Find Your Path….

SMARTECH EDUCATION
ISO CERTIFIED COMPUTER INSTITUTE
CHAPTER I
Introduction to Computer

Introduction to computer
The word computer has been derived from Latin language. A computer is an electronic
device that manipulates information or data according to the set of instructions. IT has
the ability to store, retrieve and process data. A computer is used to type documents,
send E-mails and browse the Internet. It is also used to handle accounting, database
management, presentations, games and so on.
Full form of Computer: - Common Operating Machine Purposely Used for Technological
and Educational Research.
Functioning of computer
1. Input – Information or data that is entered into a computer is called input.
2. Processing – it is the sequence of actions taken on data to convert it into
information.
3. Output – It makes processed data available to the user.
4. Storage – It stores data and programs permanently. It is used to store information.
History of Computer:-
 ABACUS:- (2000-3000BC)- One of the earliest known computing devices and
helped in calculating Arithmetic Problem.
 Charles Babbage:- (1791-1871)- Ist gave the idea of computer and also known as
“Father of Computer”.
 Charles Babbage invented two main computing System-
 Difference Engine:- (1820)- Designed to tabulate polynomial functions
 Analytical Engine:- (1837)- Used to calculated the numerical value of Trignometric
functions of any formula.

GENERATIONS OF COMPUTER
The development of computers that took place
in each time period is the “Generation of
Computer”. In each generation, there is always
something new in technology, the computers
became smaller, cheaper, more powerful, more
efficient, and reliable than the old generation
of computer. There are a total of five
Generations of Computer.
First Generation (Vacuum Tubes) – 1940-
1956:
This Generation computers relied on Machine Language (the Language of 0s and 1s) and
used Vacuum tubes as components of memory. They were huge in size and occupied
almost a room-size area to fit in.
 They were not capable of multitasking, and only one task could be performed at a
time
 There was no use of monitors; the output was directly given in the form of print
outs
 The electricity consumption was very high
Examples of computers developed in this generation are ENIAC – Electronic Numeric
Integrated and Computer, UNIVAC- Universal Automatic Computer, EDSAC – Electronic
Delay Storage Automatic Calculator and EDVAC – Electronic Discrete Variable
Automatic Computer.

ENIAC: Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer, built by J. Presper Eckert

and John V. Mauchly was a general-purpose computer. It had been very heavy,
large, and contained 18,000 vacuum tubes.
EDVAC: Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer was designed by von
Neumann. It could store data also as instruction and thus the speed was enhanced.
UNIVAC: Universal Automatic Computer was developed in 1952 by Eckert and
Mauchly.

Second Generation (Transistors) – 1956-1963:

The second generation of computers consists of two types of devices, transistors, and
magnetic core. The transistors helped to develop a better computer than the first
generation computers consisting of vacuum tubes. Some second generations of
computers are IBM 1920, IBM 7094, CDC 1604, CDC 3600, IBM 1401, etc.
The first-ever transistor was invented in 1947 but could never be used in the computer
until the 1950s.
 They are smaller in size as compare to the first generation.
 It is more reliable
 Uses less power and generates less heat.
 The speed of the second generation is faster as compared to the first generation.
 Second generation computers have improved accuracy and offer better portability.
Two significant developments during this phase include the development of
FORTRAN or Formula Translation and COBOL or Common Business Oriented
Language, which was developed for business use.

Third Generation (Integrated Circuits) – 1964-1971:

The development of third generation computers is marked by the period when the
transistors were replaced by integrated circuits (IC) was widely used as the main
technology in third generation computers. In particularly, the transistors were
assembled on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which resulted in faster speed I the
computer and improved efficiency.
 Use of integrated circuit as basic technology.
 Use high level programming languages such as COBOL, FORTAN-II to IV, BASIC
PASCAL PL/1, ALGOL-68 etc.
 Use of keyboards and monitors as the input-output devices.
 Use of line printer
 Use of magnetic storage devices.
A few examples from this Generation of computer are PDP 8, IBM 360, ICL 2900, etc.

Fourth Generation (Microprocessors) – 1972-2010:

Fourth Generation of computers was between 1971 – 2010. These computers used the VLSI
technology or the Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuit’s technology. Therefore they
were also known as the microprocessors. Intel was the first company to develop a
microprocessor. The first “personal computer” or PC developed by IBM, belonged to this
generation. VLSI circuits had almost about 5000 transistors on a very small chip and were
capable of performing many high-level tasks and computations. These computers were thus
very compact and thereby required a small amount of electricity to run.

The computers which were introduced during this Generation include Apple II, the
first IBM computer, STAR 1000, and many more.
Here are some characteristics of fourth generation.
 Smaller in size as compare to previous generation computer.
 Graphical User Interface (GUI) technology was introduced.
 Portable and cheaper than previous generation.
 Low maintenance cost.
 High level language used.
 The heat generated was negligible.
 No cooling system required in many cases.

Fifth Generation (Artificial Intelligence) – 2010-till date:

The current generation of computers which have made our lives easier and more
convenient is all a part of the fifth generation of the computer. Fifth generation uses
ultra-large-scale integration chips millions of transistors are placed in a single IC in
ULSI Chips. The use of parallel processing and super conductors is helping to make
artificial intelligence a reality.
Examples: IBM notebook, Pentium PCs, SUN Workstations and PARAM 10000.
Given below is some basic information about the 5th generation of computers:

 Artificial intelligence is being used in devices currently which has enabled millions
on tasks to be completed within seconds on a device.
 Advancement in the functioning of laptops, palmtops, etc.
 Other robotic devices have started being used to reduce human labour.
 The devices from this generation are cost-effective, faster, consume lesser
electricity and are easily portable and convenient to us
 True artificial intelligence is being developed.
 Parallel Processing has progressed.
 Superconductor technology has progressed.

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER
Analog : An analog computer is a form of computer that uses the continuously-
changeable aspects of physical fact such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic
quantities to model the problem being solved. Any thing that is variable with respect to
time and continuous can be claimed as analog just like an analog clock measures time
by means of the distance traveled for the spokes of the clock around the circular dial.
Digital : A computer that performs calculations and logical operations with quantities
represented as digits, usually in the binary number system of “0” and “1”, “Computer
capable of solving problems by processing information expressed in discrete form. from
manipulation of the combinations of the binary digits, it can perform mathematical
calculations, organize and analyze data, control industrial and other processes, and
simulate dynamic systems such as global weather patterns.

Hybrid : A computer that processes both analog and digital data, Hybrid computer is a
digital computer that accepts analog signals, converts them to digital and processes
them in digital form.

Super computers : A supercomputer is a computer with a high level of performance

compared to a general-purpose computer. The actual Performance of a supercomputer is
measured in FLOPS instead of MIPS. Supercomputers are used for data-intensive and
computation-heavy scientific and engineering purposes such as quantum mechanics,
weather forecasting, oil and gas exploration, molecular modelling, physical simulations,
aerodynamics, nuclear fusion research and cryptoanalysis

Mainframe Computer – A mainframe computer, informally called a mainframe or big

iron, is a computer used primarily by large organizations for critical applications like
bulk data processing for tasks such as censuses, industry and consumer statistics,
enterprise resource planning, and large-scale transaction processing.

Minicomputer – Usually a single user system is called a work station. The RAM for such
systems is more, and the processors are quite fast. They are mostly used by an
individual and can be used for multiple purposes.

Microcomputer – Designed for personal use only. This type of computers can easily be
moved from one place to the other. They have a personal storage area, input & output
unit and a Central Processing Unit. Examples for microcomputer are desktop, laptop,
mobile phone, tables, etc.

Computer Memory:

Introduction:
One of the major advantages of computer is its storage capacity where huge amount of
information can be stored. This storage area is known as the Memory of the computer.
The computer memory is one of the most important in a computer system. It stores data
and instructions required during the processing of data and output results. Storage may
be required for a limited period of time, instantly or for an extended period of time. It
also relates to many devices that are responsible for storing data on a temporary or a
permanent basis.
The memory of the computer is divided into two categories:
1.Primary Memory
2.Secondary Memory

Primary Memory
This is the main memory of the computer. CPU can directly read
or write on this memory. It is fixed on the motherboard of the
computer. The primary memory allows the computer to store
data for immediate manipulation and to keep track of what is
currently being processed. It has limited storage capacity. Main
memory is volatile in nature, it means that when the power is
turned OFF, the contents of this memory are lost forever.
Primary memory is further divided in two types:

1.RAM(Random Access Memory)

2.ROM(Read Only Memory )
RAM (Random Access Memory)
RAM is a temporary memory. It is also known as read/write memory that allows CPU to
read as well as write data and instructions into it. RAM is used
for the temporary storage of input data, output data and
intermediate results.
There are two types of RAM
1. Static RAM
2. Dynamic RAM

ROM (Read Only Memory)

Information stored in ROM is permanent in nature, i.e., it holds
the data even if the system is switched off. It holds the starting
instructions for the computer. ROM cannot be overwritten by the
computer. It is also called Non-Volatile Memory.

Types of Read-Only Memory (ROM):

1. PROM (Programmable read-only memory)
2. EPROM (Erasable programmable read-only memory)
3. EEPROM (Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory)
Secondary Memory
This memory is permanent in nature. It is used to store the different programs and the
information permanently (which were temporarily stored in RAM). It holds the
information till we erase it.
Different types of secondary storage devices are:
Hard Disc, Compact Disc, DVD, Pen Drive, Flash Drive, etc.
Hard Disc
Hard discs are storage devices designed to hold a
lot of information. Hard discs, often known as hard
disc drives, are available in a variety of storage
capacities. (For example, 256 GB, 500 GB, 1 TB,
and 2 TB). It is made up of platters, which are a
collection of discs. The dishes are stacked one on
top of the other. They have a magnetic coating on
them. Each platter is made up of a number of
invisible circles, each of which has the same
central track. Internal and external hard discs are
the two types of hard discs.

Compact Disc – A Compact Disc or the CD is a

type of secondary storage media that is widely utilised. Its surface is
covered in tracks and sectors. It is composed of polycarbonate
plastic and has a round form. CDs have a data storage capacity of
up to 700 MB. A CD is also known as a CD-ROM (Compact Disc
Read-Only Memory) because computers can read the data on it but
not write new data onto it.
There are two types of CDs:
CD-R or compact disc recordable – It is not possible to remove
data that has been written onto it; it can only be read.
CD-RW or compact disc rewritable – It’s a particular kind of CD that allows us to wipe
and rewrite data as many times as we desire, so It’s also known as an erasable CD.
3. Digital Versatile Disc – DVD stands for Digital Versatile Disc. It resembles a CD, but
it has a larger storage capacity; up to 4.7 GB of data can be stored. To use a DVD on a
computer, a DVD-ROM drive is required. Video files, such as movies or video recordings,
are commonly saved on DVDs, which may be played with a DVD player. There are three
different kinds of DVDs available:

SSD : An SSD, or solid-state drive, is a type of storage device used in computers. This
non-volatile storage media stores persistent data on solid-state flash memory. SSDs
replace traditional hard disk drives (HDDs) in computers and perform the same basic
functions as a hard drive. But SSDs are significantly faster in
comparison. With an SSD, the device's operating system will boot up
more rapidly, programs will load quicker and files can be saved faster.
It’s faster, makes no noise (since it doesn’t have any moving parts like
a hard drive), uses less electricity, and so on. If the price is right, it’s a
perfect replacement for regular hard drives in laptops and desktops,
and it’s also ideal for tablets, notebooks, and other devices that don’t
require a lot of storage.

Flash Drive: It is an electronic memory device popularly known as pen

drive in which data can be stored permanently and erased when not
needed. it is a portable storage device that can be easily connected and
removed from the CPU to store data in it.its capacity can vary form 2
GB to 1TB.

Floppy Disk – A flop py disc refers to a magnetic disc housed in a square plastic
container. It is primarily used to store information and then transfer it from one device
to another. There are two sizes of floppy discs (a) Size: 3.5 inches, 1.44 MB storage
capacity (b) Size: 5.25 inches and 1.2 MB storage capacity. A computer must consist of
a floppy disc drive for using a floppy disc. Such a storage device is now obsolete, and
DVDs, CDs, and flash drives have taken its place.

SD Card – A Secure Digital Card (SD Card) is commonly used to store data in portable
devices such as cell phones and cameras. It comes in a variety of capacities, including 1,
2, 4, 8, 16, 32, and 64 GB. You can access the data present in the SD card by removing
it from the device and inserting it into a computer using a card reader. The data in the
SD card is stored in memory chips (which are included in the SD card), and there are no
moving elements like there are on a hard disc.

Cache Memory is a special very high-speed memory. It is an extremely fast memory type
that acts as a buffer between RAM and the CPU. It holds frequently requested data and
instructions so that they are immediately available to the CPU when needed. Cache
memory is used to reduce the average time to access
data from the Main memory. The cache is a smaller
and faster memory that stores copies of the data from
frequently used main memory locations. There are
various different independent caches in a CPU, which
store instructions and data.
Levels of memory:
Level 1 or Register – It is a type of memory in which data is stored and accepted that
are immediately stored in CPU. Most commonly used register is accumulator, Program
counter, address register etc.
Level 2 or Cache memory – It is the fastest memory which has faster access time where
data is temporarily stored for faster access.
Level 3 or Main Memory – It is memory on which computer works currently. It is small
in size and once power is off data no longer stays in this memory.
Level 4 or Secondary Memory – It is external memory which is not as fast as main
memory but data stays permanently in this memory.

Memory Units
Memory Unit is the amount of data that can be stored in the storage unit. This storage
capacity is expressed in terms of Bytes.
Bit - 0, 1,
UNIT OF COMPUTER MEMORY MEASUREMENTS
1 Bit= Binary Digit
4 Bits= 1 Nibble
8 Bits= 1 Byte
1024 Bytes= 1 KB (Kilo Byte)
1024 KB= 1 MB (Mega Byte)
1024 MB = 1 GB (Giga Byte)
1024 GB= 1 TB (Terra Byte)
1024 TB= 1 PB (Peta Byte)
1024 PB= 1 EB (Exa Byte)
1024 EB= 1 ZB (Zetta Byte)
1024 ZB= 1 YB (Yotta Byte)
1024 YB=1 (Bronto Byte)
1024 Brontobyte=1 (Geop Byte)
Geop Byte is the Highest Memory
 CHAPTER II
COMPUTER HARDWARE and Software

Definition- Computer contains the combination of hardware and software. Computer

hardware is group of the all physical (touchable) components that are easily
manageable, and all software are useless without implementing the computer hardware
parts, all software’s are performed on the hardware. With the using of input hardware
components can be inserted the input to computer, and retrieve the useful output with
the help of output hardware devices.

Computer
Hardware

Input Devices Processing Output Storage

Devices Devices Devices

Magnetic
Keyboard Processor Speaker
Tape

Magnetic
Mouse RAM Moniter
Disk

Track Ball ROM Printer Optical Disk

Flash
Joystick Motherboard Plotter
Memory

lIGHT PEN

Touch
Screeen

Scanner

Keyboard
A computer keyboard is an input device used to enter characters and functions into the
computer system by pressing buttons, or keys. It is the primary device used to enter
text. A keyboard typically contains keys for individual letters, numbers and special
characters, as well as keys for specific functions.
The keys on your keyboard can be divided into several groups based on function:
Typing (alphanumeric) keys. These keys include the same letter, number, punctuation,
and symbol keys found on a traditional typewriter.
Control keys. These keys are used alone or in combination with other keys to perform
certain actions. The most frequently used control keys are Ctrl, Alt, the Windows logo
key , and Esc.
Function keys. The function keys are used to perform specific tasks. They are labeled
as F1, F2, F3, and so on, up to F12. The functionality of these keys differs from program
to program.
Navigation keys. These keys are used for moving around in documents or webpages
and editing text. They include the arrow keys, Home, End, Page Up, Page Down, Delete,
and Insert.
Numeric keypad. The numeric keypad is handy for entering numbers quickly. The keys
are grouped together in a block like a conventional calculator or adding machine.

Mouse:-Douglas Engelbart is computer mouse inventor. Mouse is a pointing

input device of computer. Mouse help to control cursor that is visible on the computer
screen while moving the mouse on flat surface place. Its name was originated by its
shape that look as mouse, because it has elliptical shaped with mouse tail.

Trackball
It is another Pointing device which is an alternative to a mouse.
Trackball is also used to Control cursor movements an actions on a
computer screen. Trackball is used on CAD/CAM workstation and
sometimes seen on computerized special purpose workstations such as
radar consoles in an air-traffic control room and sonar equipment on a
ship or submarine.

Joystick
A joystick is an input device that can be used for controlling the movement
of the cursor or a pointer in a computer device. It is mostly used for gaming
applications and, sometimes, in graphics applications. A joystick also can
be helpful as an input device for people with movement disabilities.
Light pen
It is a handheld electro-optical pointing device, which is used for making
drawings, graphics and for menu selection. The pen contains a photocell
in a small tube, it is used to especially in personal Digital Assistants.

Touch Screen
It is an input device that accepts input when the user places a fingertip on the computer
screen. Touch screens have an infrated beam that criss-cross the surface of screen.
Touch screen is generally used in applications like ATM, hospitals, airline reservation,
supermarkets, etc.
Scanner
It is used to convert the data and image on paper into the digital form.
Scanner is an optical input device and uses light as an input source to
convert an image into an electronic form that can be stored on the
computer. Scanners can be used for storing the documents in their
original form that can be modified and manipulated later on.

Barcode Reader (BCR)

It is an input device used for reading printed barcodes available on
product to be sold. A barcode reader emits a beam of light which reflects
off the barcode image.

Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

OMR is also known as Optical Mark Recognition. It is the process of
detecting the presence of intended marked responses. OMR is mainly used
to detect marks on a paper. It uses a beam of light that is reflected on t he
paper with marks, to capture presence and absence of data (marks).
Optical Character Recognition (OCR)
OCR is a technique for the scanning of a printed page, translating it and
then using the OCR software to recognize the image as ASCII text that is
editable. It translates the array of dots into text that the computer can
interpret as words and letters. OCR is widely used technique for
acquiring the textual data from image.
Magnetic Ink Character recognition (MICR)
The characters are printed using a special ink, which contains iron
particles that can be magnetized. It is generally used in banks to
process the cheques for recognizing the magnetic encoding numbers
printed at the bottom of a cheque.
Biometric Sensor
It is a device which recognizes physical or behavioural traits of
individual. Biometric sensors are used for marking attendance of
employees/students in organisations//institutions. As biometric
sensors are working with accuracy so these are widely used in security
purpose also.
Webcam (Web Camera)
It is a video capturing device. Webcam is a digital camera attached to
computes and can be used for video conferencing, online chatting etc.
Now-a-days, webcams are either embedded into the display with laptop
computers or connected via USB or firewire port or Wi-Fi to computer.
OUTPUT DEVICES
An Output device is any piece of computer hardware equipment used to communicate
the results of data processing carried out by an information processing to the outside
world.

Monitor
The monitor is the display unit or screen of the computer. It is the main output device
that displays the processed data or information as text, images, audio or video.

CRT monitors are based on the cathode ray tubes. The main components of a CRT
monitor include the electron gun assembly, deflection plate assembly, fluorescent
screen, glass envelope, and base. The front (outer surface) of the screen onto which
images are produced is called the face plate. It is made up of fiber optics.

LCD Monitor
It is based on liquid crystal display technology which is used in the screens of laptops,
tablets, smart phones, etc. An LCD screen comprises two layers of polarized glass with a
liquid crystal solution between them. When the light passes through the first layer, an
electric current aligns the liquids crystals. The aligned liquid crystals allow a varying
level of light to pass through the second layer to create images on the screen.

LED Monitor
The LED monitor is an improved version of an LCD monitor. It also has a flat panel
display and uses liquid crystal display technology like the LCD monitors. The difference
between them lies in the source of light to backlight the display. The LED monitor has
many LED panels, and each panel has several LEDs to backlight the display, whereas
the LCD monitors use cold cathode fluorescent light to backlight the display. Modern
electronic devices such as mobile phones, LED TVs, laptop and computer screens, etc.,
use a LED display as it not only produces more brilliance and greater light intensity but
also consumes less power.

Printer
A printer produces hard copies of the processed data. It enables the user, to print
images, text or any other information onto the paper.
Based on the printing mechanism, the printers are of two types: Impact Printers and
Non-impact Printers.

Impact Printer
The impact printer uses a hammer or print head to print the character or images onto
the paper. The hammer or print head strikes or presses an ink ribbon against the paper
to print characters and images.

Impact printers are further divided into two types

Character Printers
Line printers
A) Character Printers
Character printer prints a single character at a time or with a single stroke of the print
head or hammer.

i) Dot Matrix Printer

Dot Matrix Printer is an impact printer. The characters and images
printed by it are the patterns of dots. These patterns are produced
by striking the ink soaked ribbon against the paper with a print
head. The print head contains pins that produce a pattern of dots
on the paper to form the individual characters.

ii) Daisy Wheel Printer

Daisy a wheel or disk that has spokes or extensions and looks like
a daisy, so it is named Daisy Wheel printer. to create the
impression. It cannot be used to print graphics and is often noisy
and slow, i.e., the speed is very low To print a character the
printer rotates the wheel, and when the desired character is on the
print location the hammer hits disk and the extension hits the ink
ribbon against the paper around 25-50 characters per second.

B) Line Printers:

Line printer, which is also as a bar printer, prints one line at a time. It is a high-speed
impact printer as it can print 500 to 3000 lines per minute. Drum printer and chain
printer are examples of line printers.

i) Drum Printer:

Drum printer is a line printer that is made of a rotating drum

to print characters. The drum has circular bands of characters
on its surface. It has a separate hammer for each band of
characters. When you print, the drum rotates, and when the
desired character comes under the hammer, the hammer strikes the ink ribbon against
the paper to print characters. The drum rotates at a very high speed and characters are
printed by activating the appropriate hammers.

ii) Chain Printer:

Chain printer is a line printer that uses a rotating chain to

print characters. The characters are embossed on the
surface of the chain. The chain rotates horizontally around
a set of hammers, for each print location one hammer is
provided, i.e., the total number of hammers is equal to the
total number of print positions.

Non-Impact Printer:
Non-impact printers don't print characters or images by striking a print head or hammer
on the ink ribbon placed against the paper. They print characters and images without
direct physical contact between the paper and the printing machinery

i) Laser Printer:
A laser printer is a non-impact printer that uses a laser beam to
print the cha racters. The laser beam hits the drum, which is a
photoreceptor and draws the image on the drum by altering
electrical charges on the drum. The drum then rolls in toner, and the
charged image on the drum picks the toner. The toner is then
printed on the paper using heat and pressure.

ii) Inkjet Printer:

The inkjet printer is a non-impact printer that prints images and

characters by spraying fine,ionized drops of ink. The print head
has tiny nozzles to spray the ink. The printer head moves back
and forth and sprays ionized drops of ink on the paper, which is
fed through the printer. These drops pass through an electric
field that guides the ink onto the paper to print correct images
and characters.

A thermal printer is a printer that makes use of heat in order to

produce the image on paper. Due to quality of print, speed, and
technological advances it has become increasingly popular and is
mostly used in airline, banking, entertainment, retail, grocery, and
healthcare industries. Thermal printing does not make use of ink or
toner unlike many other printing forms but largely depends on
thermal papers for producing the images. They are also quiet
popular in creating labels owing to speed of printing.

Plotter
A plotter is a computer hardware device much like a printer
that is used for printing vector graphics. Instead of toner,
plotters use a pen, pencil, marker, or another writing tool to
draw multiple, continuous lines onto paper rather than a series
of dots like a traditional printer. Though once widely used
for computer-aided design, these devices have more or less been
phased out by wide-format printers. Plotters produce a hard
copy of schematics and other similar applications.
Speaker
A computer speaker is an output hardware device that connects to a
computer to generate sound. The signal used to produce the sound that
comes from a computer speaker is created by the computer's sound card.

PROCESSING devices
Processors
A processor is a piece of hardware that interprets the instructions
that drive a computer. Processors are the brains of a computer with
good reason. Without a processor, computers could not run
programs. Intel and AMD are the most well-known businesses in the
CPU industry for desktops, laptops, and server computers. Intel Core
and AMD Ryzen are some of the most popular desktop processors.
Ram
Random access memory (RAM) is a computer's short-term memory,
which it uses to handle all active tasks and apps. None of your
programs, files, games, or streams would work without RAM. RAM is
temporary storage that goes away when the power turns off.

Rom
ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can
only read but cannot write on it. This type of memory is non-volatile.
The information is stored permanently in such memories during
manufacture. A ROM stores such instructions that are required to
start a computer. This operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM
chips are not only used in the computer but also in other electronic
items like washing machine and microwave oven.

Motherboard
A motherboard provides connectivity
between the hardware components of
a computer, like the processor (CPU),
memory (RAM), hard drive, and video
card. There are multiple types of
motherboards, designed to fit different
types and sizes of computers.
The motherboard is mounted inside
the case and is securely attached via
small screws through pre-drilled
holes. Motherboards provide ports to
attach the floppy drive, hard drive,
and optical drives via ribbon cables.
Motherboard carries fans and a
special port designed for power
supply.
There is a peripheral card slot in front of the motherboard using which video cards,
sound cards, and other expansion cards can be connected to the motherboard. On the
left side, motherboards carry a number of ports to connect the monitor, printer, mouse,
keyboard, speaker, and network cables. Motherboards also provide USB ports, which
allow compatible devices to be connected in plug-in/plug-out fashion. For example, pen
drive, digital cameras, etc.

STORAGE DEVICES
Magnetic tape is a storage medium that has provided a viable
option for storing, archiving, or backing up data from large
computer systems. It's been around for a hu ndred years or so,
starting with the invention of the Telegraphone in 1898.
Magnetic Disk is type of secondary memory which is a flat disc
covered with magnetic coating to hold information. It is used to
store various programs and files. ... Magnetic disk are less
expensive than RAM and can store large amounts of data, but data access rate is slower
than main memory because of secondary memory.

An optical disc the CDs, Blu-ray, and DVDs are

the most common types of optical media, which
are usually used to transfer data to various devices
or computers and used to deliver the software to
others. They help users to hold large amounts of
data, like videos, photos, music, and more. Also,
optical media are used to get back up from a local
machine.

Pen drive is a portable memory device that uses

solid state memory rather than magnetic fields or
lasers to record data. It uses a technology similar
to RAM, except that it is nonvolatile. It is also
called USB drive, key drive or flash memory.
COMPUTER SOFTWARE

Software is a collection of computer programs and related data that provide the
instructions for telling a computer what to do and how to do. A software is an interface
between the user and the computer hardware. It is responsible for controlling,
integrating and managing the hardware components of a computer system and for
accomplishing specific tasks.
Software- Set of Program
Program- Set of instruction
Instruction- set of valid syntax
Software

System Application Utility Other

Software Software Software Software

Oprating MS Word Antivirus

Free Ware
System

Compiler MS Excel Dist Cleanup Shareware

MS
Interpreter Backup OSS
Powerpoint

Linker MS Access

Loader
Operating System
An Operating System (OS) is a software that acts as an interface between computer
hardware components and the user. Every computer system must have at least one
operating system to run other programs. It is not possible for the user to use any
computer or mobile device without having an operating system.
Example of OS- Windows XP, Windows 8, Windows 10, Windows vista, Linux, Unix.

Functions of Operating System

Some typical operating system functions may include managing memory, files,
processes, I/O system & devices, security, etc.
Below are the main functions of Operating System:
Functions of Operating System
In an operating system software performs each of the function:
1. Process management:- Process management helps OS to create and delete
processes. It also provides mechanisms for synchronization and communication
among processes.
2. Memory management:- Memory management module performs the task of
allocation and de-allocation of memory space to programs in need of this
resources.
3. File management:- It manages all the file-related activities such as organization
storage, retrieval, naming, sharing, and protection of files.
4. Device Management: Device management keeps tracks of all devices. This
module also responsible for this task is known as the I/O controller. It also
performs the task of allocation and de-allocation of the devices.
5. I/O System Management: One of the main objects of any OS is to hide the
peculiarities of that hardware devices from the user.
7. Security:- Security module protects the data and information of a computer
system against malware threat and authorized access.

Compiler
A compiler is a computer program which helps you transform source code written in a
high-level language into low-level machine language. It translates the code written in one
programming language to some other language without changing the meaning of the
code. The compiler also makes the end code efficient which is optimized for execution
time and memory space.
Interpreter An interpreter is a computer program that converts program statements
into machine code. Program statements include source code, pre-compiled code, and
scripts. An interpreter works more or less similar to a compiler. The only difference
between their working is that the interpreter does not generate any intermediate code
forms, reads the program line to line checking for errors, and runs the program
simultaneously.
Assembler An assembler is a program that takes basic computer instructions and
converts them into a pattern of bits that the computer's processor can use to perform
its basic operations. Some people call these instructions assembler language and
others use the term assembly language.
Linker is a program in a system which helps to link a object modules of program into a
single object file. It performs the process of linking. Linker are also called link editors.
Linking is process of collecting and maintaining piece of code and data into a single
file. Linker also link a particular module into system library. It takes object modules
from assembler as input and forms an executable file as output for loader.
Linking is performed at both compile time, when the source code is translated into
machine code and load time, when the program is loaded into memory by the loader.
Linking is performed at the last step in compiling a program.
Loader In computer systems a loader is the part of an operating system that is
responsible for loading programs and libraries. It is one of the essential stages in the
process of starting a program, as it places programs into memory and prepares them for
execution. Loading a program involves reading the contents of the executable
file containing the program instructions into memory, and then carrying out other
required preparatory tasks to prepare the executable for running. Once loading is
complete, the operating system starts the program by passing control to the loaded
program code.
APPLICATION SOFTWARE
Application software or simply application (app) has become our everyday companion.
From the Microsoft Office suite of products to Gmail and Facebook Messenger, all of us
use different types of application software to meet various personal and professional
purposes.

MS WORD
Sometimes called Winword, MS Word, or Word, Microsoft Word is a word
processor published by Microsoft. It is one of the office productivity applications
included in the Microsoft Office suite. Originally developed by Charles Simonyi
and Richard Brodie, it was first released in 1983.Microsoft Word allows you to create
professional-quality documents, reports, letters, and résumés. Unlike a plain text editor,
Microsoft Word has features including spell check, grammar check, text
and font formatting, HTML support, image support, advanced page layout, and more.
The name of MS Word file can be 255 Character long followed by .doc ( File Extension).
Important Shortcuts Used in Microsoft Office:
Shortcut Keys Of The Keyboard
1. Function keys
F1 : Open help box
F2 : Rename File and Folders
F3 : Activate search function in application
F4 : Alt+F4 Close program and shut down
F5 : Refresh
F6 : Moves the cursor to the address bar in web browser
F7 : Spelling and grammar check
F8 : Forwards
F9 : Refreshes a document in MS-word
F10 : Activate menu bar in open application and shift+F10 work as a right click
F11 : Enter and exit full screen mode in web browser
F12 : Save As

2. A to Z Shortcut Keys
Ctrl+A : Select all Text
Ctrl+B : Bold the text
Ctrl+C : Copy selected item or text
Ctrl+D : Create Bookmark in web browser
Ctrl+E : Center alignment
Ctrl+F : Open find window
Ctrl+G : Goto command
Ctrl+H : Replace command
Ctrl+I : Italic the text
Ctrl+J : Justify alignment
Ctrl+K : Insert Hyperlink
Ctrl+L : Left alignment
Ctrl+N : Open new document and new tab in web browser
Ctrl+O : Open a file in current software
Ctrl+P : Print
Ctrl+R : Right alignment
Ctrl+S : Save the current file
 Ctrl+U : Underline the text
Ctrl+V : paste
Ctrl+W : Close the current window, tab or program
Ctrl+ X : Cut selected item or text
Ctrl+Y : Redo
Ctrl+Z : Undo
Home : Goes to the beginning of current line
End : Goes to the end of current line
Ctrl+Home : Goes to beginning of document
Ctrl+End : Goes to end of document
Ctrl+Esc : Open start menu

Ctrl+left arrow : moves one word to the left at a time

Ctrl+right arrow : moves one word to the right at a time
Ctrl+shift+Esc : Open window task manager
Shift+F3 : Change case of test
Ctrl+Mouse Scroll Wheel : Zoom In/Out
Window+Left or right arrow : Arrange two tabs side by side
MS PowerPoint is a program that is included in the Microsoft Office suite. It is used to
make presentations for personal and professional purposes. It is a powerful, easy-to-use
presentation graphics software program that allows you to create professional-looking
electronic slide shows. Extension used in Powerpoint is .ppt. The MS-PowerPoint can
maximum zoom to 400% only. In MS-PowerPoint, we can add many types of images and
sound format such as .gif, .bmp, .png, .jpg, .giv, .wav, .mid, etc.
Excel is a spreadsheet application developed and published by Microsoft. It is part
of the Microsoft Office suite of productivity software. Unlike a word processor, such as
Microsoft Word, Excel organizes data in columns and rows. ... Each cell can contain a
single of data, such as text, a numerical value, or a formula. Excel is typically used to
organize data and perform financial analysis. It is used across all business functions
and at companies from small to large. Extension of Excel is .xls.
SHORTCUT KEYS DESCRIPTION
F2 Edit the selected cell
F5 Go to a specific cell e.g. C6
F7 Checks the spellings
F11 Create Chart
Ctrl+Shift+; Enter the current time
Ctrl+; Enter the current date
Alt+Shift +F1 Insert new worksheet
Shift +F3 Open the Insert Function window
Shift+F5 Open Find and Replace dialog box with find tab

Microsoft Access is a database management system (DBMS) from Microsoft that

combines the relational Microsoft Jet Database Engine with a graphical user
interface and software-development tools. It is a member of the Microsoft 365 suite of
applications, included in the Professional and higher editions or sold separately.
Microsoft Access stores data in its own format based on the Access Jet Database Engine.
It can also import or link directly to data stored in other applications and databases.
Microsoft Access is a Database Management System (DBMS) from Microsoft that
combines the relational Microsoft Jet Database Engine with a graphical user interface
and software development tools. It is a member of the Microsoft Office suite of
applications, included in the professional and higher editions. Extension of MS-Access is
.aadb.
Components of MS-Access
There are four components as follows:
1. Table : Stores the data in your database.
 2. Queries: Get Information from the data stored in the tables.
3. Reports : allow printing the data, based on queries or tables created by user.
4. Forms: Make it easy to enter data in the tables. A form is an interface for adding
and editing data.

Various data types used in MS-Access:

Data Type Field Length or Field Size
Text 0-255 Characters
Memo 0-65535 Characters
Number 1,2,4 or 8 bytes
Date/Time 8 bytes
Currency 8 bytes
Auto Number 8 bytes
Yes/No 1 bit (0 or1)
OLE Object Upto 1 GB
Hyperlink Each part contains 2048 characters

Utility Software
The Utility Software is system software that helps to maintain the proper and smooth
functioning of a Computer System. It assists the Operating System to manage, organize,
maintain, and optimize the functioning of the computer system. UtilitySoftware performs
certain tasks like virus detection, installation, and uninstallation, data backup, deletion
of unwanted files, etc. Some examples are antivirus software, file management tools,
compression tools, disk management tools, etc.
Types of Utility Software
1. Antivirus
A virus is a malicious software that enters the system along with a host program.
Moreover, it multiplies with time and makes several copies which in turn slows down
and corrupts the system. An antivirus is a utility software that helps to keep the
computer virus-free. Moreover, it notifies when any malicious file is detected and
removes such files. In addition, it scans any new device attached to the computer and
discards any virus if there. Moreover, it also scans the system from time to time for any
threats and disposes of them. Examples of antivirus are McAfee Antivirus, Quickheal
Antivirus, Windows Defender, etc.
2. File Management System
These utility software are used to manage files of the computer system. Since files are an
important part of the system as all the data is stored in the files. Therefore, this utility
software help to browse, search, arrange, find information, and quickly preview the files
of the system. Windows Explorer is a default file management tool present in the system.
Some other examples of file management tools are Google Desktop, Double Commander,
Directory Opus, etc.
3. Compression Tools
An important part of a computer is storage space, it is very important to maintain this
storage. Therefore, we use certain utility software to compress big files and decrease
their size, these are compression tools. The format of the files changes while
compressing and we cannot access or edit them directly. In addition, we can easily
decompress the file and get the original file back. Examples of compression tools are
WinZip, WinRAR, WinAce, PeaZip, 7-Zip, etc.
4. Disk Management Tools
These utility software are used to manage data on disks. Moreover, they perform
functions like partitioning devices, manage drives, etc. Examples of disk management
tools are MiniTool Partition Wizard, Paragon Partition Manager, etc.
5. Disk Clean-up Tool
This utility software helps to free up the disk space. In addition, the files which are no
longer in use are removed from the disk. Examples are Razer Cortex, Piriform Cleaner,
etc.
6. Disk Defragmenter
This utility software helps to reduce the fragmentation and hence, reduces the access
speed. Defragmenting refers to rearranging files and storing them in contiguous memory
locations. Moreover, saves time in reading from files and writing files to disk. Examples
of disk defragmenters are Perfect disk, Deflaggler, etc.
7. Backup Utility
This utility software helps to back up the files, folders, databases, or complete disks.
Moreover, backup refers to duplicating the disk information so that the data can be
restored if any data loss happens.

Other Software
Freeware
Freeware software is a software that is available free of cost. An user can download
freeware from internet and uses it. These softwares do not provide any freedom of
modifying, sharing and studying the program as in open source software. Freeware
is closed source.

Users prefer freeware because of following reasons –

 Available free of cost
 Can be distributed free of cost
Some examples of freeware software are –
 Adobe PDF
 yahoo messenger
 Google Talk
 MSN messenger
Shareware
Shareware software is a software that are freely distributed to users on trial basis.
There is a time limit inbuilt in the software( for example- free for 30 days or 2 months).
As the time limit gets over, it will be deactivated. To use it after time limit, you have to
pay for the software.
Users prefer shareware because of following reasons –
 Available free of cost
 helps to know about the product before buying it
 Some examples of freeware software are –
 Adobe acrobat 8 professional
 PHP Debugger 2.1.3.3
 WinZip
 Getright
Open source software (OSS) is software that is distributed with its source code, making
it available for use, modification, and distribution with its original rights. Source code is
the part of software that most computer users don’t ever see; it’s the code computer
programmers manipulate to control how a program or application behaves. Programmers
who have access to source code can change a program by adding to it, changing it, or
fixing parts of it that aren’t working properly. OSS typically includes a license that allows
programmers to modify the software to best fit their needs and control how the software
can be distributed.