions, for example.
However, an Earth observatory on the Moon is also limited due to the potential viewing restrictions at a
south polar site. In addition, the dusty lunar environment could hinder optical observations that rely on
larger telescopes. Finally, the instruments eventually housed in this observatory must be complementary
to the goals of the larger Earth Science community, which are represented by Decadal Survey now being
implemented.
Traceability to the Earth Science Decadal Survey: The first comprehensive Earth Science Decadal
Survey (ESDS), “Earth Science and Applications from Space: National Imperatives for the Next Decade
and Beyond” was published in 2007. The document does not specifically address Earth observations
from the Moon nor does it give specific recommendations for the time period after 2020. Presumably,
this would be the time frame of lunar operations as well as the next ES Decadal Survey. The document
does specify overarching recommendations for NASA and NOAA and recommends 17 specific missions
(14 NASA, 2 NOAA, 1 shared). These missions are divided into three time periods (2010-2013, 2013-
20-16, 2016-2020) and three cost estimates (< $200 million, $200-$600 million, > $600 million). Many
of the identified investigations below could serve to directly address the science goals of several of the
17 ESDS missions or indirectly address those goals by complimenting future LEO/GEO missions.
Specifically, the ESDS-specified missions traceable to the lunar-based Earth Science investigations are:
Investigation: ES Decadal Survey proposed missions:

• B: GEO-CAPE, GACM, GPSRO, PATH
• C: CLARREO, SCLP
• D: HyspIRI, SCLP
• E: HyspIRI, GEO-CAPE, GACM, PATH
• F: XOVWM, SMAP, DESDynl, SWOT, LIST, PATH
• H: all of the above
Crosscutting Recommendations: There are several trade studies/activities that apply to all the Earth
Science investigations. These should be considered prior to the planning of the initial Earth Observatory
Demonstration investigation (see investigation H below).
• Scientific input needed for the eventual Earth Observatory location
• Continued evaluation and prioritization of science investigations
• Integration with the current Earth Science Decadal Survey (ESDS) and beyond
• Lunar architecture should enable highest priority investigations
• Lunar transportation should have a capability to deploy small payloads into lunar orbit (e.g.,
Earth-Moon L1 point)
• Options for human and robotic sortie missions must be conducted
• Roles and capabilities for astronauts (scientists) must be defined
Infrastructure/Site Location Prerequisites: The following infrastructure prerequisites apply to all Earth
Science investigations listed below:
• A suitable surface location must be identified that: (1) provides desirable Earth viewing (> 90%
of the time), (2) minimize dust contamination, and (3) allows future servicing/repairs/upgrades
during human or robotic sorties
• Specifics need to be resolved on how these studies might compliment/integrate with observations
obtained from LEO/GEO satellites
• Assessment of infrastructure sharing opportunities
• In general, high-resolution large telescopes are not needed, most science requirements can be
met with ~ 30-50 cm telescopes (unless otherwise noted)
Investigation A: Characterize the lightning distribution of the whole Earth disk
The most intense electrical storms on Earth result in approximately 60 deaths/year in the United States,
but about 24,000 deaths/year globally. This number is expected to rise with increasing population and
the potential of more intense storms due to climate change. Lightning is also estimated to produce 6
Tg/year of NOx (~ 15% of the global production). Observations of lightning discharges can help to
resolve the tropospheric coupling to middle atmospheric phenomena such as Sprites, Jets, Gamma Ray
Bursts, etc. The future GEO-based Geostationary Lightning Mapper (GLM) instrument on GOES-R
(2014) is designed to detect many of these, but will be limited in its global coverage. A lunar-based
lightning imager would provide a global climatology of lightning activity with more extensive
observations throughout the diurnal cycle than is currently possible or even will be possible a decade
from now.
Time Phasing:
Middle à Late: with current technology and the desired resolution, an instrument would
require a larger (1 m) telescope and a suitable Earth viewing location.
Rationale: important observations with direct societal impact (e.g., severe storm onset,
improve airline routing, linkages to wild land fires, air quality) and will compliment
future LEO/GEO sensors. Lunar platform will enable a larger Earth viewing area as well
as near continuous observations.
Investigation B: Monitor the Variability of Earth’s Atmosphere

Atmospheric chemistry/plume transport can be derived from lunar-based instruments acquiring both
limb and full-disk Earth measurements. These data will further compliment current/planned LEO
measurements. Observations could include the monitoring and forecasting of air quality (e.g., ozone,
aerosols), the monitoring of sources (e.g., pollution and greenhouse gases), and the whole atmosphere
composition. Important science questions include, but are not limited to:
• How are global air quality and climate being affected by long-range transportation of pollution
plumes (e.g., aerosols, CO, NO2, etc.)?
• What are the processes that determine the composition of the Earth’s whole atmosphere
including the connections to solar activity?
• How does polar O3 vary on shorter time scale?
Cross-Cutting Opportunity (w/ Heliophysics): The potential for simultaneous measurements of the Sun
and Earth from the Moon is another example of a set of observations that would allow a better
understanding of the processes and interactions that determine the composition of the Earth’s whole
atmosphere and its connection to solar activity. Such measurements would provide real-time space
weather data for predictive modeling of the space environment. The focus of the observations would be
global scale and long time scale measurements.
Time Phasing:
Middle: most of these observations are well-defined in the current decadal survey and
will be measured in detail with LEO/GEO satellites. With current technology
and the desired resolution, an instrument would require a moderate size
telescope (~50cm), a suitable Earth viewing location, and necessary
communication bandwidth to Earth.
Rationale: This Investigation will make important observations with direct societal
impact (e.g., pollution and greenhouse gases). Data will compliment possible future
LEO/GEO sensors. Lunar platform will enable a larger Earth viewing area as well as near
continuous observations.
Investigation C: Detect Changes in the Earth’s Albedo Variability

Top of atmosphere, full-hemisphere observations may significantly improve our understanding of the
role of clouds in modifying the amount of solar radiation reaching the Earth’s surface. The largest
uncertainty in global climate sensitivity over the next century is cloud feedback. To constrain cloud
feedback to 50%, a stability of 0.3 W/m2 per decade is required (0.001/decade in global albedo). This
level of accuracy may not be achievable using lunar-based instruments due to longer repeat time to see
the same point on Earth, the variability of clouds, and the phase angle between the Earth and the Moon.
However, the tracking of clouds over the southern oceans may improve the determination of wind fields
(important for global atmospheric circulation models), and the monitoring of polar ice will be possible
from the Moon. The Earth’s global reflectance is the least well studied for its impact on global climate
change. Earthshine observations would provide the most thorough and complete measurements of the
Earth’s reflectance and its seasonal changes, as well as its longer term evolution.
Time Phasing:
Early à Late: instrumentation to measure Earthshine could be small and tested almost
immediately. However, more sophisticated instrumentation with larger (~1m)
telescopes and tracking capability would require longer time horizons.
Science Priority: Low
Rationale: There is still a vigorous debate as to whether measurements of Earthshine
from the lunar surface can provide the needed degree of accuracy for long-term albedo
characterization. Specific areas of concern include: angular sampling (restricted by Sun-
Earth-Moon geometry); spatial sampling (require global coverage); temporal sampling
(restricting Earthshine to a certain lunar phase angle range and therefore, cannot achieve
daily coverage). The Earthshine approach is unlikely to achieve the stability requirement
needed for climate science. However, imaging of the global cloud/ice cover from lunar
surface is easily achievable and could provide a relative/contextual framework for data
acquired from LEO/GEO.
Investigation D: Monitor the Earth’s Land/Ocean Surface

Land and ocean imaging could be enhanced by multi-angle remote sensing from the Moon, which is
now only possible with LEO instruments (e.g. MISR). The time-variable changing incidence and
emergence angles could allow the retrieval of certain properties such as ecosystem structure, and would
more completely sample the BRDF for science applications (e.g., near 0 phase angle). The variable
lighting geometry enabled by the fixed observation point from the Moon would enhance regional studies
of vegetation phenology (timing and magnitude of ecosystem processes indicated by greenness
measured as a function of time). Land surface monitoring/mapping could benefit from long-term
measurements and compliment LEO and GEO observations. Polar studies would also be enhanced by
lunar observations because of the paucity of sea-ice observations over the open ocean. The near-shore
distribution of ice in the Arctic Ocean by LEO-based microwave satellites may be improved due to the
improved spatial resolution from the Moon.
Time Phasing:
Early à Late: instrumentation to measure multi- to hyperspectral reflectance could be
small and tested almost immediately. However, more sophisticated instrumentation with
larger telescopes and tracking ability would require longer time horizons.
impact (e.g., land surface/vegetation change, ecosystem/ocean health, etc.). Data will
compliment data from future LEO/GEO sensors. Lunar platform will enable a larger
Earth viewing area as well as near continuous observations at different phase angles.
Could be combined with other ES decadal survey investigations.
Investigation E: Detect and Examine Infrared Emission of the Earth

One of the most compelling observations of the Earth from the Moon would be in the thermal infrared
(TIR) region. The Earth’s relatively clear TIR atmospheric windows correspond to the wavelength
region (8-12 microns) of maximum emitted surface energy for the global average temperature, and the
region (3-5 microns) of maximum pixel-integrated temperature of volcanoes/fires. Furthermore, a
majority of Earth-forming minerals and SO2 plumes have diagnostic emissivity spectra in the 8-12
micron region, making TIR excellent for the study of surface composition. The detection and analysis of
volcanic flows, eruption plumes, the distribution of forest fires, temporal changes in the temperature of
cities (urban heat islands), precursors to large earthquakes, as well as sea surface temperature could all
be accomplished. The potential science return and scalability of the instrumentation rank this
investigation very high.
Time Phasing:
Early à Late: evolution of the instrument could be tiered from short to longer time
scales. A design and implementation of instrumentation that would evolve from
the simple/low cost to the more complex would be the preferred pathway in
order to return data as quickly as possible. For example:
1. The deployment of a radiometer that could provide whole-Earth broadband
temperature monitoring on the time scale of seconds.
2. The later addition of foreoptics and scanning for progressively better spatial
resolution.
3. The final addition of a high resolution spectrometer for multispectral capabilities.
Data from such a sensor could be automatically scanned for thermal anomalies and
linked into a sensor network with instruments in GEO or LEO orbits for better feature
discrimination on the surface. Such a sensor could be ideal for hazard monitoring of
fires (location, progression, biomass burning) and volcanoes (new detection, eruption
progression, plume tracking).
impact (e.g., hazard monitoring, sea surface temperature, storm severity, heat waves,
etc.). Data will compliment future LEO sensors. Lunar platform will enable a larger Earth
viewing area than LEO/GEO as well as provide near continuous observations at different
local solar times, which are critical for thermophysical measurements (e.g., thermal
inertia, soil moisture).
Investigation F: Develop Radar Interferometry of Earth from the Moon

This investigation will require the largest investment in infrastructure, power, and site location. The
instrument(s) could be used to determine the velocity fields on the Earth (e.g., open ocean surface
currents) and provide a new data set that cannot be obtained from LEO or GEO orbits. Other
interferometry investigations may also be productive, such as the topographic mapping of high latitude
regions inaccessible to the Shuttle Radar Topographic Mapping (SRTM) mission, or the detection of
ground deformation prior to large earthquakes/volcanic eruptions. Such observations might be
complimentary to investigations that use LEO-based InSAR data. High-temporal radar backscatter
imaging of the Earth, achieved during the collection of the interferometric data, would also enable
refinement in the knowledge of sea-ice coverage, the structure of vegetation canopies, and the
spatial/temporal distribution of areas of regional flooding.
Infrastructure/Site Location Prerequisites:

• Most desirable would be a near-side equatorial location.
• Specifics need to be resolved on how these studies might compliment observations obtained
from LEO satellites (especially in a near-real time detection network).
• Significant mass and power (~ 50 kW) requirements.
• Two operational modes.
1. Bistatic operation:
• Requires multiple antennas and a transmitter to form a microwave interferometric
array with a long baseline and extreme stability.
2. Multi-static operation:
• Requires a single transmitter on the Moon with continuous illumination of the Earth
plus the use of future LEO satellites/airborne sensors as antennas.
• Range to receiver is much reduced (much finer resolution can be achieved) using the
same amount of transmit power (lower integration time).
Issues/Trades:
• Location and power source studies are critical.
• Download mass.
• Bi-static versus multi-static?
Time Phasing:
Late: will require significant infrastructure development on the Moon, large power
source (~50 kW), site development, sortie capability, and large (35m) antennas
(collapsible to ~2.5m x 0.5m for transport), which would produce 100m azimuthal
resolution data.
Rationale: This system could provide data for a wide array of applications including all
weather capability topographic mapping, tomography to produce full 3D imaging (e.g. of
forest layers), sea ice coverage, etc. The data from such a system would compliment the
most number of proposed ES decadal survey missions.
Investigation G: E/PO Opportunities Enabled by a Lunar-Based Earth Observatory (LBEO)

This new investigation was added because of its relative simplicity in implementation, its integration
with the other proposed investigations, and the potential commercial onramps. The psychological impact
of seeing Earth from space should not be underestimated. Images from the Apollo and Galileo missions
have provided a global view of our home planet not available from LEO/GEO. Future observations must
expand beyond the occasional photograph of the Earth to a more systematic and synoptic set of
images/measurements that can only be realized and enabled by the lunar architecture. It would be a
serious flaw if an outpost location were chosen with little to no opportunity to perform Earth
observations, which can then be used for inspiring the public and improving science education.

• A suitable surface location must be identified that provides desirable Earth viewing (> 90% of
the time) and allows future servicing/repairs/upgrades during human or robotic sorties. Most
desirable would be a near-side equatorial location.
• These images/data could be initially gathered from simple instruments easily deployed and in
time, derived from other science instruments.
Time Phasing:
Early à Late: immediate Earth observations could be started on the first landed mission
and continue with more complex infrastructure on the surface.
Rationale: the data from this investigation will provide critical outreach for the lunar
program and connect it back to the public as well as to global climate changes. This
integrates well with the proposed investigations. Three primary E/PO themes have
emerged that would make use of these images/data:
1. The “Blue Planet Webcam”: in the process of collecting visible and infrared
spectroscopic data for other proposed science investigations, regular visible images of
the Earth would be generated. These real-time whole Earth views to be an amazing
educational resource that could be visualized in a “Google Earth” type online
environment. This is also a potential commercial onramp.
2. The Pulse of Planet Earth: Monitoring the Earth and acquiring critically-needed
measurements from which to model trends in the atmosphere, lithosphere,
cryosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere will be critical to future sustainability and
climate change. Tracking climate variability, air pollution sources and transport,
natural hazards (e.g., extreme weather, volcanic plumes, hurricanes, lightning, etc.),
seasonal and secular variations in polar ice, and vegetation health (e.g., spring
greening) are all possible. Such data would be important for public consumption and
useful for NASA.
3. Building the “Earth Observatory”: if an actual observatory is built on the lunar
surface to observe Earth, the underlying concept of an “observatory on a hill” would
be very compelling to both global monitoring and exploration. This iconic view of
what an observatory is on Earth (e.g., the telescope under the white dome on the
mountain) would be duplicated on the Moon and the data collected would be used for
the long-term health of the planet.
Investigation H: Lunar-Based Earth Observatory Demonstration

This new investigation was added because of both the critical need to identify an optimal Earth
observing site (for all the other investigations) as well as the priority of the Administration for
advancement of Earth Science. Under the Technology section of the Office of Science and Technology
Policy (OSTP) website, it states, “to strengthen NASA’s missions in space science, weather, climate
research, and aeronautical research”. An excellent way of synoptic monitoring the Earth’s climate and
weather is to demonstrate the optimal site, technology, and instrument package needed for the future
Lunar-Based Earth Observatory (LBEO). In addition to the complete characterization of the optimal site
location, an initial instrument package containing a UV-VIS-TIR whole-disk imager would be deployed.
The data could be used as a demonstration and future baseline for measurements of albedo, climate,
atmospheric chemistry, surface/ocean temperature, clouds, etc. The data would begin to address
investigations: A, B, C, D, E, and G.

• Development of the ideal instrument suite (could be one über instrument or several smaller
instruments with upgradable capabilities).
• Package should be expandable with time and the infrastructure should be modular in order to
grow into the permanent Earth Observatory.
• Should be initially deployable from early robotic missions and accessible later by humans or
robotic sorties.
Time Phasing:
Immediate (robotic) à Early: immediate Earth observations should be started within
the first series of landed missions.
Rationale: the data and infrastructure from this investigation will provide a critical
baseline for Earth Science and a platform for future instrument testing, upgrades, and
new additions.
Goal Sci-D: Use the unique lunar environment as research tool
The Moon has a unique combination of environmental characteristics, establishing experimental

boundary conditions, not collectively attainable on Earth that may be valuable and necessary to the
investigation of High priority scientific questions. The following examples of lunar environmental
characteristics should be considered illustrative and not exhaustive. For example, one significant and
unique environmental characteristic is the long duration, steady 1/6 ge environment present on the
surface of the Moon. Many physical and biological systems are known to be sensitive to both the
magnitude, direction, and temporal ("g-jitter") characteristics of gravity. While the space radiation
environment on the lunar surface is not unique (principally a combination of galactic cosmic rays, solar
energetic particles, and commensurate neutron albedo), its combination with 1/6 ge is. This is also true
with respect to the plasma (and plasma-regolith interactions on an airless body) and vacuum (hard
vacuum combined with near infinite pumping speed) environments. Therefore, the possibilities exist for
unique experiments/investigations to be performed at the proposed outpost.
Combustion Research
Preamble: Fundamental combustion-convection issues have direct bearing on practical problems of fire
safety and control in this unique environment. Flames behave differently in zero gravity, earth gravity,
and in low-gravity jitter that occurs in flight tests and on space platforms.
Objective Sci-D-1: Investigate and characterize the fundamental interactions

of combustion and buoyant convection in lunar gravity.
The moon provides a platform for investigating behavior at sustained low gravity. As an example, the
diffusion coefficients for hydrogen atoms and molecules through mixtures of species is one of the most
sensitive parameters in combustion systems near the limits. We need much better values for these in
different environments for model development and verification to assist the feed-forward aspect of
going to Mars.
Prerequisites: Experimental facility with required space and diagnostic tools. The Fluids and
Combustion facility aboard the ISS will provide the microgravity endpoint to supplement these
investigations.
Time Phasing and Prioritization are the same for each Investigation.
Time Phasing:
Middle à Late: Results of this investigation are important for feed-forward application,
but not time-critical.
Rationale:
Investigation A: Investigate flame structure and instabilities near combustion limits, as defined by
dilution, stoichiometry, temperature (low-temperature flames), etc.
Investigation B: Use the sustained, low-gravity environment, in conjunction with measurements on

Earth, to determine accurate values of diffusion coefficients required for all models of flame behavior.
Investigation C: Examine relatively large, lean weakly buoyant flames in hydrogen and methane
in lunar gravity.
Preamble: These are our fiducial points for comparing to other more complex systems, and the building
blocks for understanding more complex processes.
Investigation D: Construct and test multidimensional, dynamic models of flame phenomena and
benchmark these against experiments in lunar gravity, as compared to earth gravity and any
Space platform data.
Objective Sci-D-2: Perform tests to understand and possibly discover new regimes
of combustion.
New regimes of combustion have been demonstrated in microgravity conditions. In fact, a large, lean
methane flame has been shown to be an analogue for the kind of weak ignition that could occur at the
core of type Ia supernovae.
This phase of the research is exploratory, which, in the case of combustion, always produces surprises.
This objective primarily involves exposing reactive mixtures or existing flames to different conditions in
sustained low gravity, looking at what happens, and comparing results with theory and numerical
simulations, looking for consistency with earth-gravity and zero-gravity results. Models exist that can
compute this, although they have not yet been applied to rarefied, Highly reactive flows.
The results of this objective are of fundamental interest that may be employed to refine combustion
processes in general.
investigations.
Time Phasing:
Middle à Late: Results of this investigation are important for feed-forward application,
but not time-critical.
Rationale:
Investigation A: Investigate new regimes of combustion, such as flame balls, which have been
proposed as the mechanism for sustaining flames at very lean limits in earth gravity.
Questions to be addressed by this Investigation are when do these structures exist in low gravity, and
how do they change flammability limits?
Investigation B: Investigate rarefied gas combustion, either as premixed flames or diffusion

flames.
Questions to be addressed by this Investigation are: Can chemical reaction waves propagate at low
gravity and in rarefied conditions? How low can the pressure be?
Investigation C: How does a large premixed reactive mixture, or a large flame, behave when
exiting to a vacuum or to very low atmospheric pressure?
Objective Sci-D-3: Investigate interactions of multiphase combustion processes and

convection at lunar gravity.
Preamble: This objective yields information of direct benefit to the design of safe systems for lunar
environments as well as providing fundamental information that will benefit feed-forward efforts for the
exploration of Mars. Numerical simulations have predicted that extinction of pool fires by water mist
behaves differently in earth and lunar gravities. Verifying and understanding this result will give insight
into fundamental differences in balances between buoyancy and other forces. It is also
important information for designing fire-extinction systems.
investigations.
Time Phasing:
Early: Results of this investigation impact fire safety.
Rationale: Results of these Investigations impact fire safety.
Investigation A: Investigate the interaction of water mist with diffusion

flames in lunar gravity.
Investigation B: Investigate the process of soot formation in lunar gravity.

Questions to be addressed by this Investigation are: Is soot formation different from 1-g? 0-g? How does
the variation of g affect the timing and processes of soot formation?
Investigation C: Investigate the process of flame initiation and growth.

Questions to be addressed by this Investigation are: How is smoldering affected by low-g? How is flame
spread over thick solid fuels affected?
Objective Sci-D-4: Use the unique environment of the lunar surface to perform
experiments in the area of fundamental physics.
The stability of the lunar platform in terms of low-level, seismic activity and ultra-High vacuum provide
a unique environment for these types of experiments.
Prerequisites: Multiple-site-emplacement capability and support structure.
Time Phasing:
Time Insensitive
Rationale: Results of these Investigations are of intrinsic scientific interest.
Investigation A: Search for gravitational radiation using lunar-based, large-scale optical

interferometry systems that take advantage of seismic stability of lunar surface.
Investigation B: Realize massive improvement in tests of general relativity (i.e. tests of

equivalence principle) by placing active responder systems for lunar ranging.
Investigation C: Place state-of-the art atomic clocks and frequency standards in lunar
laboratories for deep-space positioning, navigation and geodesy, avoiding limitations of terrestrial
systems and atmospheric distortion and use these systems in fundamental tests of general
relativity.
Investigation D: Establish lunar-based mass spectrometry and related facilities for particle
physics research (i.e. dark energy and dark matter studies, sterile neutrino searches, strangelet
detection).
Fluid Physics and Heat Transfer Research
Preamble: Fluid physics and heat transfer research in a lunar environment should focus on quantifying
the impact of a sustained reduced-gravity level on flows and phenomena for which buoyancy plays a
substantial role. The quantification of the effect of intermediate gravity on such phenomena will bridge
the gap between Earth and microgravity results and point the way to the development of systems
enabling efficient and robust human and robotic exploration of other heavenly bodies.
Buoyancy plays a role in several processes important to space exploration, including combustion,
boiling and bubbly flows. Reduced gravity will also impact complex-fluid processes such as granular
flows and fluidized beds, of potential importance to in situ resource utilization.
Objective Sci-D-5: Obtain experimental data to anchor multiphase flow models in

partial gravity environment.
The lunar platform allows long-term access to 1/6 ge and length scales unavailable in conventional
spacecraft. The refinement of multiphase-flow models enables the efficient design of lunar systems and
permits feed-forward prediction capability for Martian exploration.
Prerequisites: Experimental facility and support equipment. The Fluids and Combustion facility aboard
the ISS will provide the microgravity endpoint to supplement these investigations. There is the
possibility that preliminary investigations may be conducted robotically.
Time Phasing:
Early:
Rationale: Results of these Investigations impact liquid transport in life-science and
propellant applications, ISRU applications, and heat transfer in habitat, pressurized
surface transportation and surface suits.
Investigation A: Test simple two-phase flow through straight channels at different inclinations
under partial gravity.
Investigation B: Test two-phase flow through porous media/packed beds under partial gravity.
Investigation C: Assess efficacy of boiling heat transfer under lunar gravity.

Objective Sci-D-6: Study interfacial flow with and without temperature variation to
anchor theoretical/numerical models
Interfacial flows assume a greater importance in the presence of reduced gravity, potentially enabling
alternate liquid transport mechanisms. These will enable the more efficient design of lunar systems and
permit feed-forward capability for the design of systems for Martian exploration.
Prerequisites: Experimental facility and support equipment. The Fluids and Combustion facility aboard
the ISS will provide the microgravity endpoint to supplement these investigations.
Time Phasing:
Middle:
Rationale: Results could lead to more mass-efficient transport schemes for liquids in low
and partial gravity.
Investigation A: Study low-Reynolds-number dynamic wetting in the presence of temperature

gradients typical of the lunar environment and lunar gravity.
Investigation B: Validate relative importance of capillary-driven versus buoyancy-driven flow in

various geometries.
Investigation C: Study the behavior of liquid wicking under lunar gravity.
Objective Sci-D-7: Study behavior of granular media in the lunar environment.
The development of In situ resource utilization schemes requires knowledge of the behavior of granular
media in the absence of atmosphere on the lunar surface. Likewise, lunar dust is ubiquitous, leading to
potential degradation of radiative heat transfer and optical components through the fouling of surfaces.
Prerequisites: Experimental facility and support equipment. There is the possibility that some of the
preliminary investigations may be conducted robotically.
Time Phasing:
Early:
Rationale: Results impact ISRU as well as site modification for infrastructure
development, and the impact of dust accumulation without mitigation over long exposure
times is unknown.
Investigation A: Obtain experimental data on gravity-driven, dense granular flows, such as flows
out of a bin, corresponding to Earth-based design methods.
Investigation B: Investigate impact of accumulated lunar dust on exposed radiative, habitat,

transportation, suit and optical surfaces.
Investigation C: Study the chemical reactivity of Lunar dust on non-human biological model
systems to to validate the Earth based assessment of Lunar dust toxicity and the proposed
Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL) to Lunar dust.
Justification: Current studies utilize material that has been on Earth for upwards of 40 years.
Additional understanding of the material is required to assess its toxicity in situ prior to returning
humans to the Moon. Suggest adding that a larger quantity of lunar dust samples will be needed
that is currently available from the Apollo missions. Also samples from different areas of the
moon may be needed to verify if there are location differences.
Objective Sci-D-8: Investigate precipitation behavior in supercritical water in

partial gravity environment.
Supercritical water applications are becoming more widespread in industry. The presence of the
secondary phases shifts the critical point, impacting performance. Understanding critical-point shift
under lunar gravity will yield greater understanding applicable to 1-g and reduced-g applications.
Prerequisites: Experimental facility and support equipment.
Time Phasing:
Time Insensitive:
Science Priority: Low
Rationale: Results are of intrinsic scientific interest.
Investigation A: Measure salt deposition rate on heated surface in supercritcal water-salt

solutions with and without flow.
Investigation B: Assess effects of Lewis number on homogeneous and heterogeneous salt
precipitation in supercritical water-salt solutions.
Materials Processing Research

Preamble: The generation of oxygen from the lunar regolith involves materials-processing techniques
that are gravity dependent. The investigation of candidate methods on the lunar surface will permit the
refinement of theoretical models as well as validating similarity hypotheses necessary to implement
scale-up.
Manufacturing processes such as liquid-phase sintering are dependent on gravity level, with significant
differences noted between ge and microgravity. The availability of long-duration exposure to lunar
gravity will permit the refinement of theoretical/numerical models, leading to identification of the proper
conditions to be employed for its use in manufacturing on the lunar surface, and, ultimately, to its use on
Mars.
Objective Sci-D-9: Investigate the production of oxygen from lunar regolith in lunar
gravity.
Techniques proposed for oxygen production from lunar regolith are gravity dependent. Methods for
electrolysis of molten material result in buoyant convection and bubble transport. The behavior of
fluidized-bed reactors under short-duration (parabolic flight) exposure to 1/6 ge need confirmation.
Time Phasing:
Early: It is important to understand the ISRU potential early in the next era of lunar
exploration to pave the way for permanent settlements.
Rationale: Investigations are into processes that provide mechanisms for oxygen
production.
Investigation A: Study separation behavior within melt of solids and bubbles during oxygen
production using electrolysis.
Investigation B: Investigate multiphase heat-transfer schemes required for oxygen production

employing regolith reduction.
Objective Sci-D-10: Investigate the behavior of liquid-phase sintering under lunar
gravity.
Liquid-phase sintering processes are gravity-dependent due to the fact that particles are embedded in a
liquid phase. For low solid volume fraction, sedimentation of solids, as well as the behavior bubbles
formed due to outgassing, result in different structural properties for materials produced in microgravity.
Study of the process conducted in lunar gravity will help to refine theoretical models, pointing the way
to efficient use of the technique on the Moon as well as supporting the feed-forward goal of Martian
exploration.
Investigation A: Study the effect of solid volume fraction and varying operating conditions on
liquid-phase sintering carried out on the lunar surface.
Time Phasing:
Middle: Mid-term knowledge acquisition needed for long-term application.
Rationale:
Objective Sci-D-11: Study and assess effects on materials of long-duration exposure

to the lunar environment.
Four-decade recorded history of exposure of materials to the lunar environment.
Prerequisites: Results of LDEF.
Time Phasing:
Early: Knowledge of long-duration effects is critical to design criteria for performance
evaluation of future-landed systems.
Rationale: Provides ability to investigate effects on materials complementary to those
employed in the Apollo era.
Investigation A: Analysis of human-emplaced materials from the Apollo era.

Investigation B: Early robotic placement of controlled material samples for evaluation in the
lunar environment.
Life Sciences Research

Preamble: The ability of terrestrial life to adapt to a long-duration, fractional-gravity environment is
clearly important to manned Space exploration, whether it be on the Moon with 1/6 ge or Mars with 3/8
ge. Data from experience in microgravity environments indicate changes ranging from the
morphological structure of yeast to bone loss in humans. The lunar surface provides a gravitational
environment that is within one order of magnitude of Earth’s gravity, a range over which most
biological responses exhibit their greatest variation to other independent variables.
Life sciences research on the lunar surface must therefore focus on the study of variable gravity levels
on living systems and other environmental influences, to include exposure to radiation and dust. These
environmental influences may be synergistic in their negative impacts on living systems. The results of
research will not only impact crew health and safety, but yield results that can enhance our
understanding of fundamental biological processes.
Objective Sci-D-12: Study effect on microbes of long-duration exposure to the lunar

environment.
Microbial research is fundamental to both humans and plants and enables multigenerational studies that
may be performed within limited time periods.
Prerequisites: None, in some cases; a centrifuge for sample preparation and variable gravity in others.
Investigation A: Study the effects of the lunar radiation environment and variable gravity on microbes.
Time Phasing:
Early:
Science Priority: Medium-High
Rationale: Microbes are historically sentinel organisms to understanding environmental
impacts.
Investigation B: Study the effect of regolith on microbial systems with respect to toxicity and nutrient
availability.
Time Phasing:
Early:
Rationale: Enables estimate of ISRU potential for the regolith in a lunar setting.
Investigation C: Assess metabolic changes affecting bioprocessing potential, virulence, and sensitivity
to anti-microbials.
Time Phasing:
Middle:
Science Priority: Medium-High
Rationale: Recent research from microgravity indicates significant increases in virulence
and changes that can affect microbial population dynamics.
Objective Sci-D-13: Assess effect on plants of long-duration exposure to the lunar

environment.
Plant research on the lunar surface is fundamental to ISRU and sustained human habitats.
Prerequisites: None, in some cases; a small centrifuge for variable gravity in others.
Investigation A: Study the effects of the lunar radiation environment and variable gravity on
plants.
Time Phasing:
Middle à Late:
Science Priority: Medium à High
Rationale: In addition to providing a sustained food source, plants provide a test bed for
studying the effects of the lunar environment on higher-level organisms.
Investigation B: Study the use of regolith as a growth medium for plants.
Time Phasing:
Middle:
Science Priority: Medium à High
Rationale: Assessment of ISRU potential for the regolith in a lunar setting.
Objective Sci-D-14: Study the fundamental biological and physiological effects of
the integrated lunar environment on human health and the fundamental biological
processes and subsystems upon which health depends.
Keeping humans healthy and at peak performance during extended stays on the Moon will require an
understanding of how features of the lunar environment (none of which can be simulated on Earth) can
affect human health.
Prerequisites: Sustained human presence on the moon for Investigation B.
Investigation A: Conduct fundamental research to understand the physiological and biological

effects of the lunar environment on non-human life forms.
Time Phasing:
Early: Provides feed-forward information for Investigation B.
Rationale: Crew health and safety, in accordance with priorities and implementation of
NASA’s Human Research Program.
Investigation B: Conduct fundamental research to understand the physiological, biological, and

mental effects of the lunar environment on humans.
Preamble: This Investigation will measure the cumulative effects of fractional gravity, radiation and
dust on biological systems.
Time Phasing:
Middle à Late:
Objective Sci-D-15: Study the key physiological effects of the combined lunar
environment on living systems and the effect of pharmacological and other
countermeasures.
Understanding the physiological and biological effects (such as bone and muscle loss, diminished
immune efficiency, slower wound healing, human nutrition needs, and poorer cognitive performance, in
addition to pointing out unanticipated effects of the exploration environment) can be used to design
mitigation strategies for extended stays and predict responses to the Martian environment.
Prerequisites: Sustained human presence on the moon for Investigation B.
Investigation A: Evaluate the impact of the combined lunar environment with and without the use
of countermeasures on cellular oxidative damage.
Time Phasing:
Early: Provides feed-forward information for Investigation B.
Rationale:
Investigation B: Evaluate the impact of the combined lunar environment with and without the use
of countermeasures on musculoskeletal system.
Time Phasing:
Middle à Late:
Investigation C: Evaluate the efficacy of pharmacological countermeasures employed under

variable radiation and gravity environments.
Time Phasing:
Middle à Late:
Objective Sci-D-16: Evaluate consequences of long-duration exposure to lunar
gravity on the human musculo-skeletal system.
Experiences with muscle atrophy and bone loss due to prolonged exposure to microgravity have
necessitated the development of counter-measures to ensure crew health. What is the rate at which these
conditions progress in 1/6 g? Are countermeasures still necessary; which countermeasures and how
much exercise time is required?
Prerequisites: Long-term presence of crew on the lunar surface.
Time Phasing:
Middle à Late: Infrastructure is needed to conduct the Investigations under this
Objective.
Priority: High
Investigation A: Determine if the lunar radiation environment alters the processes of

reproduction, development, DNA damage and repair, metabolism, behavior, and aging.
Investigation B: Evaluate the synergistic effects of the lunar radiation and the gravitational
environment on the Moon and the microgravity environment during transit to and from the
Lunar surface.
Investigation C: Evaluate the use of radiation sensors and shielding materials using non-human
biological systems.
Investigation D: Evaluate multigenerational studies with simple multicellular and unicellular

organisms to understand long term effects and adaptation to the lunar radiation environment.
Investigation E: Understand the biological effects of lunar dust on model specimens/systems and
interactions with the radiation environment.
Objective Sci-D-17: Study the effects of lunar radiation on biological model systems.
We must understand the impact of space missions beyond low Earth orbits on crew health, including
prolonged exposures to cosmic radiation, and then identify and develop specific countermeasure
strategies to reduce or even eliminate verse consequences, to ensure crew health and performance.
Prerequisites: Experimental facility and support equipment
Time Phasing:
Objective.
Priority: High
NASA’s Human Research Program. Important to determine 1/6 g and radiation affects on
humans for long-term stays and for feed-forward implications. Can only be started during
the middle stage of lunar exploration.
Investigation A: Determine if the lunar radiation environment alters the processes of

reproduction, development, DNA damage and repair, metabolism, behavior, and aging.
Investigation B: Evaluate the synergistic effects of the lunar radiation and the gravitational
environment on the Moon and the microgravity environment during transit to and from the
Lunar surface.
Investigation C: Use animal model systems to identify the physiological, cellular, biochemical, and
molecular root causes for long duration effects of 1/6 g on the musculo-skeletal system as it relates
to humans.
Investigation D: Evaluate multigenerational studies with simple multicellular and unicellular

organisms to understand long term effects and adaptation.
Investigation E: Understand the biological effects of lunar dust on model specimens/systems and
interactions with the radiation environment.
Objective Sci-D-18: Use biological model specimens to conduct single and
multigenerational studies on the long term effects of the lunar environment and
transportation to and from the Moon on biological processes.
Time Phasing:
Objective.
Priority: High
Investigation A: Investigate changes in the physiological microflora using animal model

specimens.
Investigation B: Investigate changes in immune system function using animal model specimens.
Investigation C: Investigate the activation of latent viruses due to changes in immune functions
and stress related to the lunar environment using cell culture model specimens and animal model
specimens.
Investigation D: Investigate changes in microbial virulence due to changes in gravity conditions.

The study includes multicellular and unicelluar microbes and viruses.
Investigation E: Investigate changes to normal biological functions at the physiological, cellular,

biochemical, and molecular levels using a diverse array of biological model specimens.
Objective Sci-D-19: Understand the effects/interactions of lunar gravity and the

transitions between lunar gravity, microgravity; and Earth-normal gravity on
reproduction and development, genetic stability, and aging.
The use of model organisms in the lunar environment (even in controlled habitats) will be invaluable for
understanding long-term adaptive responses of Earth-based living organisms to environmental
parameters of the lunar surface such as fractional gravity.
Time Phasing:
Objective.
Priority: High
Investigation A: Evaluate long-term effects and adaptation to the lunar gravitational environment
of model specimens. Emphasis on in-situ analysis.
Investigation B: Evaluate if lunar gravity affects normal biological processes, e.g. metabolism,
behavior, etc. in a variety of model organisms (cell culture, microbes, plants, small model
animals).
Objective Sci-D-20: Study the influence of the lunar environment and its effects on
short and long-term plant growth, productivity (as a food source), palatability, and
nutrition.
Time Phasing:
Objective.
Priority: High
Investigation A: Evaluate the effects of lunar gravity on g-sensing, signal transduction, and
growth response in a variety of model plants.
Objective Sci-D-21: Evaluate the use and effectiveness of model plants in ecological
life support systems.
Our knowledge of mutations in rapidly proliferating populations (esp. microbial) during long duration
stays on the lunar surface is lacking. The studies can increase our knowledge of risks to human health
and concomitantly increases our capability to manage, mitigate, or eliminate microbial risks to human
health. Improved understanding of accelerated microbe mutation and virulence may help in the
development of anti-microbial therapies for evolving terrestrial microbes. Understanding changes in
floral nutrient content under environmental stressors is important for in situ food production.
Prerequisites: Long-term presence of crew on lunar surface

Time Phasing:
Objective.
Priority: High
Investigation A: Investigate the fidelity of replication of human microbial flora for variants,
increase in virulence, and development of antibiotic resistance over thousands of generations (100
days = 5000 generations for some organisms).
Investigation B: Investigate the propagation of food sources/crops for multiple generations and
nutritional value. (could include primitive plant systems such as algae, not only higher plants)
Objective Sci-D-22: Monitor real-time environmental variables affecting safe

operations, which includes monitoring for meteors, micrometeors, and other space
debris that could potentially impact the lunar surface.
Multiple environmental hazards can reduce likelihood of mission success and impact crew safety.
Existing operational procedures for known periodic events on the lunar surface should be developed and
followed.
Prerequisites: Instrumentation for making and recording measurements.
Time Phasing:
Early:
Rationale: The Investigations are needed for crew safety and mission success.
Investigation A: Establish a lunar environmental monitoring station to measure environmental

variables such as temperature, vibration, dust collection, radiation, seismic activity, and gravity.
Investigation B: Provide real-time environmental information relevant to daily lunar operations.

Preamble: This Investigation will track the ability of the data to inform crews of potential hazards that
can increase operational mission safety.
Feed Forward (FF) Theme: Use the Moon to Prepare for Future
Missions to Mars and Other Destinations.
Purpose: Establish mission risk reduction technologies, systems and operational techniques that could
be developed through a lunar exploration program – The following evaluation criteria will be used to
evaluate candidate ideas:
• Mars/Small Body Risk Reduction Value: How well do the candidates address the key risk
reduction areas identified through NASA’s robotic and human Mars/Small Body mission
planning studies.
• Lunar Platform Value: Do candidates leverage the unique attributes of a lunar program to
achieve success – or – would other platforms be more effective from a technical/cost perspective.
There are three Goals under this theme, the first two focused on Mars. One addresses hardware (Goal
FF-A with 9 Objectives and 38 Investigations), the second operations (Goal FF-B with 3 Objectives and
13 Investigations), and the third is focused on using the Moon to prepare for future missions to small
bodies.
Timing for individual investigations is driven by when the capability would be required for lunar
applications since these technologies would be supporting lunar activities not done specifically as Mars
technology demonstrations.
Goal FF-A: Identify and test technologies on the Moon to enable robotic
and human solar system science and exploration.
The focus of Mars enabling technology research is on surface systems development. While the Moon
and Mars have different gravities and drastically different environments (e.g., soil properties) both are
still hostile environments that require similar functional capabilities for humans to explore and live off
Earth. Conversely, for many Mars systems, the Earth can serve as a more cost effective analog for
evaluating technologies, components, subsystems and integrated systems.
At the component and subsystem level, many Mars technologies have gravity dependent components
that perform functions such as phase separation or 2-phase flow control. It is unclear whether the
gravity field of the Moon or Earth is a better analog for evaluating these technologies. Preliminary
research will be required at the flow-rates and capillary diameters that are being considered for
component designs to evaluate the best testing ground for these components.
At the integrated system level, the risk reduction value of actually deploying Mars-prototype integrated
systems on the Moon for evaluation may provide additional value that testing on Earth cannot. But,
again, additional preliminary research should be done to see if the value associated with this approach
outweighs the associated costs when compared against performing these integrated tests on Earth.
Objective FF-A-1: Develop surface life support systems to reduce risks associated
with long duration Martian surface stay times.
General Requirements:
• Evaluate technologies required to achieve life support closure of >90% (TBD), which will be
required to support Mars surface systems operations.
• Evaluate technologies required to reduce surface system life support IMLEO by 25% (TBD) and
Total System Volume by 25% (TBD) over current ISS technologies.
• Evaluate technologies that reduce crew interaction requirements by 50% (TBD) over ISS
baseline systems
• Evaluate life support technologies that leverage partial gravity environments to increase
efficiencies and reduce IMLEO over ISS baseline systems.
• Evaluate life support technologies that leverage in-situ resources in areas that have applicability
to Mars surface operations
• Perform extended operational evaluation of an integrated 90% (TBD) closure surface life support
system to simulate Mars surface stay periods of >500 days
Variable gravity sensitivities resulted in medium ratings while areas which have never been tested in
space as integrated systems were rated high. Areas where Earth based testing or previous space testing
have been extensive were rated low.
Investigation A: Evaluate air revitalization technologies.

Preamble: This is required in areas such as carbon dioxide reduction to increase loop closure over ISS
baseline and in areas such as trace contaminant control where reduction in IMLEO need to be increased
over ISS baseline. Also, evaluate technologies where partial gravity environments can be leveraged to
design systems with lower IMLEO requirements versus ISS baseline systems.
Time Phasing:
Middle à Late: Valuable data will be collected during extended surface stays.
Priority: Medium
Rationale: Earth and space based (ISS, Skylab, Mir, Salyut) research has been significant
in advancing these technologies. Lunar evaluation will be valuable in areas where
gravity sensitivities play a key role (e.g., water electrolysis).
Investigation B: Evaluate water management and recovery technologies.

Preamble: Technologies that reduce IMLEO requirements over the ISS baseline are critical for human
missions to Mars. Also, evaluate technologies where partial gravity environments can be leveraged to
design systems with lower IMLEO requirements versus ISS baseline systems.
Time Phasing:
Priority: Medium
in advancing these technologies. Lunar evaluation will be valuable in areas where gravity
sensitivities play a key role (e.g., two-phase flow, two-phase separation).
Investigation C: Test waste management technologies.

Preamble: There is a critical need to recover resources from manufactured and packaging waste, as well
as human waste, in order to converge upon a closed-loop life support system.
Time Phasing:
Priority: Medium
Rationale: Earth based research can advance technologies to inform Mars mission
designs. Lunar evaluation will be valuable in areas where gravity sensitivities play a key
role (e.g., two-phase flow, two-phase separation).
Investigation D: Test bioregenerative technologies.

Preamble: This is needed to support wastewater processing, air revitalization and food production.
Time Phasing:
Priority: High
Rationale: Almost all human architectures for Mars surface missions involve
bioregenerative life support components. Since no testing of this type has been done on a
planetary surface – lunar evaluation of this type of system could be critical for designing
a system for Mars.
Investigation E: Perform long-duration testing of an integrated surface life support system.

Preamble: This is required to simulate Mars surface stay times exceeding 500 days.
Time Phasing:
Rationale: All human architectures for Mars surface missions involve integrated life
support systems. ISS provides a significant dataset on partial closed loop operations in
microgravity. However, since no testing of this type has been done on a planetary
surface in partial gravity – lunar evaluation of this type of system could be critical for
validating a system for Mars.
Investigation F: Evaluate environmental monitoring technologies for gas and liquid consumables
to ensure quality over long duration missions.
Preamble: This Investigation should specifically address technologies where partial gravity can be used
to improve performance over the ISS baseline.
Time Phasing:
Middle à Late: Data can be collected during extended surface stays.
Priority: Low
in advancing these technologies. While it is desirable to conduct such an investigation on
the lunar surface, the need is not critical.
Investigation G: Evaluate fire detection and suppression strategies for partial-g environments.
Preamble: This Investigation specifically addresses technologies where partial gravity can be used to
improve performance over the ISS baseline.
Time Phasing:
Priority: Medium
in advancing these technologies. Lunar evaluation will be valuable in areas where
gravity sensitivities play a key role.
Objective FF-A-2: Develop Crew Health Systems That Enable Safe, Long Duration,
Surface Stays.
Low-gravity, dust, radiation, and isolation will have combined or integrated effects on human biology at
all levels and human psychology during long-duration exploration missions on planetary surfaces.
In some areas, Earth-based research is adequate for informing Mars mission decisions while in other
cases gravity sensitivity, radiation or other environmental factors make the Moon a valuable testbed.
Investigation A: Test countermeasure technologies.

Preamble: The technologies need to be tested so as to assure human performance remains at an
acceptable standard.
Time Phasing:
Priority: High
Rationale: Current research in microgravity countermeasures may not allow for
extrapolation to partial gravity environments. Lunar research will be critical in
establishing a partial gravity data point for Mars mission design. This research should be
tied back to fundamental research on biological and physiological effects of partial lunar
environment (e.g., partial gravity, oxygen concentration, reduced pressure) over long
periods to inform countermeasure requirements.
Investigation B: Test medical diagnosis and treatment technologies.

Preamble: This investigation is required for medium to long stay to allow well-patient care in addition
to the treatment of illnesses/injuries on a planetary surface (either the Moon or Mars or beyond).
Time Phasing:
Priority: Medium
Rationale: Telemedicine, minimally invasive techniques and remote health care are
technology areas being matured on Earth. However, lunar research will provide
information on healing and recovery from injuries in partial gravity.
Investigation C: Test long-term food storage technologies.

Preamble: This investigation is required to ensure lasting nutritional value of foods stored for extended
periods of time on a planetary surface.
Time Phasing:
Priority: Low
Rationale: Experience on Earth and in Space (ISS) has been significant. However – the
lunar radiation environment effects on shelf life will inform operational protocols for
both Mars transit and surface systems.
Investigation D: Perform psychological health research on impact of extreme isolations for
periods of >500 days.
Time Phasing:
Priority: Low
Rationale: Research on earth and space based (ISS, Skylab, Mir, Salyut) isolated
environments has been significant.
Objective FF-A-3: Develop surface mobility capabilities that allow human crews to
efficiently and safely explore the surface of Mars.
Extensive extravehicular activity (EVA) will be needed for crews to work on and explore planetary
surfaces. Major surface features on the Moon and Mars, prime targets for intensive investigations, are
on the order on many 10’s to several 100’s km apart, and capabilities beyond those used during Apollo
will be needed to traverse these great distances.
Although advances in surface mobility will be required to support Mars missions – the role of lunar
development/testing varies depending on the technology.
Investigation A: Test surface mobility systems.

Preamble: Surface mobility systems with the following attributes need to be tested:
RANGE: traverse distances of at least several 100s km away from a landing or outpost site,
DURATION: surface exploration sorties lasting up to several weeks
TERRAIN: Capability to access both steep (defined by slopes of >XX degree) and rough terrain
TIME: Use time on the surface as efficiently as possible, so as to maximize the fraction used for science
exploration. Optimize Autonomy.
Time Phasing:
Middle: This would “be” the lunar extended presence facility.
Priority: High
Rationale: Almost all human architectures for Mars surface missions involve long
distance traverses for access to geological diversity. Since no testing of this type has
been done on a planetary surface – lunar evaluation of this type of system could be
critical for designing a system for Mars.
Investigation B: Test advanced space suit technologies.
Preamble: New space suit technologies must allow greater mobility, dexterity, and range than the space
suits used during the Apollo, Space Shuttle, and International Space Station programs. In order to
enhance surface operations on the Moon and Mars.
Time Phasing:
Early à Late: Timing is driven by when the capability would be required for lunar
applications since these technologies would be supporting lunar activities – not – done
specifically as Mars technology demonstrations.
Priority: Medium
Rationale: Space suit technologies have been matured with past human space programs.
However, lunar missions will add to this dataset so that this technology can be improved
in an evolutionary manner. Differences in lunar and Martian environments drive toward
different technology solutions.
Investigation C: Test robotic field assistant technologies.

Preamble: These are required to complement and augment the abilities of human crew members
exploring or working on a planetary surface.
Time Phasing:
Middle à Late: Continuing development of already mature technology. However,
lunar missions will add to this dataset so that this technology can be improved in an
evolutionary manner.
Priority: Low
Rationale: Investigations can rely on heritage systems (e.g., ISS, STS) or earth developed
technologies (e.g., DoD) to provide Mars required capability.
Objective FF-A-4: Develop the capability to acquire and use local resources to
sustain long-term exploration and habitation of planetary surfaces.
Mars possesses abundant natural resources that could be used to supply human consumables, such as air
and water, and construction materials. Relying on earth-based supplies for extended operations on the
Mars is likely neither affordable or sustainable, and achieving a certain level of self-sufficiency would
also reduce the risks involved with the delivery of those supplies.
The Mars robotic program is and will continue to identify and characterize Mars resources. Differences
in lunar and Martian environments drive toward different technology solutions for resource utilization.
In a few cases (electrolysis and phase separation), gravity sensitivities will benefit from lunar testing.
Investigation A: Test resource identification/characterization procedures and technologies.
Time Phasing: Not Applicable.

Priority: Low
Rationale: The Mars robotic program is and will continue to identify and characterize
Mars resources.
Investigation B: Test electrolysis technologies especially for water and carbon dioxide.
Time Phasing:
Middle à Late: Timing is driven by when the capability would be required for lunar
applications since this technology would be supporting lunar activities – not – done
Priority: Medium
Rationale: Electrolysis has applications to Mars ISRU (carbon dioxide). Due to gravity
dependencies this technology would benefit from lunar evaluation.
Investigation C: Test technologies to produce water from frozen regoliths.
Time Phasing:
Middle à Late: Timing driven by lunar applications (only if a permanently shadowed
polar location is selected for a robotic or human mission).
Priority: Low
Rationale: Current Mars architecture focuses on water production from atmospheric
carbon dioxide electrolysis and hydrogen from Earth.
Investigation D: Test phase separation technologies for handling solids, liquids, and gases.
Time Phasing:
Middle à Late: Timing is driven by when the capability would be required for lunar
applications since this technology would be supporting lunar activities – not – done
Priority: Medium
Rationale: Due to gravity sensitivities lunar testing of these technologies would be
important in providing information for Mars system designs.
Investigation E: Test product storage technologies.
Time Phasing: Not Applicable.

Priority: Low
Rationale: Differences in lunar and Martian environments drive toward different
technology solutions.
Investigation F: Test technologies to produce construction materials or paved/prepared surfaces.
Time Phasing:
Late: Requires significant supporting infrastructure.
Priority: Low
Rationale: Current Mars Architecture designs look at autonomously deployed surface
infrastructure for single ~500 day missions. Applications to produce construction
materials on Mars would be for very long term Mars settlement concepts which are
currently thought of as very far in the future.
Objective FF-A-5: Develop the capability to produce adequate levels of power on

planetary surfaces to allow human crews to work and live productively.
Studies of initial planetary outposts have shown power levels in the several 10’s of kW are needed on a
continuous basis for sustained human operations. When resource development is considered in addition
to the outposts, the power levels increase to many 10's of kW, and sometimes to a few 100’s of kW. It is
not practical to rely only on solar technologies for producing these high power level on the Mars surface.
Although advances in power generation and energy storage will be required to support Mars missions –
the role of lunar development/testing varies depending on the technology.
Investigation A: Test surface fission power system technologies.

Preamble: Power systems need to be capable of generating >100kW. These systems should be capable
of being autonomously deployed and able to initiate/sustain power generation without human
interaction. Systems for providing radiation shielding to ensure crew safety should be incorporated in
the design.
Time Phasing:
Late: This would “be” the lunar extended presence power system.
Priority: High
Rationale: Almost all human architectures for Mars surface missions involve surface
fission power systems due to the high power levels required. Since no testing of this type
has been done on a planetary surface – lunar evaluation of this type of system could be
critical for designing systems for Mars transit (nuclear thermal rocket) and surface
applications.
Investigation B: Test radioisotope thermal generator technologies for small remote science
stations and observatories.
Preamble: These systems would need to supply power at the level of >1kW. These systems should be
capable of being autonomously deployed and able to initiate/sustain power generation without human
interaction. Systems for providing radiation shielding to ensure crew safety should be incorporated in
the design.
Time Phasing:
Early à Late: Data can be collected during extended surface stays.
Priority: Medium
Rationale: Early lunar applications could involve fixed units associated with small
remote science stations (e.g., geophysical stations) while long-term applications could
involve evaluation of mobile systems.
Investigation C: Test rechargeable energy storage technologies for fixed and mobile surface
applications.
Time Phasing:
Middle à Late: Technologies for lunar overnight stays and for mobile systems would
add to the evolution of this technology.
Priority: Low
Rationale: Commercial drivers for these technologies can be leveraged for Mars mission
application.
Objective FF-A-6: Develop the capability to autonomously land safely and
accurately on Mars.
The surfaces of the Moon and Mars are unprepared surfaces with natural hazards such as boulders,
craters, and sloping terrain. Mars landings through an atmosphere are much different than lunar
landings – but – there are some technologies for landing guidance that could have similarities.
Mars robotic missions (e.g., MER, Phoenix, MSL) are the best targets of opportunity for technology
evaluation. Lunar missions will add to this dataset so that this technology can be improved in an
Time Phasing:
Early à Late: Lunar missions will add to the dataset from Mars landers so that this
technology can be improved in an evolutionary manner.
Priority: Low
Rationale: Mars robotic missions (e.g., MER, Phoenix, MSL) are the best targets of
opportunity for technology evaluation.
Investigation A: Test terrain-relative precision landing systems with targeting accuracy better
than 100m (TBD).
Investigation B: Test hazard tolerant landing systems.
Investigation C: Test autonomous terminal hazard avoidance technologies, for those hazards that
cannot be tolerated.
Objective FF-A-7: Develop the capability to provide or construct structures on

planetary surfaces adequate for long-duration habitation by humans, and made of
materials that will endure extended exposure to the deep-space environment.
Unlike the Apollo missions where the astronaut crew lived out of their lander vehicle, sustained
presence on the Moon or Mars will require the use of pressurized habitats emplaced on the planetary
surface. Sustained presence on the Moon or Mars will require structural materials that can retain their
integrity for extended periods of time after continuous exposure to radiation, micrometeoroids, and
extreme temperatures.
Since long duration surface habitation facilities have never been developed – it would be highly
beneficial to reduce Mars mission risk by demonstrating these capabilities at the Moon prior to doing
this at an extremely remote location. Specifically, Mars architectures typically rely on an autonomously
deployed monolithic hab/lab facility.
Demonstration can begin with the first lunar delivered habitat for outpost operations but use of in-situ
materials will require additional infrastructure.
Investigation A: Test monolithic habitat technologies on the lunar surface.

Preamble: These technologies should incorporate the capability for autonomous deployment and
operations without human intervention. These technologies should provide the capability to be 100%
ready for crew occupancy when the initial crew arrives at the surface.
Time Phasing:
Middle: This would “be” the lunar extended presence facility.
Priority: High
Rationale: Almost all human architectures for Mars surface missions involve an
autonomously deployed hab/lab facility. Since no testing of this type has been done on a
planetary surface – lunar evaluation of this type of system could be critical for designing
a system for Mars.
Investigation B: Test manufactured structures technologies that use construction materials made
from natural lunar resources.
Preamble: This investigation includes an evaluation of technologies that can reduce IMLEO while
minimizing the amount of crew involvement required to generate products from available resources.
Time Phasing:
Late: Requires significant supporting infrastructure.
Priority: Low
Rationale: Current Mars Architecture designs look at autonomously deployed surface
infrastructure for single ~500 day missions. Applications of manufactured structures on
Mars would be for very long term Mars settlement concepts which are currently thought
of as very far in the future.
Objective FF-A-8: Develop the capability for crews on Mars to communicate with
other assets on the surface, and navigate to and from those assets.
Working and living on the Moon and Mars will involve traveling long distances, over the horizon from
any established facility, and likely beyond line-of-sight of any fixed communication or navigation asset
at that facility. Neither the Moon or Mars have a strong global magnetic field available for surface
navigation.
Investigations can rely on heritage systems (e.g., time/clock) or earth developed technologies to provide
Mars required capability.
Time Phasing:
Not Applicable: Continuing development of already mature technology.
Priority: Low
Rationale: Investigations can rely on heritage systems (e.g., time/clock) or earth
developed technologies to provide Mars required capability.
Investigation A: Test non-line-of-sight communications technologies on the lunar surface.
Investigation B: Test technologies for navigating on the lunar surface without a strong magnetic
field.
Investigation C: Establish high bandwidth Earth-Moon communication links that could support
public engagement activities.
Investigation D: Establish time and clock capabilities to assist vehicles in cis-lunar space and
surface systems in determining their relative and absolute time.
Investigation E: Establish emergency position determination services to support Search and

Rescue operations.
Objective FF-A-9: Develop the capability for human crews to operate safely on
planetary surfaces, protected from the extreme environment and hazards.
Due to the lack of measurable magnetic fields and the existence of thin or very tenuous atmospheres,
humans working and living on the Moon and Mars will be immersed in environments with higher levels
of radiation and micrometeoroid impacts than on Earth. Other environmental hazards like dust and
extreme temperatures will affect design of all planetary surface systems.
There are a number of high priority investigations where the Moon can play a key role in risk reduction.
In a few areas, although not critical, data from the Moon could augment and add value.
Investigation A: Test radiation shielding technologies.

Preamble: This Investigation is essential for protecting astronauts on the lunar surface from galactic
cosmic rays (GCR) and solar energetic particle (SEP) events.
Time Phasing:
Early: Data points collected from the CEV, Altair and surface hab/lab facilities will all
be valuable in establishing the optimal shielding for Mars transit/surface systems.
Priority: High
Rationale: ISS is within the Van Allen belts protecting the crews from most radiation –
Moon will provide a unique testbed for human operations in a high radiation environment
– applicable to both Mars transit and surface stays.
Investigation B: Test micrometeorite protection technologies to prevent damage caused by

micrometeorite impacts.
Preamble: This Investigation will leverage ISS experience to determine if additional technological
advances are required to support >500 day surface stays on Mars.
Time Phasing:
Early à Late: Data can be collected during all lunar surface stays.
Priority: Low
Rationale: ISS and other orbiting assets have provided a good database of
micrometeoroid and orbit debris impacts that can be used to establish Mars transit vehicle
shielding requirements (Mars surface systems would be protected by the atmosphere).
Lunar missions will add to this dataset.
Investigation C: Test dust mitigation technologies to prevent dust from interfering with
mechanical systems and causing health problems for astronaut crews.
Time Phasing:
Early: Mars system design impacts will require lunar data as soon as possible. In-situ
analysis and returned samples of Mars dust would be needed as well to better understand
the variations between the Moon and Mars.
Priority: High
Rationale: Although there are differences in composition and other characteristics
between lunar and Martian dust – the moon will provide important data on how to design
systems for a high dust environment.
Investigation D: Test forward and backward planetary protection technologies to prepare for
human and robotic operations on Mars.
Time Phasing:
Early à Middle: Samples require protection from the onset – but preliminary
examination protocols require additional infrastructure and human presence. Suits, habs,
labs, etc. can be improved in an evolutionary manner.
Priority: High
Rationale: Earth based testing of a high fidelity system would greatly reduce risk – but
lunar verification would be required to increase overall confidence level.
Investigation E: Establish space weather modeling, forecasting and monitoring capabilities.

Preamble: The capabilities established under this investigation can be used to warn Mars transit/surface
crews of potentially hazardous solar events. The goal of these systems should be to provide as early a
warning as possible of dangers.
Time Phasing:
Early à Late: Information is needed early in the Mars transit/surface vehicle design
phase. Although there are many current sources of data (Earth orbiting satellites, Earth-
Sun L1 satellites) data collected from lunar missions will add to this data set.
Priority: Low
Rationale: Does not rely on a lunar program as a key way of developing this capability to
support Mars missions. Planning for Mars transit may actually provide information that
could be used in lunar surface system designs since Mars transit has greater mass and
duration requirements and lacks ISRU.
Goal FF-B: Use the Moon as a test-bed for missions operations and
exploration techniques to reduce the risks and increase the productivity
of future missions to Mars and beyond.
The nearness of the Moon with respect to Earth allows for opportunities in testing of surface mission
operations and exploration techniques without the concern that help from Earth or the ability of the crew
to return safely is more than a year away.
The Moon will serve as a training ground for mission operations that will enable sustained human
exploration of Mars and beyond in terms of crew autonomy and human-robotic interaction.
Objective FF-B-1: Develop the capability for autonomous crew operations on the
Moon and Mars.
The great distances between the Earth and Mars, and the associated time delays in communication make
real time control of mission operations from Earth difficult. While the Apollo missions to the moon
were scripted minute-by-minute, long-duration missions on the Moon and Mars will need to be more
goal oriented on a weekly or monthly basis. Crews on the surface of the Moon or Mars should be able
to plan and adjust their work and exploration schedule based on discoveries made in the field, or the lack
of progress made on current investigations or operations.
Areas where Earth based testing or previous space testing have been extensive were rated low. Medium
areas would benefit from validation or verification at the Moon. A high priority was given to a full
mission simulation on the Moon to reduce risk.
Investigation A: Test integrated system health management techniques to autonomously monitor

system performance and remedy repairs to underperforming systems with little or no crew
intervention.
Time Phasing:
Priority: Low
Rationale: Investigations can rely on heritage systems or earth developed technologies to
provide Mars required capability.
Investigation B: Test crew-centered planning and scheduling techniques to allow exploration

crews tactical control of their workload.
Time Phasing:
Priority: Low
Rationale: Investigations can rely on heritage systems or earth developed technologies to
Investigation C: Test automated sampling documentation techniques.

Preamble: Techniques tested under this Investigation will allow crews to quickly document all steps
involved in the acquisition and curation of geologic samples on the Moon or Mars.
Time Phasing:
Early à Late: Techniques and technologies will continue to be matured starting with
initial lunar sampling.
Priority: Medium
Rationale: Planetary protection drives unique requirements that would greatly benefit
from lunar testing and evaluation. MER and in the future MSL will also add to this
knowledge base for Mars specific sampling.
Investigation D: Test the execution of mission operations.

Preamble: This Investigation will include extravehicular activities (EVA) and intravehicular activities
(IVA) without the control from Earth.
Time Phasing:
Middle à Late: Lunar experience from extended duration missions will add to the
dataset.
Priority: Medium
Rationale: Earth provides the best testbed for development of these techniques.
However, the Moon will play a role in moving toward more remote operations versus
current LEO operations model.
Investigation E: Conduct a Mars surface mission simulation on the Moon.

Preamble: Simulation should address the degree of autonomy and self sufficiency that will be expected
for Mars surface missions. The simulation should last >500 days without logistics resupply.
Time Phasing:
Late: Substantial lunar infrastructure that duplicates Mars system requirements would be
necessary.
Priority: High
Rationale: Prior to committing astronauts to a multi-year journey to Mars a rigorous
lunar mission simulation could greatly reduce risks associated with these missions.
Objective FF-B-2: Develop the capability for productive and efficient human-
robotic interaction in the exploration of planetary surfaces.
Robotic explorers can be used to augment and compliment the explorations of human crews, thus
making more efficient use of astronaut time for complex tasks that require human cognitive skills and
dexterity.
Investigations can rely on heritage systems or earth-developed technologies to provide Mars required
capability.
Time Phasing:
Priority: Low
Rationale: Investigations can rely on heritage systems or earth-developed technologies to
Investigation A: Test teleoperation techniques to allow human crews on the lunar or Martian
surface to control and direct robotic explorers.
Investigation B: Test robot interface techniques that will allow human crews on the lunar or
martian surface to operate a multitude of different types of robots with a single computer
interface.
Investigation C: Test field geology tools/instrumentation that can enable significant in-situ field
analysis of geological samples.
Preamble: This Investigation will establish methods for achieving the best accuracy/precision, diversity
(results confirmable by alternate methods), minimize power/mass/volume requirements, maximize
reliability, calibration (positive and negative control standards). Test field instrumentation capable of
determining differences in samples based on subtle chemical and mineralogical differences in rocks and
soils, sampling tools that can penetrate and sample deep enough into rocks to get below the chemically
altered outer layer.
Investigation D: Test field geology research techniques, including Analysis Adaptability (not
limited by prior hypothesis).
Objective FF-B-3: Establish an administrative structure and cost effective surface

systems to facilitate strong international cooperation.
Although many Earth based programs have addressed these concerns and ISS has been a large scale
NASA multi-lateral cooperation effort – further development of these collaboration concepts on a lunar
program would be valuable.
Investigation A: Establish a set of export control laws and regulations that will enhance effective
global cooperation on lunar activities.
Time Phasing:
Middle à Late: Most benefit would come from a substantial multi-national integrated
lunar program.
Priority: Low
Rationale: Although many Earth based programs have addressed these concerns and ISS
has been a large-scale NASA multi-lateral cooperation effort – further development of
these collaboration concepts on a lunar program would be valuable.
Investigation B: Establish standards and common interface designs to enable interoperability of

systems developed by a global community.
Time Phasing:
lunar program.
Priority: Low
Investigation C: Establish a global partnership framework to enable all interested parties to

participate in exploration activities.
Preamble: This process should enable varied levels of participation based on the capabilities,
experience, goals and funding availability of each participating nation.
–Sub-Investigation 1: Initiate global participation in a robust robotic lunar exploration program
–Sub-Investigation 2: Initiate global participation in the early planning stages for human lunar
exploration to establish a process for engaging a global community in the development process.
Time Phasing:
lunar program.
Priority: Low
Investigation D: Develop cost effective surface systems that can be developed in a relatively short
period of time.
Preamble: The ISS development timeline/cost of 30 years and ~$100B will not be acceptable for Mars
mission surface habitation development.
Time Phasing:
Early: Early planning for lunar program needs to incorporate cost-effective approaches.
Priority: High
Rationale: Changes in NASA approach to large scale human exploration are required to
enable human Mars missions. The lunar program is uniquely positioned in time to gain
this experience.
Goal FF-C: Preparing for Future Missions to Other Airless Bodies.
Purpose: Establish the Airless Body mission risk reduction that could result from a lunar exploration
program. Risk reduction includes the development and evaluation of technologies, systems, operational
processes and techniques that could reduce the cost, schedule or technical risk associated with planning
and executing robotic or human missions to other airless bodies. For this roadmap, “Airless Bodies”
includes Near Earth Objects (NEOs – synonymous with Near Earth Asteroids or NEAs) as well as
Phobos, Deimos, comets and the planet Mercury
.
The following evaluation criteria will be used to establish the priority for candidate ideas:
• Airless Body Mission Risk Reduction Value: How well do the candidates address the key risk
reduction areas identified through NASA’s Airless Body robotic and human mission planning
studies?
• Lunar Platform Value: Do candidates leverage the unique attributes of a lunar program to
achieve success – or – would other platforms be more effective from a technical/cost
perspective?
The proposed timing for individual investigations is driven by the lunar capabilities/infrastructure
required to enable the specific investigations. The proposed timing does not assume a specific timeline
or phasing of Airless Body missions.
Objective FF-C-1: Ability to operate on a geologic surface.
General Requirements:
• Operate on a solid surface composed of dust, unconsolidated rock fragments, and bedrock
lithologies
• Develop ability to characterize those materials, manipulate them, and, when needed, collect
them.
• Develop mobility strategies for solid surface terrains.
Investigation A: Determine the distribution of volatile components

Preamble: Objective Sci-A-3 (characterize the environment and processes in lunar polar regions) will
develop instruments and operational methods that will enhance our ability to map the distribution of
volatile components on other airless bodies. The distribution of those components needs to be
characterized to achieve science goals, to determine the resource potential of the objects, and to assess
potential hazards that volatile reservoirs may have for robotic assets and crew. These volatiles may also
reveal the chemical nature of impactors on the Moon through time.
Time Phasing:
Early to Middle: A mission by crew to a specific airless body will follow a robotic
precursor mission to that body and occur after the development of relevant techniques on
the Moon. This will include both orbital and surface investigations.
Priority: Medium.
Rationale: With crew on lunar surface one can repeatedly make the critical
measurements and determine what works and why. The Moon can be used to test robotic
techniques for identifying and mapping volatile deposits/distribution on other airless
bodies. The lunar gravity may have an effect on volatile distribution and behavior, which
keeps this from being a high priority, although the techniques used to map such deposits
will be similar.
Investigation B: Evaluate the dynamical evolution and space weathering of the regolith.
Preamble: As outlined in Objective Sci-A-4, impacts produce a surface regolith on all planetary objects
without atmospheres. Because regolith is an important part of local surface geology on such bodies, it is
important to study the processes and products associated with them. Developing techniques to make
appropriate measurements of those processes and products on the Moon will enhance our ability to make
similar assessments on other airless bodies.
Time Phasing:
Early - Middle: Orbital remote sensing, surface lander characterization (i.e.
Geotechnical). Comprehensive subsurface sampling (e.g., trenching, drilling,
crater walls), geotechnical, ability to sample steep slopes, geophysical profiling,
and telerobotic sampling of remote sites.
Priority: Medium to Low (dependent upon risk reduction)
Rationale: Use the Moon to develop the techniques to study and sample regolith and
space weathering products. These techniques can then be adapted to study regolith from
other airless bodies in different space weathering environments.
Investigation C: Understand impact processes
Preamble: Impact cratering is the dominant geologic process affecting planetary surfaces. Techniques
devised for studying those processes on the Moon (Objective Sci-A-7) will enhance our ability to study
similar structures on other airless bodies. Several of the scientific investigations under Objective Sci-A-
7, however, can only be accomplished on the Moon or are better accomplished there. For example,
complex craters will not exist on most NEOs (they are too small), so studies of their formation requires
lunar exploration. Likewise, impact craters on NEOs will not have impact melt sheets (unless the NEO
is a fragment from a larger body with an impact melt sheet), so studies of their formation also require
lunar exploration. Because complex craters and impact melt sheets exist on Mars, evaluating them on
the Moon (rather than NEOs) will be valuable for future Mars exploration.
Time Phasing:
Early - Middle: Map crater geology, compositions, geophysical state, robotic sample
return, robotic surface mobility. Field studies of simple craters; sampling ejecta,
bedrock in walls; geophysical profiling.
Priority: Medium - High
Rationale: Impact processes dominant the geological evolution on small airless bodies.
Optimization of techniques to study impacts will enhance science return, but the
techniques needed to access steep crater walls in a microgravity environment will be
different from the Moon.
Objective FF-C-2: Develop the capability for autonomous crew operations.

(Corollary to Feed-Forward Objective FF-A-6)
This objective overlaps with Objective FF-B-1. The great distances between the Earth and Airless
Bodies, and the associated time delays in communication will make real time control of mission
operations from Earth difficult. While the Apollo missions to the moon were scripted minute-by-
minute, long-duration missions on the Moon and other airless bodies with even greater light-time travel
delays of 7 to 15 seconds or more will need to be more goal oriented on a weekly or monthly basis.
Crews on the surface of the Moon or other Airless Bodies should be able to plan and adjust their work
and exploration schedule based on discoveries made in the field, or the lack of progress made on current
investigations or operations.
Areas where Earth-based testing or previous space testing have been extensive were rated low. Medium
areas would benefit from validation or verification at the Moon. A medium to high priority was given to
a full mission simulation on the Moon to reduce risk.
Investigation A: Test integrated system health management techniques to autonomously monitor

system performance and remedy repairs to underperforming systems with little or no crew
intervention.
Time Phasing:
Priority: Low
Rationale: Investigations can rely on heritage systems or Earth-developed technologies to
provide Airless Body required capability.
Investigation B: Test crew-centered planning and scheduling techniques to allow exploration

crews tactical control of their workload.
Time Phasing:
Priority: Low
Investigation C: Test automated sampling documentation techniques.

Preamble: This is also related to investigations within Objective C-2. Techniques tested under this
Investigation will allow crews to quickly document all steps involved in the acquisition and curation of
geologic samples on the Moon, Mars, or Airless Bodies.
Time Phasing:
Early à Late: Techniques and technologies will continue to be matured starting with
initial lunar sampling.
Priority: Medium
Rationale: Limited time at an Airless Body for any human crew requires that the time be
used efficiently to gather and record as much information as possible.
Investigation D: Test the execution of mission operations.

Preamble: This Investigation will include extravehicular activities (EVA) and intravehicular activities
(IVA) without the control from Earth.
Time Phasing:
Middle à Late: Lunar experience from extended duration missions will add to the
dataset.
Priority: Medium
Rationale: Earth provides the best testbed for development of these techniques.
However, the Moon will play a role in moving toward more remote operations versus
current LEO operations model.
Investigation E: Conduct an Airless Body surface mission simulation on the Moon.
Preamble: Simulation should address the degree of autonomy and self-sufficiency that will be expected
for Airless Body surface missions. The Moon affords a lower gravity environment, but not the micro-
gravity environment of Airless Bodies.
Time Phasing:
Early to Middle: The exploration of an Airless Body will be a relatively quick event.
Limited infrastructure will be available so such mission scenarios could be conducted
during the early phase of lunar exploration, although it is more likely to be during the
middle phase once some critical lunar objectives have been addressed.
Priority: Medium to High
Rationale: Prior to committing astronauts to a long journey to an Airless Body a rigorous
lunar mission simulation could greatly reduce risks associated with these missions.
Investigation F: Evaluate crew transit and EVA systems in a deep-space environment

Preamble: Missions to other Airless Bodies will involve the use of crew transport systems and EVA
systems that could be evaluated as part of a lunar program.
Time Phasing:
Middle à Late: Beginning with full lunar day missions, lunar crew transport systems
would remain in a deep-space environment for month(s) durations. In addition, lunar
crews travelling between the Earth and Moon will need to be prepared to perform deep-
space EVAs.
Priority: Medium
Rationale: Prior to committing astronauts to a multi-month journey to another Airless
Body a rigorous lunar mission evaluation of planned transit vehicles and EVA systems
could greatly reduce risks associated with these missions.
Objective FF-C-3: Development and implementation of sample return technologies

and protocols.
(Corollary to Feed-Forward Objective Sci-A-2)
A fundamental activity tied to the exploration of a planetary body is sampling its surface. Acquisition,
storage, return, and curation of samples requires the development of protocols and technologies that
allows selection of appropriate materials and protects their integrity. Investigations A-D in Objective
Sci-A-2 are all relevant to other Airless Bodies.
Time Phasing:
Early: All investigations need to be started early.
Middle: Modify techniques as experience with in situ sample analysis improves and
infrastructure develops.
Late: Continue to modify techniques as experience with in situ sample analysis
improves and infrastructure develops.
Science Priority: Medium to High (enables high priority science).
Rationale: Protocols and technology developed for the Moon may reduce risk for similar
sampling, handling, and curation of specimens from other Airless Bodies.
Investigation-A: Develop a sampling strategy for the Moon and other Airless Bodies
It is important to have a guiding strategy for the interplay of field observations by humans and by
robotic devices with sample collection and documentation. On the Moon and other airless bodies it is
critical to understand the geological style, including the nature of impact mixing at all scales, and the
contribution of distant events to site geology. Determine which sample targets are appropriate for
reconnaissance sampling versus detailed field study.
Investigation-B: Understand the scientific requirements for sample curation, packaging, and
transport to Earth.
To make accurate analyses of geological samples collected on the surface, the samples must be kept
clean from contamination by other samples, dust, and other human- or robotic-generated materials. It is
also important to keep track of each one and its collection location to avoid confusion during later
analysis. For successful planning, we must determine what analyses will be made on geological,
materials science, and biological materials to establish appropriate controls on contamination.
Investigation-C: Understand what analyses (field and laboratory) need to be done on the Moon
and other airless bodies to aid field studies and optimize the value of samples returned to Earth.
Develop reliable and largely automated analytical instruments for use on the planetary surfaces to screen
samples to choose which to return to Earth. It is crucial to determine the optimal types of analyses and
instruments.
Investigation-D: Enhance curatorial facilities on Earth to handle environmentally-sensitive

samples (e.g., ices)
For the Moon and other airless bodies, it may be necessary to transport environmentally-sensitive
samples to Earth for detailed analysis. Examples include volatiles and ices from the surface and near-
surface of airless bodies. Thus, sample packaging and transport methods and equipment need to be
designed and implemented. Once received on Earth, they must be curated under appropriate conditions.
Objective FF-C-4: Understand planetary differentiation.
(Corollary to Feed-Forward Objective Sci-A-5)
The Moon is a small, differentiated planet that is geologically more complex than the smaller NEOs.
The Moon presents the best opportunity to geochemically characterize early fundamental processes in a
planetary body of substantial size.
Investigation A: Examine the diversity of Airless Bodies within a planetary differentiation context.
Preamble: Carrying out investigations tied to understanding lunar differentiation (Objective Sci-A-5,
Investigations A-E) have limited relevance to other airless bodies, but these investigations require the
robotic and/or human return of surface materials and the emplacement of regional and planetary network
stations for long term monitoring of surface conditions and geophysical properties. Emplacement of
networks on NEOs would be instrumental in quantifying structure (regolith thickness, assembly, internal
components) and composition, monitoring current impact fluxes, and recording changes in surface
conditions-processes.

Early- Middle: Remote sensing of rock types, robotic sample return, regional-global
networks.
Science Priority: Medium to Low, reduce risk in deployment,
Rationale: Understand Planetary formation processes and geological history.
Objective FF-C-5: Regolith as a recorder of Solar-System processes.

(Corollary to Feed-Forward Objectives Sci-A-4 & Sci-B-2)
Preamble: The regolith contains information about the history of the Sun, variations in cosmic ray flux,
astronomical events such as supernova and gamma-ray bursts, changing compositions of impactors with
time, and possibly even the nature of the early Earth. It is a complicated record, but long-term
investigations can shed light on important issues in planetary science and astronomy.

Early: Identify targets for future surface exploration from remote data (magnetic
anomalies, paleoregoliths).
Middle: Precision sampling of regolith at different stratigraphic levels, identify and
sample paleoregolith.
Late: Precision sampling of regolith at different stratigraphic levels, identify and
sample paleoregolith at new and wider areas; potential ISRU tie-in for
extralunar material search.
Rationale: Use Airless Body exploration to characterize the history of the inner Solar
System and the galaxy and compare/contrast with similar regolith studies on the Moon.
Investigation-A: Assess temporal variations in the Sun through studies of solar wind and solar
flare products in the regolith
Study the records of past solar particles and irradiance, and galactic cosmic rays preserved in lunar
regolith. This work involves searching for identifiable layers of "fossil regolith" that can be dated to
track changes in the Sun and galactic cosmic rays through time. This objective is synergistic with use of
the lunar regolith as an in situ resource and with use of the Moon as a platform for heliophysics
observations. Regolith preserves the composition and flux of solar wind particles potentially over the
past ~4 billion years, a record that may elucidate the evolution of the sun and the sources of cosmic rays.
Time Phasing: Early-Middle
Investigation-B: Assess variability in the solar constant through detailed, long-term heat flow
measurements
In principle, borehole temperature measurements can be used to determine the solar constant as a
function of time over the last hundreds to thousands of years. Climate reconstruction from subsurface
temperatures is a well-developed technique for Earth. Variability in the solar constant is an important
input parameter for models of terrestrial paleoclimate.
Time phasing: Early.
Investigation-C: Assess variations in cosmic radiation through time

Variations in the dose of cosmic radiation through time, including from supernova, may be recorded in
grains in the regolith. This requires detailed sampling and measurements of radiation damage and
cosmic ray products in the regolith.
Time phasing: Middle-Late.
Objective FF-C-6: Develop the capability for human crews to operate safely on
planetary surfaces, protected from the extreme environment and hazards.
(Corollary to Feed-Forward Objectives Sci-D-11, Sci-D-14, Sci-D-18)
This objective overlaps with Objective FF-A-9. Due to the lack of measurable magnetic fields and the
existence of thin or very tenuous atmospheres, humans working and living on the Moon will be
immersed in environments with higher levels of radiation and micrometeoroid impacts than on Earth.
Long duration missions to Airless Bodies will encounter similar risks related to micrometeroids, solar
wind particles and cosmic rays. On the other hand, secondary particles coming back off the lunar
surface add an additional element that does not strictly mimic the environment that will be seen during
Airless Body missions. In addition, due to the motion of the Moon with respect to the Sun, Any specific
location on the Moon will only experience solar wind impingement for ~14 days/month as opposed to
the constant flux that will be seen during Airless Body missions.
Investigation A: Test radiation shielding technologies.
Preamble: This Investigation is essential for protecting astronauts and their equipment on the lunar
surface from galactic cosmic rays (GCR) and solar energetic particle (SEP) events. It involves the
return to Earth for analysis materials that are being considered for radiation shielding.
Time Phasing:
Early: Data points collected from early robotic and human lunar missions could be
valuable in informing design decision for Airless Body missions.
Priority: High
Rationale: ISS is within the Van Allen belts protecting the crews/equipment from most
radiation. In addition, although LDEF and other satellites/components (e.g., HST solar
arrays, thermal blankets) have been returned to Earth for analysis of radiation
degradation, only a limited amount of equipment (e.g., the Surveyor 3 camera recovered
by Apollo 12) has ever been returned from outside the Earth’s magnetosphere. Since
decisions on the type and thickness of shielding can have a major impact on the mass of
space vehicles, information from materials exposed to the deep space radiation at the
Moon would be valuable in optimizing the design of Airless Body missions. There are a
few differences in the lunar radiation environment versus the environment of missions to
other Airless Bodies that need to be taken into consideration, including: 1) Lunar surface
based equipment will not be exposed to the same GCR flux since the Moon is block half
the flux at any time, 2) Same is true of the Solar wind flux which is blocked during the
two week lunar night each month, 3) Secondary flux (neutrons) coming off the lunar
surface add to the overall radiation flux – a factor which will be non-existent or different
on other Airless Body missions.
Investigation B: Test micrometeorite protection technologies to prevent damage caused by

micrometeorite impacts.
Preamble: This Investigation will leverage ISS experience to determine if additional technological
advances are required to support ~180 day round trips to NEOs.
Time Phasing:
Early à Late: Data can be collected during all lunar surface stays.
Priority: Low
Rationale: ISS and other orbiting assets have provided a good database of
micrometeoroid and orbit debris impact affects that can be used to establish Airless Body
transit vehicle shielding requirements. Lunar missions will add to this dataset
particularly during lunar exploration phases where round-trip flights will enable the
return of shielding materials for analysis. Similar to the radiation shielding discussion,
the reduction in flux due to the shielding of the Moon itself versus the full flux that will
impact other Airless Body missions would need to be factored into the analysis.
Investigation C: Establish space weather modeling, forecasting and monitoring capabilities.

Preamble: The capabilities established under this investigation can be used to warn Airless Body
transit/surface crews of potentially hazardous solar events. The goal of these systems should be to
provide as early a warning as possible of dangers.
Time Phasing:
Early à Late: Information is needed early in the Airless Body transit/surface vehicle
design phase. Although there are many current sources of data (Earth orbiting satellites,
Earth-Sun L1 satellites) data collected from lunar missions will add to this data set.
Priority: Low
Rationale: Does not rely on a lunar program as a key way of developing this capability to
support missions to other Airless Bodies. Planning for other Airless Body missions may
actually provide information that could be used in lunar surface system designs since
Airless Body mission will have stricter mass requirements, longer single mission duration
requirements and will lack in-situ resources that can be used for shielding by lunar
missions.
Investigation D: Establish dust/electrostatic mitigation technologies.

Preamble: This is related to Objective Sci-A-1. The hazard of dust in the airless body environment to
humans and critical (life support and exploration) systems has to be mitigated to reduce risk of missions
to airless bodies. The Moon is the ideal test bed for such technologies developed on Earth using
simulants.
Time Phasing:
Early à Late: Some data can be gleaned from the Apollo data and using simulants, but
need to be tested in a realistic environment. As such, this investigation covers all stages
of a lunar exploration program.
Priority: High
Rationale: Information on dust/electrostatic mitigation is needed early in the Airless
Body mission system design.
Objective FF-C-7: Develop the capability for productive and efficient human-
robotic interaction in the exploration of planetary surfaces.
(Corollary to Feed-Forward Objective FF-B-2)
This objective overlaps with Objective FF-B-2. Robotic explorers can be used to augment and
compliment the explorations of human crews, thus making more efficient use of astronaut time for
complex tasks that require human cognitive skills and dexterity.
Investigations can rely on heritage systems or earth-developed technologies to provide Airless Body
required capability.
Time Phasing and Prioritization are the same for Investigations A-C.
Time Phasing:
Priority: Low
Investigation A: Test teleoperation techniques to allow human crews on the lunar or Airless Body
surface to control and direct robotic explorers.
Preamble: This Investigation is important for risk reduction of human missions to Airless Bodies. The
surface environment may preclude human EVA, requiring teleoperation of robotic systems.
Investigation B: Test robot interface techniques that will allow human crews on the lunar or
Airless Body surface to operate a multitude of different types of robots with a single computer
interface.
Preamble: Increased exploration efficiency is essential for maximizing the limited time that crews will
have at an Airless Body.
Investigation C: Test field geology tools/instrumentation that can enable significant in-situ field
analysis of geological samples.
Preamble: This Investigation will establish methods for achieving the best accuracy/precision, diversity
(results confirmable by alternate methods), minimize power/mass/volume requirements, maximize
reliability, calibration (positive and negative control standards). Test field instrumentation capable of
determining differences in samples based on subtle chemical and mineralogical differences in rocks and
soils, sampling tools that can penetrate and sample deep enough into rocks to get below the chemically
altered outer layer.
Investigation D: Test robotic field assistant technologies.

Preamble: These are required to complement and augment the abilities of IVA and EVA crew members
exploring or working on Airless Bodies.
Time Phasing:
Middle à Late: Continuing development of already mature technology. However,
lunar missions will add to this dataset so that this technology can be improved in an
Priority: Low
Rationale: Investigations can rely on heritage systems (e.g., ISS, STS) or earth developed
technologies (e.g., Department of Defense) to provide Mars required capability.
Investigation E: Test advanced space suit technologies.

Preamble: New space suit technologies must allow greater mobility, dexterity, and range than the space
suits used during the Apollo, Space Shuttle, and International Space Station programs. Suits systems
that are applicable for long term use in a deep-space environment (e.g., radiation, thermal) need to be
developed.
Time Phasing:
Early à Late: Timing is driven by when the capability would be required for lunar
applications since these technologies would be supporting lunar activities – not – done
specifically as Airless Body technology demonstrations.
Priority: Medium
Rationale: Space suit technologies have been matured with past human space programs.
However, lunar missions will add to this dataset so that this technology can be improved
in an evolutionary manner with a focus on increased flexibility, mobility and dexterity as
well as design for deep space operation (enabling EVA not only on the lunar surface but
during Earth-Moon transit). Much of this work would have applicability to other Airless
Body missions.
Investigation F: Testing exploration systems under different lighting conditions.

Preamble: It is likely that Airless Body exploration will need to be conducted under changing lighting
conditions that could be far more variable than on the Moon. While the Moon has relatively constant
lighting conditions over periods of Earth days, systems can be tested under controlled changes of
lighting conditions in a similar environment, but in a controlled manner moving from lighted areas to
those of full shade.
Time Phasing:
Early à Middle: Robotic exploration can begin this investigation, which can then be
advanced to systems that support human exploration.
Priority: High
Rationale: The Moon is the best place to test such technologies for the exploration of
Airless Bodies.
Objective FF-C-8: Develop Crew Health Systems that enable safe, long duration,
missions
(Corollary to Feed-Forward Objective FF-A-2).
Investigation A: Test medical diagnosis and treatment technologies and techniques.

Preamble: This investigation supports the development of well-patient care in addition to the treatment
of illnesses/injuries on long duration human missions. Since missions to airless bodies can last in
duration up to one year, with some missions having constrained abort-to-Earth options, the self
sufficiency of the crew to maintain their health and to deal with medical emergencies will need to be
much greater than the current Shuttle and ISS systems where a rapid return to Earth is possible.
Time Phasing:
Priority: Low
Rationale: Telemedicine, minimally invasive techniques and remote health care are
technology areas being matured on Earth. However, lunar research will develop flight
qualified systems that will have some applicability to other long duration missions. For
missions to small airless bodies there could be significant differences in the packaging of
these technologies with crews spending the entire mission in mass/volume/power
constrained transit vehicles when compared with a long duration lunar outpost and there
may also be differences in systems and processes developed for use in a partial-gravity
environment and those required for zero-gravity missions. Even with these difference
factored in there would still be some applicability to lunar research in this area.
Investigation B: Test long-term consumable storage technologies.

Preamble: This investigation is required to better understand how to protect stored consumables
required to support long duration crewed missions in a high radiation environment. Water, oxygen, food
and other crew required consumables will need to be stored over long periods to support extended lunar
surface stays. Lessons learned from lunar exploration will provide input to optimizing storage methods
to minimize container mass/volume while ensuring that the quality of consumables remains unchanged
throughout the storage period.
Time Phasing:
Priority: Low
Rationale: Experience on Earth and in Space (ISS) has been significant. However – the
lunar radiation environment effects on shelf life could inform operational protocols for
long duration airless body missions.
Investigation C: Perform psychological health research on impact of extreme isolations.

Time Phasing:
Priority: Low
Rationale: Research on earth and space based (ISS, Skylab, Mir, Salyut) isolated
environments has been significant although lunar missions represent a more
remote/isolated environment versus the Earth-orbit missions. But, there will be a number
of differences between lunar mission profiles and other airless body missions that will
make lunar data only partially applicable, including: 1) The perception of a possibility of
a ~4 day return to Earth in an emergency for lunar missions versus month or more
minimal return time options for missions to other airless bodies, 2) The fact difference
between having a large image of the Earth in the sky at lunar distances versus the small
blue dot that crews at further distances will see.
Objective FF-C-9: Establish an administrative structure and cost effective surface

systems to facilitate strong international cooperation.
(Corollary of Feed-Forward Objective FF-B-3).
Although many Earth based programs have addressed these concerns and ISS has been a large scale
NASA multi-lateral cooperation effort – further development of these collaboration concepts on a lunar
program would be valuable.
Investigation A: Establish a set of export control laws and regulations that will enhance effective
global cooperation on lunar activities.
Time Phasing:
lunar program.
Priority: Low
Investigation B: Establish standards and common interface designs to enable interoperability of

systems developed by a global community.
Time Phasing:
lunar program.
Priority: Low
Investigation C: Establish a global partnership framework to enable all interested parties to

participate in exploration activities.
Preamble: This process should enable varied levels of participation based on the capabilities,
experience, goals and funding availability of each participating nation.
–Sub-Investigation 1: Initiate global participation in a robust robotic lunar exploration program
–Sub-Investigation 2: Initiate global participation in the early planning stages for human lunar
exploration to establish a process for engaging a global community in the development process.
Time Phasing:
lunar program.
Priority: Low
Investigation D: Develop cost effective surface systems that can be developed in a relatively short
period of time.
Preamble: The ISS development timeline/cost of 30 years and ~$100B will not be acceptable for future
human mission system development.
Time Phasing:
Early: Early planning for lunar program needs to incorporate cost-effective approaches.
Priority: High
Rationale: Changes in NASA approach to large scale human exploration are required to
enable human Mars missions. The lunar program is uniquely positioned in time to gain
this experience.
Objective FF-C-10: Develop the capability to acquire and use local resources to
sustain long-term exploration crews.
(Corollary of Feed-Forward Objective FF-A-4).
Some Airless Bodies possess abundant natural resources that could be used to supply human
consumables, such as air and water. Relying on earth-based supplies for long duration Airless Body
missions is likely neither affordable or sustainable, and achieving a certain level of self-sufficiency
would also reduce the risks involved with the delivery of those supplies. Differences in lunar and other
Airless Body environments will drive toward different technology solutions for resource utilization – but
there are some areas where lunar experience will have applicability to the design of systems for use on
other Airless Bodies.
Investigation A: Test resource identification/characterization procedures and technologies.
Time Phasing:
Early à Late: Beginning with early robotic lunar missions, information on system
perform in identifying and characterizing resources could have applicability to other
Airless Body missions.
Priority: Low
Rationale: Various existing missions including the Mars robotic program is and will
continue to validate technologies for identifying and characterize planetary resources.
Lunar experience will add to this database.
Investigation B: Test technologies to produce water from frozen regoliths.
Time Phasing:
Middle à Late: Timing driven by lunar applications (only if a permanently shadowed
polar location is selected for a robotic or human mission).
Priority: Medium
Rationale: For specific Airless Body being investigated that may contain trapped water –
the differences between how this water is trapped versus how it is trapped on the Moon
will factor into the applicability of lunar technologies. In addition, lunar developed
technology designs may rely on a partial-gravity environment.
Investigation C: Test product storage technologies.
Time Phasing:
Middle à Late: Experience would be gained during the period when crew are present
on the lunar surface for extended stays.
Priority: Low
Rationale: Differences between the lunar surface environment and other Airless Body
mission environments (e.g., thermal, gravity) need to be taken into account.
Objective FF-C-11: Establishment of in-situ resource utilization systems.

(Corollary to Feed-Forward Objectives Sust-A-3, Sust-B-9)
This is related to Objective Sust-B-9. Production and recycling of mission consumables including
oxygen, water, carbon-based fuels, and various laboratory gases are a key element of sustainably
reducing the mass and cost risk associated with the logistical supply of materials brought from Earth.
Reliable production of mission consumables and the sustainable cost savings they represent might be
among the most important contributions from the lunar experience to human and robotic exploration of
the Solar System.
Substantial interaction is inherently required between systems that produce such consumables and the
systems that use them, implying the need for substantial system engineering efforts early in the
development of lunar surface systems. Additionally, early demonstrations of these capabilities are
essential for them to be incorporated into the planning of science and exploration activities in a mission
critical role. The urgency of early demonstrations is amplified by the necessity of affecting the design of
early robotic and human systems that could be initiated well before the return of humans to the moon.
Time Phasing:
Early: Conduct demonstrations of oxygen production and storage from lunar regolith
at the largest affordable scale of capacity. Conduct detailed system engineering
of human and robotic systems on the moon incorporating realistic assumptions
of oxygen and water production.
Middle: Demonstrate and utilize full-scale production of oxygen and water in sufficient
capacities to meet life support, radiation-protection, and power system needs.
Demonstrate production of carbon-based fuel using recycled waste.
Late: Utilize locally produced oxygen, water and fuel to eliminate logistics supply of
consumables from Earth
Priority: High (Early and Middle), Medium (Late)
Rationale: Sustainable support for human and robotic scientific investigation and
exploration activities depends on reducing the cost of operations. Production of mission
consumables such as oxygen, water and carbon-based molecules as fuel will dramatically
reduce the cost of logistical supply from Earth.
Investigation A: Demonstrate small-scale robotic production and storage of oxygen from reduction of
lunar regolith.
Investigation B: Demonstrate hydrogen/water production techniques including extracting polar
water/ice/volatiles in permanently shadowed craters, solar wind volatiles, trash processing, and
propellant scavenging.
Investigation C: Develop multiple oxygen production from regolith techniques.
Investigation D: Develop and deploy full-scale production of life support consumables, including
oxygen and water, fully integrated with life support systems.
Investigation E: Develop and deploy full-scale production of power system reagents fully integrated
with surface power systems.
Investigation F: Develop carbon production or extraction techniques including solar wind volatiles,
trash processing, and composite material processing.
Investigation G: Develop retrieval of other valuable atomic/molecular species through recycling of
waste.
Investigation H: Develop and deploy production of carbon-based fuels from recycled waste streams.
Sustainability (Sust) Theme: Extend Sustained Human Presence
to the Moon to Enable Eventual Settlement
The fundamental purpose of activity involving the Moon is to enable humanity to do there permanently
what we already value doing on Earth: science, to pursue new knowledge; exploration, to discover and
reach new territories; commerce, to create wealth that satisfies human needs; settlement, to enable
people to live out their lives there; and security, to guarantee peace and safety, both for settlers and for
the home planet. Achieving permanent human presence depends on ensuring that profitable,
economically self-sustaining commercial endeavor will develop wherever possible and ethically
appropriate. Activities not within the commercial domain must define and produce value sufficient to
justify continuing government and nonprofit funding. Initial human and robotic presence must lay a
solid foundation in science and technology demonstrations, showing the value of extended and expanded
presence, so that our opportunity to live and work on the Moon need never end.
Proceeding with the human exploration and settlement of the moon will occur based on political
decisions, public and private economic decisions, and science community decisions. While individual
tolerance for ongoing governmental subsidy and control of lunar exploration varies widely, it is certainly
affected by perceptions of the return of value from exploration activities. The return of value is an
individual judgment and might include factors as diverse as scientific discovery, technology
developments with terrestrial application, the opportunity costs of lunar exploration, and how long it
might take until the lunar exploration enterprise is commercially self-sustaining. The constituency for
human lunar activity has the burden of proving the value of science and terrestrial commercial spinoffs
compared to the opportunity costs, and helping to organize the enterprise in such as way as to minimize
the time to self-sufficiency.
The Sustainability Theme within the Lunar Exploration Roadmap has many dimensions that share the
unifying notion that sustained lunar activities are only possible when they are sustainable through
ongoing return of value, realized and anticipated, from those activities. The long-term objective of
permanent human presence in the form of a self-sustained settlement is the titular purpose of the
elements described in this theme, but such an objective is most readily defensible when strongly linked
to the sister themes of science and feeding forward of the lunar experience to the human exploration of
other destinations in the solar system. Therefore, the direct mingling of science and exploration goals
and objectives is explicitly made in this theme of the roadmap. The role of commercial activity as an
indispensible aspect of sustainability is self-evident in times when the limits of governmental support are
so apparent, but the effective integrated phasing of initiatives across all the themes, goals and objectives
is at the core of establishing a sustainable expansion of human presence away from Earth.
Goal Sust-A: Maximize Commercial Activity

The goal of maximizing commercial activity includes those actions necessary to ensure that
economically self-sustaining commercial endeavor is employed except where inherently governmental
activity is necessary. Sustainability and growth of lunar presence will require that resources come not
only from government but also from the private sector. Public-private partnerships are needed to ensure
that government activity facilitates to the greatest extent the development of commercial and other
private-sector initiatives. Encouragement of entrepreneurship and private investment will play a key
role in fueling innovation and economic expansion, and enable NASA to focus resources toward human
exploration beyond the Moon.
Formulating a roadmap with an outcome of commerce fully integrated into the scientific study and
exploration of the moon includes decisive action on the part of the governmental entities early and
throughout the expansion of lunar activity to remove obstacles to commercial activities, including
activities not anticipated by governments, and foster the transfer of providing goods and services
initiated in the public sector to the private sector.
The aggregation and integration of technical and resource needs of all the participants in the return to the
moon is one of the main intents of the Lunar Exploration Roadmap at large, but a central principle
guiding the incorporation of commercial participation. Integrated needs can provide opportunities for
efficiently delivered commercial products and services with a market of sustainable size and at the
earliest point in time. Aggregating needs across the spectrum of scientific disciplines and the diverse
exploration objectives will involve focusing the definition of missions to define essential capabilities,
relinquishing control by any single activity over the definition of a capability in order to consider other
users’ needs, and combining resources to obtain the capability. Aggregated needs could be expected to
lower the cost to each user group, accelerate the scheduled availability of capabilities, and potentially
expand the set of capabilities that are provided. One of the main challenges to aggregating needs is
institutional, requiring the collaboration between sometimes-competing organizations such as NASA
mission directorates, universities, and international agencies and corporations. Perhaps one of the main
benefits may be the experience gained in preparation for the far greater challenge of organizing the
exploration of Mars using an established space commerce activity developed as part of the return to the
moon.
There is precedent in policy within the US for commercial integration into space science and
exploration, namely the ESMD Commercial Development Policy & Implementation Plan (now in force),
and the OSTP Technology Priorities (see OSTP web mentioning NASA in this context).
The objectives described in this Goal provide a roadmap for the integration of commercial activity into
the broader context of the return to the moon, including aspects that touch on international utilization of
commercial activity. The first objective suggests key steps that much be taken at the governmental level
to encourage commercial activity. The remaining objectives are time phased to indicate how commercial
activity is gradually integrated into the broader lunar activity picture.
Objective Sust-A-1: Establish policies and implementation of comprehensive,

coordinated governmental and intergovernmental action to foster space commerce.
The risks involved in re-initiating activities on the moon are sufficiently large as to form a barrier to the
entry of commercial ventures into those activities. At the very top level, these risks include the safety
and well being of humans on the moon to live and work, and the effective functioning of hardware and
software systems involved in scientific and exploration tasks. Government’s primary role in the return
to the moon is the reduction of these risks through extensive development and operational testing of
technology and collection of scientific and engineering data characterizing the moon and it’s potential
for exploitation. As those risks are reduced to levels acceptable to commercial investment, government
support for these activities should be replaced by the efficiencies of the marketplace through a fair and
open exit strategy emplaced early and through international agreement on it’s nature and
implementation.
Time Phasing and Prioritization are the same for each Initiative.
Time Phasing:
Early: Clarify and reduce the treaty, legal, regulatory and policy barriers to space
commerce before the technology standards and mission architecture decisions
about the return to the moon are finalized. Evolve and implement engineering
standards for lunar systems and organizational structures to facilitate
collaborative lunar activities.
Middle: Establish and administer an international regulatory framework for space
commerce.
Late: Transition control of planning and operations of lunar activities initiated with
government support to private commerce, including initial assurance of
minimum government customer base.
Priority: High
Rationale: An international commercial involvement strategy must be in place before the
government-only approaches are entrenched in order to avoid precluding commercial
activities. The constraints imposed by international legal and regulatory framework for
space commerce will strongly affect the economics of commercial ventures. Since
successful ventures have considerable lead times, a stable regulatory framework,
established early, permits appropriate entry into the space commerce market. Once the
legal and regulatory framework is established for space commerce, transparent processes
must be established and administered to maintain and execute it.
Initiative A: Negotiate an international agreement promoting use of commercial products and services
by both government and non-government customers, whenever possible and appropriate.
Initiative B: Clarify the international legal and regulatory framework addressing all activities relevant
to commerce including property rights, liability, dispute resolution, etc.
Initiative C: Establish an international administrative organization that ensures the legal and regulatory
framework is observed.
Objective Sust-A-2: Preparation for Commerce I: Conduct a comprehensive

resource and market assessment of commercial support for scientific and
exploration activities on the Moon.
Time Phasing:
Early: In regions considered to be of the highest scientific and exploration value,
conduct increasingly precise mapping, prospecting and assaying of lunar surface
physical resources including minerals and surface volatiles. Identify
communications and navigation network options
Middle: Broaden the geographical extent of detailed resource mapping, prospecting and
assaying of lunar surface physical resources, including commercially provided
services.
Priority: High
Rationale: Establishing the resource potential, including concentrations of high value
materials is a fundamental aspect of commercial viability of resource exploitation and
product delivery.
Initiative A: Identify linkages between lunar surface science goals and objectives and resources related
to early exploitation for production of oxygen, water and other mission consumables.
Initiative B: Identify sites for detailed mapping, prospecting and assaying of resources and the
feasibility of extraction options.
Initiative C: Develop standards for lunar surface mapping; prospecting and assaying that can realize
savings in fleets of commercial robots.
Objective Sust-A-3: Preparation for Commerce II: Conduct small-scale

demonstrations of potentially commercial lunar support services for scientific and
Time Phasing:
Early: Demonstrate extraction and processing of lunar resources to produce mission-
enabling commodities such as oxygen and water. Demonstrate effective surface
communications and navigation networks.
Middle: Demonstrate extraction and processing of lunar resources to produce feedstock
materials for lunar manufacturing.
Priority: High
Rationale: Feasibility demonstrations of local production of valuable commodities and
communication/navigation services substantially build confidence in the marketability of
lunar commerce and provide essential learning opportunities for scaling up production
and service networks to pilot plant levels. Because the risk involved in these
demonstrations is large, this objective is most likely supported by government, but may
be executed by commercial entities.
Initiative A: Conduct the earliest possible demonstration of lunar surface production of oxygen, water
and other mission consumables, using multiple technical approaches to raw material collection and
processing.
Initiative B: Conduct the earliest possible demonstration of commercially provided communication and
navigation systems on the lunar surface.
Objective Sust-A-4: Transition to Commerce I: Conduct pilot-plant scale

demonstrations of potentially commercial lunar support services for scientific and
Time Phasing:
Middle: Demonstrate extraction and processing of lunar resources to produce mission-
enabling commodities such as oxygen and water in limited operational
quantities. Demonstrate operational-scale surface communications and
navigation networks. Enable entry of commercial provision of services for non-
governmental customers.
Late: Demonstrate extraction and processing of lunar resources to produce feedstock
materials for lunar manufacturing.
Priority: High
Rationale: Successful pilot plant scale demonstrations of local production of valuable
commodities and communication/navigation services provide the essential proof of
concept needed in the business model to establish the marketability of lunar commerce
and provide essential knowledge needed to scaling up to full production and service
networks levels. Because the risk involved in these demonstrations is still substantial,
this objective may be fully funded by government, though possibly executed by industry.
Alternatively, the objective may be met through government/private partnerships backed
with government commitment to advanced purchases as an anchor tenant to encourage
development of full-scale capability by industry. Multiple pilot plant demonstrations
with different commercial partners or contractors encourage competition in operational
phases.
Initiative A: Conduct the earliest possible pilot plant scale demonstration of lunar surface production of
oxygen, water and other mission consumables, using durable technical approaches to raw material
collection and processing. Identify and measure system performance metrics related to quality,
reliability, and safety.
Initiative B: Conduct the earliest possible operational capability of commercially provided
communication and navigation systems on the lunar surface.
Initiative C: Enable commercial/medical research on the lunar surface by facilitating access to
infrastructure and support.
Initiative D: Facilitate lunar entertainment, tourism, and recreational activities.
Initiative E: Provide servicing of science instruments and infrastructure.
Initiative F: Encourage spin-in/spin-off technology applications (e.g., technology transfer office).
Objective Sust-A-5: Transition to Commerce II: Commercially provided lunar

support services for scientific and exploration activities on the Moon.
Time Phasing:
Late: Initiate competitive, commercially provided extraction and processing of lunar
resources to produce mission-enabling commodities such as oxygen and water
in full operational quantities. Commercially provide operational surface
communications and navigation networks. Commercially provide services for
non-governmental customers.
Priority: High
Rationale: Successful transition of one or more product or service activity from
government subsidy to competitive commercial operation will introduce efficiencies that
reduce cost to the government and enable redirection of governmental funds to new
scientific and exploration endeavors.
Initiative A: Government and other entities purchase lunar surface produced oxygen, water and other
mission consumables from competitive commercial sources using industry standard performance metrics
related to quality, reliability, and safety.
Initiative B: Government and other entities purchase communication and navigation systems services
on the lunar surface from competitive commercial sources using industry standard performance metrics
related to quality, reliability, and safety.
Initiative C: Commercial and medical research is conducted on the lunar surface using commercially
provided infrastructure and support.
Initiative D: Private customers purchase lunar entertainment, tourism, and recreational activities from
commercial sources.
Initiative E: Government and other entities purchase commercially provided servicing of science and
other instruments and infrastructure.
Goal Sust-B: Enable and Support the Collaborative Expansion of Science
and Exploration
Experience from the Hubble Space Telescope and numerous scientific investigations on the Shuttle and
ISS show that human ability to repair and upgrade science instruments is scientifically beneficial and
cost effective compared to building and deploying replacements for failed systems. Human presence
should be expected to enhance and expand the breadth, complexity and reliability of scientific activity
on the Moon. On the other hand, scientific investigations on the lunar surface identified elsewhere in
this roadmap will directly contribute to the ability of humans to live on the moon by identifying
resources and unraveling fundamentally how the lunar environment affects physical and living systems.
Human activity on the moon will therefore be dedicated in significant part to directing, conducting and
supporting a variety of scientific investigations in complement to exploration activities involving
discovering and exploiting resources and otherwise learning to live away from the Earth. Substantial
fractions of the scientific investigations might be accomplished robotically, with varying degrees of
necessary human tending. In recognizing these overlapping functions, sustainable human scientific and
exploration activities must involve identifying and exploiting savings from sharing various resources
including instrument development funding, transportation costs to and on the moon, and the
infrastructure for lunar surface power, communications, process consumables, maintenance and repair.
Objective Sust-B-1: Implementation of comprehensive, coordinated integration of

diverse scientific and exploration activities to maximize complementary operations
and minimize operational and environmental conflicts.
Any single initiative of lunar activity, from an individual science instrument to the human outpost,
undertaken alone is expensive, in may cases beyond any broadly-accepted estimate of the value
returned, however large that value might be. Additionally, diverse lunar activities may conflict in
fundamental ways, e.g. lunar atmosphere science and optical telescopes disturbed by dust raised by
nearby crewed-rover operations. While there are solutions to terrestrial versions of these dilemmas
including standardized energy, transportation and communications networks, and government planning
and regulatory agencies, they were decades in the making and not applicable to the lunar environment.
Lunar activities must be planned and conducted in such as way as to bring the cost of individual
activities to sustainable levels through sharing of resources and standardized infrastructure, methodical
reduction of technical and operational risks, and long-range interdisciplinary planning. The
unprecedented challenge is to build these collaborative and regulatory systems before most of the
activities begin and with international participation, both public and private.
Time Phasing:
Early: Identify, develop and deploy instrumentation systems that support early science
objectives and early exploration technology demonstrations. Evolve and
implement engineering standards for lunar systems and organizational structures
to facilitate collaborative lunar activities.
Middle: Establish and conduct high level coordinated planning and operations to
anticipate and prevent conflict between diverse lunar activities
Late: Transition control of planning and operations to direct participants
Priority: High (Early and Middle); Medium (Late)
Rationale: Comprehensive planning, including all relevant participants, can reduce
development and operational costs and reduce the risk of operational conflict, thereby
improving the value returned by lunar science and exploration activities. To be most
effective, these planning systems must be in place before substantial lunar activity begins,
thereby reducing costs and avoiding conflicts through anticipation rather than reaction.
Initiative A: Identify interdisciplinary array of science measurements and instruments that can be
combined into mission scenarios and utilize standardized transportation, power, communication and
other infrastructure systems.
Initiative B: Build roads, harden surfaces, build landing pads/berms, etc. to reduce dust generation due
to activities around the Outpost/Settlement.
Initiative C: Develop technology standards for minimizing or eliminate purging and venting from suits,
rovers, habitats, and landers.
Initiative D: Develop approaches to minimize landing/ascent plume exhaust deposition thru engine
design, engine placement, and landing/ascent path trajectories.
Initiative E: Coordinate instrument measurement requirements against each other and lunar
infrastructure (ex. radio telescope and communications spectrum and antenna location).
Objective Sust-B-2: Establishment and implementation of comprehensive site-

selection criteria and processes.
The selection of sites for the emplacement of assets for scientific investigations or exploration activities
is a rare occasion resulting in the commitment of substantial and possibly irreplaceable resources. The
various parties interested in the properties of the selected site may have differing objectives for its
collaborative use suggesting both a need for balanced negotiations and the best obtainable data from the
candidate locations. In addition to considering the viewpoints of all partners, governmental,
commercial, academic, and the international counterparts of each of these, practical operational
considerations are crucial including transportation, communication and power availability, local
resource availability and geological features amenable to well-protected human habitats.
Time Phasing:
Early: Identify, develop and deploy instrumentation systems that support robotic data
collection from candidate sites serving early science objectives and early
exploration technology demonstrations. Evolve and implement organizational
structures to facilitate collaborative lunar outpost site selection processes.
Middle: Extend the site selection process to identify major science or exploration
investigations located away from the human Outpost and robotically or human
tended.
Priority: High (Early and Middle)
Rationale: Only one Outpost or Settlement site may be established on the Moon in the
foreseeable future. Selecting an optimal site incorporating initial and long-term objectives
of all interested parties is needed to ensure maximum productivity of benefit to Earth
from science, exploration, and commerce.
Initiative A: Perform robotic precursors to evaluate terrain, minerals, resources, light/environment

aspects and local items of science interest.
Initiative B: Establish an international board of government, industrial and academic participants to
identify and manage site selection criteria, weighting factors and selection processes to evaluate
potential sites for major collaborative lunar activities, including the lunar Outpost and Settlements.
Objective Sust-B-3: Development of surface power and energy storage systems.
Energy in useful forms is a fundamental prerequisite to any lunar activity, and the primary limitation to
the growth of infrastructure capabilities. Anticipated lunar activities will require primarily electrical
power, but many processes may utilize thermal energy directly obtained from the sun. Power systems
must include efficient energy storage capability to meet peak power and substantial nocturnal demands,
and must utilize renewable supplies of consumables. Renewable energy is directly tied to the
development of in-situ resource utilization technologies for the production of energy system
consumables. Efficient and low mass power distribution systems are needed as well as support for
mobile operations and long distance transportation systems. Distributed power generation may be more
efficient than long distance power transmission. Substantial heat rejection systems are required in the
lunar environment. Power supply is a potential commercial enterprise. Sustainable lunar surface
operations will depend on minimal dependence on terrestrial supplies of energy or energy infrastructure.
Time Phasing:
Early: Develop and deploy power systems compatible with mobile and distributed
lunar surface assets, staying ahead of consumer demand. Establish power
system standards compatible with the needs of the international science,
exploration and commercial sectors.
Middle: Deploy substantial renewable power systems to support major science or
exploration investigations located both at the human Outpost and at remote
sites. Provide energy systems for human and robotic surface transportation.
Late: Deploy renewable power systems substantially manufactured using local
materials and consumables to supply the energy needs of stationary, mobile and
remote lunar activities.
Priority: High (Early and Middle); Medium (Late)
Rationale: Energy in useful forms is a fundamental prerequisite to any lunar activity. The
growth in lunar energy supplies is perhaps the single most important pacing item in the
growth of lunar activity.
Initiative A: Develop high-efficiency, low mass, solar photovoltaic systems.

Initiative B: Develop robust fuel cell technology compatible with the lunar environment.
Initiative C: Develop regenerative fuel cell technology compatible with the lunar environment.
Initiative D: Develop fuel cell reagent production capability.
Initiative E: Establish power system standards, including electrical, thermal and mechanical aspects.
Initiative F: Develop large-scale stationary and small-scale distributed (Thermal Wadi) thermal
energy storage systems.
Initiative G: Develop in-situ fabrication and assembly of energy production and distribution (solar
array fabrication).
Initiative H: Develop power beaming from orbit and between surface systems.
Initiative I: Develop reliable and safe nuclear power system.
Objective Sust-B-4: Establishment of sustainable transportation between Earth and

the lunar surface.
The current NASA lunar transportation and operation architecture is based almost entirely on
expendable vehicles including their propulsion, power, communication and other critical systems. At
the same time, current human space activities in Earth orbit and early human activity on the moon will
require substantial logistical supplies to keep the crew alive and systems running. Alternative
transportation architectures that re-use or refuel assets more than once between Earth orbit and lunar
orbit and between lunar orbit and the lunar surface could significantly reduce transportation costs for all
lunar activity. Transportation systems are a possible commercial enterprise.
Time Phasing:
Early: Demonstrate the feasibility of ISRU produced fuel for ascent from the lunar
surface to reduce non-productive landed mass. Ensure that expendable
approaches used in early lunar transportation systems are upgradable to
incorporate reusable features. Attempt commercial delivery of early robotic
science instruments and exploration system demonstrations.
Middle: Establish sustainable transportation between Earth and the lunar surface
including reusability, propellant depots and in-situ propellant production.
Late: Reduce or remove impediments to commercial supply of sustainable
transportation systems
Priority: High (Early, Middle, and Late)
Rationale: Transportation costs are a major cost element of placing assets on the lunar
surface. Reduction in these costs through reuse and refueling capabilities are an essential
element of establishing sustainable lunar activity. Early demonstrations of commercial
delivery could increase opportunities for scientific investigations and exploration
technology demonstrations through reduced costs.
Initiative A: Utilize incentivized commercial transportation to deliver early science instruments.

Initiative B: Develop reusable in-space Earth to lunar orbit (or L1) transportation systems.
Initiative C: Develop reusable Lunar Orbit (or L1) to Surface lander/ascent transportation system.
Initiative D: Develop in-space and surface propellant depots and propellant transfer systems.
Initiative E: Develop lunar in-situ propellant production, and propellant transfer systems, including
oxygen, methane, and/or hydrogen.
Initiative F: Develop robotic servicing of reusable transportation systems.
Objective Sust-B-5: Deployment of Robotic Facilities for Science and Exploration

Operations.
Detailed expositions of valued scientific investigations that could be conducted on a potentially global
scale on the moon are provided in other sections of this roadmap. It is clear that many of them would be
sited in remote locations difficult, dangerous, or with no need for human tended operations. A
significant portion of these investigations could be conducted before the human return to the moon in
order to characterize the lunar environment undisturbed by human activity, and for other scientific
reasons. Similarly, the development of technologies that are being prepared for human return and
continued presence on the moon are challenged by the lack of sufficient technical data characterizing the
lunar environment for engineering purposes, including the location of harvestable resources from the
lunar soil and the response of physical systems and live organisms to the lunar gravity and radiation
environment.
It is clear that there are advantages to human participation in many scientific investigations envisioned
for lunar operations. These advantages include direct scientific observation and analysis, in-situ
direction of investigations, and highly adaptable maintenance and repair functions. However, a timeline
for efficient and sustainable science and exploration activities on the moon requires the implementation
of early and continued robotic operations. The most important return from early, i.e. well before the
human return, robotic missions will be engineering data, resource mapping, and technology
demonstrations; all essential to reducing mass, power and design risk for human exploration activities.
Benefit will increasingly accrue to a variety of science investigations in later periods.
Time Phasing:
Early: Define and execute robotic missions to selected lunar sites to conduct pristine
lunar environment characterizations, resource mapping, engineering
measurements, and technology demonstrations. Foster close collaboration
between science and engineering objectives. Attempt commercial delivery of
early robotic science instruments and exploration system demonstrations.
Middle: Establish robotic operations to conduct remote science investigations and
support for human exploration operations.
Late: Reduce or remove impediments to commercial robotic operations
Priority: High (Early, Middle), Middle (Late)
Rationale: Characterization of the pristine lunar environment will be seriously hampered
once human activity is established. Resource mapping data may strongly affect the site
selection of the human outpost. Engineering measurements characterizing the behavior
of key processes in the lunar environment and the demonstration of key technologies
there will substantially reduce the mass, cost and risk of establishing a sustainable human
presence. Early demonstrations of commercial robotic operations could increase
opportunities for scientific investigations and exploration technology demonstrations
through reduced costs. Performance of systems in reduced gravity is especially useful to
feed forward applications on Mars and contributes to fundamental understanding
applicable to terrestrial technology.
Initiative A: Develop standardized robotic platforms for lunar operations that reduce the unit cost of
such platforms through amortization of development costs and economies of scale in manufacturing
and delivery.
Initiative B: Utilize robotic precursor missions to conduct selected lunar science investigations that
focus on characterizing the pristine lunar environment and contribute to identifying lunar resource
concentrations.
Initiative C: Utilize robotic precursors to evaluate and obtain critical fundamental, applied, design,
and engineering data for lunar infrastructure (ex. life support, power, ISRU, communications, etc.).
Initiative D: Coordinate ISS and lunar initiatives to maximize benefit of ISS to lunar science and
exploration activity.
Initiative E: Develop standardized infrastructure on the lunar surface for support of robotic
operations including power, communications, navigation and other systems.
Initiative F: Establish provisions and infrastructure (power, rack space, etc.) for experiments in
government-supplied, tele-operated testing module (US and International) for future generations of
lunar hardware and Feed Forward.
Initiative G: Utilize commercially provided module to support US and International experimenter
research for future generations of lunar hardware and Feed Forward research.
Initiative H: Establish commercially provided module to support commercial research for Earth and
Space applications.
Initiative I: Utilize infrastructure and long-term surface stay capabilities for life sciences research
(e.g. bone loss, radiation exposure, dust, etc.).
Initiative J: Provide assembly services for complex science instruments (e.g., high-energy physics
detectors).
Initiative K: Utilize in-situ produced materials and products to support and enhance laboratory
evaluations.
Initiative L: Demonstrate and utilize surface preparation and construction equipment to emplace
Earth supplied instruments.
Objective Sust-B-6: Establishment of Global Communications and Navigation

Capability.
Communications capability to connect scientific investigations and human exploration activities with
each other and with terrestrial partners must be conceived with the intention of expansion to global
reach, and then grow at a pace sufficient to stay ahead of demand. Similarly, capability for global
position determination and navigation is essential for mobile operations, precision landing and global
transportation systems. A challenge to this essential aspect of sustainable lunar activity is developing
these systems with not only sufficient geographical reach, but also sufficient bandwidth capacity to
anticipate growth in data volume. Additionally, standardization of communication and navigation
systems reduces the cost to individual users and facilitates system expansion. High definition imagery
from the moon will play an essential role in engaging the public to participate in lunar science and
exploration activity.
Time Phasing:
Early: Establish continuous communications capabilities between high value science
and exploration sites and Earth with bandwidth sufficient to satisfy human
operations. Establish technical approach to lunar surface navigation with
experience from early robotic precursor missions.
Middle: Establish international communications and navigation standards for lunar
activities with capacity for global reach. Attempt commercial provision of lunar
communications and navigation systems.
Late: Reduce or remove impediments to commercial communications and navigation
systems.
Priority: High (Early, Middle), Medium (Late)
Rationale: Communications and navigation systems fundamentally enable lunar
activities of any kind. While dedicated systems provided by individual lunar activities
might occur in early missions, the reduction in cost to lunar activities by shared or
possibly commercially provided high-capacity communications and precise navigation
systems will be an essential contribution to the sustainability of the lunar enterprise.
Initiative A: Establish interoperability and standards for communication, navigation, and surface
reference.
Initiative B: Encourage a commercial or international-partner provided communications satellite to
provide telemetry for early robotic missions (including far side) operations and increased capability for
early human return.
Initiative C: Expand bandwidth for local and regional crew investigations and increased moon-Earth
communications, including commercial entertainment, education, etc.
Initiative D: Establish global communications and navigation network.
Initiative E: Allow science instruments to utilize navigation (local and global) set up for crewed
operations and long-range traverse activities.
Objective Sust-B-7: Establishment of sustainable human transportation between

lunar sites.
At the pace that human lunar exploration and scientific investigation activities expand to substantial
distances from the initial lunar Outpost, long-range surface transportation and transportation linkages
between various lunar surface locations will be needed. In addition to the vehicles needed for long-
distance transportation, power supplies, life support systems, communication networks, navigation
systems, and other critical crew support capabilities will be needed. For early and middle term
activities, long-range rovers, utilizing pre-positioned supplies of energy and life support consumables
will suffice. In some instances, capable robotic rover assets may reduce crew transportation
requirements. As the need for longer distance transportation grows, reusability and propellant production
will be required.
Time Phasing:
Early: Utilize mobile robotic assets and long-range crewed rovers for limited surface
transportation requirements.
Middle: Demonstrate capability for long-range transportation.
Late: Establish long-range transportation capability.
Priority: Low (Early), Medium (Middle), High (Late)
Rationale: If multiple human operations sites are established, then transportation
between them will be essential.
Initiative A: Provide long-range robotic and pressurized rovers for distances of up to 100 kilometers.
Initiative B: Provide roads/pathways connecting sites of repeat visit around Outpost and elsewhere to
minimize maintenance/wear.
Initiative C: Provide oases or way stations including resupply of energy, life support consumables,
pressurized or unpressurized shelter, etc.
Initiative D: Provide hoppers, depending on the availability of ISRU propellants.
Objective Sust-B-8: Deployment of habitat and laboratory facilities for human
science and exploration operations.
This objective includes all things needed for establishing human-habitable living and working quarters,
and for the expansion of these capabilities from early, short duration missions through the establishment
of a human exploration outpost and permanent self-sustaining settlements. In principle, the scope of this
objective includes all major systems needed to sustain human activity including power, transportation,
communications, habitat construction, life support, and crew health systems. However, major systems
needed to support both human and robotic activities are described as separate discrete objectives in the
sustainability theme, keeping only uniquely human habitation requirements here.
The purpose of this objective is an evolution of capabilities for a safe and healthy human population to
conduct scientific and exploration activities on the moon. Specific elements addressed here are crew
safety and health, habitation site preparations, habitat construction and certification, and support for the
major categories of crew activities.
Time Phasing:
Early: Obtain detailed characterizations of potential lunar outpost sites that relate to the
health and safety of the crew. Establish initial crew habitat for short duration
missions including support of scientific investigations and exploration activities.
Middle: Demonstrate and deploy capability for long-term habitability of the moon
including shirtsleeve environment and scientific laboratory capabilities
Late: Demonstrate and deploy capability for expanding human habitation capabilities
using local materials, construction and certification
Rationale: As value is identified for expanded human presence on the moon for scientific
investigations, exploration objectives, and use of the moon for feed forward capabilities,
habitation infrastructure requirements will grow for an expanding human population
including individuals that remain longer and have substantial personal as well as
professional needs.
Initiative A: Characterize aspects of the lunar environment that affect human health and safety
including lunar regolith dust, radiation, temperatures, etc.
Initiative B: Develop reliable space weather prediction, monitoring, and mitigation technologies.
Initiative C: Develop long-term human health care and monitoring for lunar gravity conditions
including any needed countermeasures, tele-medicine, monitoring devices and instruments, drugs, etc.
Initiative D: Develop and implement site preparation and emplacement civil engineering capabilities for
roads, landing pads, protection berms, science instrument emplacement, nuclear reactor burial, etc.
Initiative E: Develop closed-loop life support systems compatible with ISRU derived consumables for
loss makeup and expanded habitat capability.
Initiative F: Develop a high performance planetary mobility/EVA suit system to support multiple,
distributed science and exploration activities.
Initiative G: Provide locally constructed radiation and micro-meteorite protection barriers including the
use of regolith, water, hydrogen-based plastics, habitat burial, etc.
Initiative H: Define and Develop scientific laboratory capabilities, tailored to the lunar gravity
environment, to conduct effective science activity in conjunction with advanced robotic operations and
human science and exploration sorties.
Initiative I: Develop facilities to support human executed manufacturing and repair capabilities, tailored
to the lunar gravity environment, to support a range of activities from scientific instruments to habitat
construction.
Objective Sust-B-9: Establishment of in-situ production of life-support, power

system reagents, propellants and related resources.
Production and recycling of mission consumables including oxygen, water, carbon-based fuels, and
various laboratory gases are a key element of sustainably reducing the mass and cost risk associated with
the logistical supply of materials brought from Earth. As these production capabilities grow, they enable
and support the expansion of human and robotic activity through increased capacity of power
production, transportation, life-support, and radiation-protection systems. Reliable production of
mission consumables and the sustainable cost savings they represent might be among the most important
contributions from the lunar experience to human and robotic exploration of Mars and elsewhere.
Substantial interaction is inherently required between systems that produce such consumables and the
systems that use them, implying the need for substantial system engineering efforts early in the
development of lunar surface systems. Additionally, early demonstrations of these capabilities are
essential for them to be incorporated into the planning of science and exploration activities in a mission
critical role. The urgency of early demonstrations is amplified by the necessity of affecting the design of
early robotic and human systems that could be initiated well before the return of humans to the moon.
Time Phasing:
Early: Conduct demonstrations of oxygen production and storage from lunar regolith
at the largest affordable scale of capacity. Conduct detailed system engineering
of human and robotic systems on the moon incorporating realistic assumptions
of oxygen and water production.
Middle: Demonstrate and utilize full-scale production of oxygen and water in sufficient
capacities to meet life support, radiation-protection, and power system needs.
Demonstrate production of carbon-based fuel using recycled waste.
Late: Utilize locally produced oxygen, water and fuel to eliminate logistics supply of
consumables from Earth
exploration activities depends on reducing the cost of operations. Production of mission
consumables such as oxygen, water and carbon-based molecules as fuel will dramatically
reduce the cost of logistical supply from Earth.
Initiative A: Demonstrate small-scale robotic production and storage of oxygen from reduction of lunar
regolith.
Initiative B: Demonstrate hydrogen/water production techniques including extracting polar
water/ice/volatiles in permanently shadowed craters, solar wind volatiles, trash processing, and
propellant scavenging.
Initiative C: Develop multiple oxygen production from regolith techniques.
Initiative D: Develop and deploy full-scale production of life support consumables, including oxygen
and water, fully integrated with life support systems.
Initiative E: Develop and deploy full-scale production of power system reagents fully integrated with
surface power systems.
Initiative F: Develop carbon production or extraction techniques including solar wind volatiles, trash
processing, and composite material processing.
Initiative G: Develop retrieval of other valuable atomic/molecular species through recycling of waste.
Initiative H: Develop and deploy production of carbon-based fuels from recycled waste streams.
Initiative I: Develop nitrogen and other gas species production techniques including solar wind
volatiles, and trash/plastic processing.
Initiative J: Integrate the use of in-situ produced consumables by science instruments including fuel-
cell reagents, purge gases, coolants, etc.
Objective Sust-B-10: Establishment of in-situ food production capability.
Sustainable support for increasing numbers of people on the lunar surface will require the local
production of food supplies to reduce the cost of logistical resupply from Earth. Food production
depends on substantial supplies of water, oxygen, carbon and nitrogen beyond other life-support and
crew-protection needs and necessarily includes the complex recycling of waste. Food production
involves plant growth eventually expanding into livestock husbandry. Reliable food production and the
sustainable cost savings it represents might be among the most important contributions from the lunar
experience to human and robotic exploration of Mars and elsewhere.
Time Phasing:
Middle: Demonstrate plant growth in lunar laboratories and gradually introduce locally
grown produce into Outpost crew diet and waste recycling systems.
Late: Utilize locally produced food to eliminate logistics supply of consumables from
Earth
Priority: High (Middle), Medium (Late)
exploration activities depends on reducing the cost of operations. Local production of
food supplies will dramatically reduce the cost of logistical supply from Earth.
Initiative A: Develop plant growth capability linked to the lunar gravity and solar illumination
environment and including regolith-as-soil, plant nutrient production and integration of plants into the
atmosphere revitalization systems.
Initiative B: Develop livestock food production linked to the lunar gravity environment including the
expanded life support system expansion needed for its implementation.
Objective Sust-B-11: Establishment of in-situ repair, fabrication, manufacturing

and assembly capability.
Sustainable support for increasing diversity and complexity of assets on the lunar surface will require
the local repair of equipment, manufacture of spare parts and the manufacturing and assembly of new
equipment and instruments, all from local material feedstock. In-situ repair, fabrication and
manufacturing will reduce the cost of logistical resupply from Earth. Food production depends on
substantial capability to produce high-purity materials and shape and integrate parts into components of
high quality and reliability, and necessarily includes the complex recycling of waste materials for reuse.
In-situ repair, fabrication, manufacturing and assembly of equipment and instruments and the
sustainable cost savings they represent might be among the most important contributions from the lunar
experience to human and robotic exploration of Mars and elsewhere.
Time Phasing:
Early: Establish standards related to repair and spare parts manufacturing on the moon.
Middle: Demonstrate the production of high purity metals and semiconductor materials
from lunar regolith. Demonstrate the manufacture of simple metal parts and
photovoltaic cells and cell networks. Demonstrate maintenance and repair of
science instruments
Late: Utilize local repair, fabrication, manufacturing, and assembly capabilities to
eliminate logistics supply of parts from Earth
Priority: Medium (Early, Middle, and Late)
exploration activities depends on reducing the cost of operations. Local capability to
repair equipment and instruments, manufacture spare parts and new equipment for local
assembly will dramatically reduce the cost of logistical supply from Earth.
Initiative A: Establish standards for equipment and instrument design compatible with repairs in a lunar
environment.
Initiative B: Establish standards for equipment and instrument design compatible with relaxed
dimensional and material purity tolerances associated with parts manufacturing in a lunar environment.
Initiative C: Develop comprehensive tool kits for early human missions.
Initiative D: Demonstrate ability to repair or upgrade science instruments thru module swap-out.
Initiative E: Demonstrate ability to execute low-level repair of science instruments, such as soldering.
Initiative F: Identify the facility needs for a crew-supported habitable repair and upgrade facility that is
incorporated into the crew living and working quarters.
Initiative G: Demonstrate manufacturing and assembly of parts using retrievable digital designs,
including provisions for quality control.
Initiative H: Demonstrate and utilize surface preparation and construction equipment to support
fabrication of part of scientific instruments, such as a radio telescope formed using a modified crater.
Objective Sust-B-12: Establishment of integrated design, development and testing

capability.
Development and environmental testing costs for existing payloads sent in recent years to Mars are
millions of dollars per kilogram. Sustainable scientific investigation and exploration of the moon
requires that these costs be very substantially reduced through standardization, shared resources and
subsystems, and the creation of infrastructure such as power, communications and surface transportation
elements that offload these functions and the associated development costs from scientific and
exploration payloads. Additional benefit is to be gained from the establishment of effective system of
lessons learned from analog site testing, ISS and lunar surface precursor testing and results from
scientific investigations in the lunar, physical and life sciences. Finally, a comprehensive capability for
lunar environmental testing is needed to verify the function and reliability of components and systems
bound for the moon.
Time Phasing:
Early: Establish standards related to interoperability of components and subsystems.
Establish an international systems engineering convention for lunar systems to
ensure that infrastructure elements are broadly useful to scientific, exploration
and commercial users and providers. Identify and implement competitive lunar
environmental testing capability
Middle: Implement the lunar surface infrastructure in accordance with the internationally
accepted standards and conventions
Late: Adapt the lunar engineering standards to accommodate commercial innovation
and evolving capability to produce instrumentation and other hardware using
lunar resources
Priority: High (Early, Middle), Medium (Late)
exploration activities depends on reducing the cost of operations. Shared design
standards, lessons learned, environmental testing, and lunar infrastructure will reduce the
development and implementation costs of individual science investigation and
exploration activities.
Initiative A: Develop international standards and interfaces.

Initiative B: Promote interoperability and commonality of designs through a collaborative systems
engineering effort.
Initiative C: Conduct analog testing to demonstrate lunar capabilities and operations.
Initiative D: Conduct lunar environmental testing using terrestrial, ISS and lunar precursor facilities.
Initiative E: Utilize robotic and the initial human lunar missions to demonstrate infrastructure
capabilities and technologies and retire risk early for lunar settlement.
Goal Sust-C: Enhance the Security, Peace and Safety of People on
Earth
An aspect of the sustainability of lunar activity is the return of value to the people of Earth from
missions other than scientific and exploration pursuits that cannot be accomplished in other
ways. Uniqueness of the moon in this context stems from its position in space, its pristine
environment and isolation from the Earth’s environment.
Objective Sust-C-1: Detection and mitigation of threats from Near-Earth

objects.
Time Phasing:
Late: Establish detection system on the lunar surface or on an orbiting
platform in cis-lunar space to determine the flux of impacting material
and identify potential impactors that may threaten the Earth and Moon.
Priority: High
Rationale: Collision of near-Earth objects such as asteroids can affect operations
on the Moon and threaten human life on Earth.
Initiative A: Establish a detection system of impacts on the lunar surface to determine the flux
of material to the lunar surface and in Earth-Moon space to better assess the magnitude of the
impact hazard.
Initiative B: Expand the ground-based survey of near-Earth asteroids by using the lunar
exploration architecture to produce a more complete catalogue of objects in near-Earth space that
may pose a future impact threat.
Objective Sust-C-2: Beamed power and other lunar-based energy sources for
terrestrial consumption.
Time Phasing:
Late: Utilize lunar materials to create an energy and power generating
capability for consumption on Earth
Priority: High
137
exploration activities includes return of value to Earth. Substantial power can be
harvested from space-based solar-sources and converted into forms that can be
transferred to the Earth’s surface. Space generated power can reduce carbon
emissions and reduce dependence on energy from unreliable terrestrial sources.
Initiative A: Conduct detailed study to determine optimum site locations of solar-sourced power
beaming capabilities, including sites that may be exploited in conjunction with lunar science and
exploration such as the Earth-moon Lagrangian points.
Initiative B: Conduct detailed study of the technical feasibility and economics of supplying
lunar produced propellants to Earth orbiting satellites.
Objective Sust-C-3: Remote and Hazardous Research and Testing.
Time Phasing:
Late: Utilize the remoteness and sterility of the lunar environment to establish
capability to conduct high value but hazardous testing that cannot be
contemplated on Earth.
Priority: Medium
exploration activities may include the return of value that may be derived from
conducting hazardous research and testing on the moon. Such work would
involve sufficiently large hazards to warrant the extreme isolation possible on the
moon, such as extreme biological toxicity or infectious virulence.
Initiative A: Conduct detailed study to identify candidate hazardous testing needs and establish
cost benefit analysis parameters.
Initiative B: Conduct detailed study to determine optimum site locations for hazardous testing
facilities in conjunction with other human exploration site studies, including sites that may be
exploited in conjunction with lunar science and exploration such as the Earth-moon Lagrangian
points.
Objective Sust-C-4: Applied Earth observations.
Time Phasing:
Early: Establish the capability to conduct Earth observations on a hemi-
spherical scale for purposes of practical applications such as dynamic
weather, oceanic and forest/agricultural status.
Priority: Medium
138
Rationale: In conjunction with scientific observations of Earth, capabilities for
data collection for real-time analysis of weather evolution, oceanic and vegetation
and other dynamic systems on Earth can be observed on a hemispheric scale from
the lunar surface. Observation systems may have extended longevity and
opportunities for upgrading and maintenance by the intervention of human crew.
Initiative A: Conduct detailed study to determine optimum site locations of practical Earth
observation capabilities, in conjunction with other human activity site studies, and including sites
that may be exploited in conjunction with lunar science and exploration such as the Earth-moon
Lagrangian points.
Objective Sust-C-5: Archiving of Critical Human Records and Biological

Samples.
Time Phasing:
Early: Establish a repository of human records including scientific,
technological, historical, cultural, and other categories including not
only non-volatile digital data, but also selected biological samples for
preservation in case of catastrophic natural or human-induced disaster on
Earth.
Priority: Medium
Rationale: The sterile and stable environment on the moon can be used as a
repository of last resort for a compilation of human knowledge accessible to the
survivors of extreme disaster on the earth.
Initiative A: Conduct detailed study to determine optimum site locations for a massive data and
biological sample repository, including sites that may be exploited in conjunction with lunar
science and exploration such as the Earth-moon Lagrangian points.
Initiative B: Conduct detailed study to estimate the volume of data and sample storage
appropriate to such a repository.
139
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FOLLOW THE ROADMAP TO THE SOLAR SYSTEM AT
HTTP://WWW.LPI.USRA.EDU/LEAG/ROADMAP

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LUNAR EXPLORATION ROADMAP EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The Lunar Exploration Roadmap, jointly developed by engineers, planetary

Much like testing in analog field sites on Earth, lunar

Destinations. Sustainability: Use the Moon to learn how

Science: Use the Moon for scientific

Time Phasing Criteria

Figure 1: An example of roadmapping between Objectives.

Goal Sci-A: Understand the formation, evolution,

Objective Sci-A-1: Understand the environmental impacts of lunar exploration.

Investigation-A: Characterize the lunar exosphere and current gas/surface interactions to

Objective Sci-A-2: Development and implementation of sample return technologies

Time Phasing (applies to all Investigations):

Investigation-A: Develop a sampling strategy

Investigation-D: Enhance curatorial facilities on Earth to handle environmentally-sensitive

Objective Sci-A-3: Characterize the environment and processes in lunar polar

Investigation-A: Map and characterize polar cold traps

Investigation-B: Map and characterize quasi-permanently illuminated areas

Investigation-C: Determine bedrock geology of polar regions

Investigation-D: Understand volatile sources and mechanisms of transport and deposition

Investigation-C: Characterize the lunar regolith to understand space weathering processes in

Investigation-D: Characterize volatile concentrations and transport mechanisms

Investigation E: Determine the geotechnical properties of the lunar regolith.

Objective Sci-A-5: Understand lunar differentiation.

Time phasing (applies to all Investigations):

Investigation-A: Inventory, relationships, and ages of nonmare rocks

Investigation-C: Determine the composition, structure, and variability of the crust

Investigation-D: Determine the composition, structure, and variability of the mantle

Investigation-E: Determine size and composition of the core

Objective Sci-A-6: Understand volcanic processes.

Time phasing (applies to all Investigations):

Investigation-A: Determine how magma is generated and transported to the surface

Investigation-B: Determine how lava flows are emplaced on the Moon

Investigation-C: Determine the physical characteristics of pyroclastic deposits and vents

Investigation-D: Assessment of the volatiles driving lunar volcanic eruptions

Objective Sci-A-7: Understand the impact process.

Time Phasing (applies to all Investigations):

Investigation-B: Determine how impacts modify, redistribute, and mix materials

Investigation-C: Determine the origin and evolution of basin melt sheets

Investigation-D: Assess the possibility of impact-triggered magmatism

Investigation-E: Determine the production and evolution of the megaregolith

Objective Sci-A-8: Determine the stratigraphy, structure, and geological history of

Investigation-A: Understand the impact history of the Moon

Investigation-B: Determine the stratigraphy of the lunar maria

Investigation-C: Determine the stratigraphy of the lunar highlands

Investigation-D: Determine the tectonic history of the lunar crust

Objective Sci-A-9: Understand formation of the Earth-Moon system.

Time Phasing (applies to all Investigations):

Investigation-A: Determine the bulk composition of the crust

Investigation-B: Determine the bulk composition of the mantle

Investigation C: Determine the early thermal history of the Moon

Goal Sci-B: Use the Moon as a “witness plate” for

Time Phasing (applies to all Investigations):

Investigation-A: Determine the impact flux during the basin-forming epoch

Investigation-B: Determine the impact flux throughout the post-basin-forming epoch

Investigation-C: Determine the composition and source of impactors

Investigation-D: Characterize the impact hazard to the Earth-Moon system

Objective Sci-B-2: Regolith as a recorder of extra-lunar processes.

Time Phasing (applies to all Investigations):

Investigation-A: Characterize volatile concentrations and their variability

Investigation-D: Assess variations in cosmic radiation through time