CHAPTER 1 WORD FORMATION

Autocorrect I could do without. It thinks I am stupid and clumsy, and while it's true that I don't
know how to disable it and I can't text with thumbs like a teenager (though I am prehensile),
why would I let a machine tell me what I want to say? I text someone ”Good night” in German,
and instead of ”Gute Nacht” I send ”Cute Nachos.“ I type ”adverbial,” and it comes out
”adrenal,” which is like a knife to my adverbial gland. Invited to dinner, I text my friend to ask
whether I can bring anything, and she replies that the ”food and dissertation” are under
control.
Norris (2015)

1. WORD
‘The word may be described as the basic unit of language. Uniting meaning and form, it is
composed of one or more morphemes, each consisting of one or more spoken sounds or their
written representatives.’ [Arnold, 1986: 27]
A word is ‘the smallest linguistic unit which can occur on its own in speech or writing.
In writing, word boundaries are usually recognised by spaces between words. In speech,
word boundaries may be recognised by slight pauses.’ [Richards, Platt & Weber, 1987: 311]
The creation of new words in a language never stops and English is one language that is
particularly fond of adding to its large vocabulary. Traditionally, we would check in a dictionary
to be sure that we were using the right word, with correct spelling, but techno logical advances
have provided us with programs that do the checking for us, or, even more insidiously, as in the
situation described by Mary Norris above, try to choose the words for us. Unfortunately, at the
moment, these programs do not seem to have any way of knowing if the words that are chosen are
appropriate or if it is quite normal to send someone a communication out of the blue that reads”cute
nachos.”In this chapter, we won't solve the problem of inappropriate choice of words, but we will
look in some detail at how those words came to be part of the language.
1.1. Neologisms
Around 1900, in New Berlin, Ohio, a department - store worker named J. Murray Spangler
invented a device that he called an electric suction sweeper. This device eventually became very
popular and could have become known as a spangler. People could have been spanglering their
floors or they might even have spanglered their rugs and curtains. The use could have extended
to a type of person who droned on and on (and really sucked), described as spanglerish, or to a
whole style of behavior called spanglerism. However, none of that happened. Instead, Mr.
4
Spangler sold his new invention to a local business man called William H. Hoover, whose Hoover
Suction Sweeper Company produced the first machine called a”Hoover”. Not only did the word
hoover (without a capital letter) become as familiar as vacuum cleaner all over the world, but in
Britain, people still talk about hoovering (and not spanglering) their carpets. The point of this
small tale is that, although we had never heard of Mr. Spangler before, we really had no difficulty
coping with the new words: spangler, spanglerish, spanglerism, spanglering or spanglered. That
is, we can very quickly understand a new word, a neologism, and accept the use of different forms
of that new word in the language. This ability must derive in part from the fact that there is a lot
of regularity in the word formation processes in a language. In this chapter, we will explore some
of the basic processes by which new words are created.
1.2. Etymology
The study of the origin and history of a word is known as its etymology, a term which, like many
of our technical words, comes to us through Latin, but has its origins in Greek (étymon ‘original
form’ + logia ‘study of’), and is not to be confused with entomology, also from Greek (entomon
‘insect’). Greek and Latin are the sources of many English words, often providing alternative ways
to describe things, such as mono- from Greek (mono - cycle) and uni- from Latin (uni - cycle). The
other major source, Germanic, provides an alternative form one (one - wheeled cycle).
When we look closely at the etymologies of everyday words, we soon discover that there are many
different ways in which new words can enter the language. We should keep in mind that a lot of
words in daily use today were, at one time, considered barbaric misuses of the language. It is
difficult now to understand the views expressed in the early nine teenth century over the “tasteless
innovation” of a word like handbook, or the horror expressed by a London newspaper in 1909
over the use of the newly coined word aviation. Yet many new words can cause similar outcries
as they come into use today. Rather than act as if the language is being debased, we might prefer
to view the constant evolution of new words and new uses of old words as a reassuring sign of
vitality and creativeness in the way a language is shaped by the needs of its users.
2. WORD-FORMATION PROCESSES
2.1. Borrowing
One of the most common sources of new words in English is the process simply borrowing, that is, the
taking over of words from other languages . (Technically, it's more than just borrowing, because English
doesn't give them back.) While its history, the English language has adopted a vast number of words from
other languages , including these examples:

5
 dope (Dutch) piano (Italian) tattoo (Tahitian)
jewel (French) pretzel (German) tycoon (Japanese)
glitzy (Yiddish) ski (Norwegian) yogurt (Turkish)
lilac (Persian) sofa (Arabic) zebra (Bantu)

Sometimes a new sound comes along with new words. The voiced fricative /ʒ/ became part of English
through borrowed French words such as measure and rouge.
Other languages , of course, borrow terms from English, as in the Japanese use of suupaa or
suupaamaaketto (“supermarket”) and taipuraitaa (“typewriter”). We can also hear of people in Finland
using a šekki (“check”) to pay their bills, Hungarians talking about sport, klub and futbal, or the French
discussing problems of le stress, over a glass of le whiskey, during le weekend.
In Brazilian Portuguese, the English words up and nerd have been borrowed and turned into verbs for the
new activities upar (“to upload”) and nerdear (“to surf the internet”). In some cases, the borrowed words
are used with quite novel meaning, as in the contem porary German use of the English words partner and
look in the phrase im Partnerlook to describe two people who are together and wearing similar clothing.
Other German uses of English words are illustrated in Task F on page 32.
English words have been borrowed:
from French: champagne, garage, beige, rouge, couchette, etc.;
from German: rucksack, kindergarten, etc.;
from Italian: cantata, opera, concerto, etc.;
from American Indian languages: shampoo, cot, etc.
A special type of borrowing is described as loan - translation or calque (/ kælk /). In this process,
there is a direct translation of the elements of a word into the borrowing language. Interesting
examples are the French term gratte-ciel, which literally translates as”scrape sky.”the Dutch
wolkenkrabber (“cloud scratcher”) or the German Wolkenkratzer (“dloud scraper”), all of which
were calques for the English skyscraper.
The English word superman is thought to be a loan - translation of the German Ubermensch, and
the term loanword itself is believed to have come from the German Lehnwort. The English
expression moment of truth is believed to be a calque from the Spanish phrase el momento de la
verdad, though not restricted to the original use as the final thrust of the sword to end a bullfight.
Nowadays, some Spanish speakers eat perros calientes (literally”dogs hot”) or hot dogs, which
have nothing to do with those four legged perros. The American concept of”boyfriend”was
borrowed, with sound change, into Japanese as boyifurendo, but as a calque into Chinese as”male
friend”or nan pengyu.
6
 Exercise: Identify the origin of each of these words:
1. algebra
2. entrepreneur
3. pizza
4. anchor
5. embargo
6. cappuccino
7. freight
8. cot
9. cacao
10. tsunami
11. boomerang
12. chocolate
13. tattoo
14. curry
15. giraffe
2.2. Coinage
The invention and general use of totally new terms, or coinage, is not very common in English.
Typical sources are trade names for commercial products that become general terms (usually
without capital letters) for any version of that product. Older examples are aspirin, nylon, vaseline
and zipper, more recent examples are granola, kleenex, teflon and xerox. It may be that there is an
obscure technical origin (e.g. te(tra)-fluor)-on) for some of these invented terms, but after their
first coinage, they tend to become everyday words in the language. The most salient contemporary
example of coinage is the word google. Originally a misspelling for the word googol (= the number
1 followed by 100 zeros), in the creation of the word Googleplex, which later became the name of
a company (Google), the term google (without a capital letter) has since undergone conversion
from a noun to become a widely used verb meaning”to use the internet to find information.”
New words based on the name of a person or a place are called eponyms. When we talked about
a hoover (or even a spangler), we were using an eponym. We use the eponyms teddy bear, derived
from US president Theodore (Teddy) Roosevelt, and jeans (from the Italian city of Genoa where
the type of cloth was first made). Another eponym dates from 1762 when John Montagu, the fourth
Earl of Sandwich, insisted on having his salt beef between two slices of toasted bread while
7
gambling. Apparently his friends started to ask”to have the same as Sandwich.”Robot was named
after the mechanical creature in the Czech writer Karel Capek’s play R.U.R., the initials
standing for ‘Rossum’s Universal Robot’; gargantuan was named for the creature with a huge
appetite created by Rabelais; jumbo was named after an elephant brought to the U.S by P.T.
Barnum; lazy Susan was derived from the Susan, an unknown servant; denim was originally
borrowed form de Nimes (meaning ‘from Nimes’) in France.
Interestingly, COINAGE is one of the most uncommon processes of word formation in
English.
2.3. Acronym
Acronyms are new words formed from the initial letters of a set of other words. These can be
forms such as CD (“compact disk”) or SPCA (“Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals")
where the pronunciation consists of saying each separate letter. More typically, acronyms are
pronounced as new single words, as in NATO, NASA or UNESCO. These examples have kept their
capital letters, but many acronyms simply become everyday terms such as laser (“light
amplification by stimulated emission of radiation”), radar ("radio detecting and ranging"), scuba
(“self - contained underwater breathing appara tus”), a sim ("subscriber identity module") card
and zip ("zone improvement plan") code. You might even hear talk of a snafu, which is reputed to
have its origins in”situation normal, all fouled up,”though there is some dispute about the
appropriate verb - in there. Names for organizations are often designed to have their acronym
represent an appro priate term, as in”mothers against drunk driving”(MADD) and”women against
rape”(WAR). Many speakers do not think of their component meanings. Innovations such as the
ATM (“automatic teller machine”) and the required PIN (“personal identification number”) are
regularly used with one of their elements repeated, as in I sometimes forget my PIN number when
I go to the ATM machine. The ATM example is also known as an”initialisın”(see Task A, page
31).
Exercise 1: Indicate how these acronyms are spoken and then write their originals.
1. HIV
2. TESOL
3. PIN
4. ATM
5. ICT
6. FBI
8
 7. LC
8. VAT
9. MC
Exercise 2: Pronounce these acronyms and give their originals. Complete the table given below:
1 UN /,ju: ‘en/ United Nations
2 MC
3 BBC
4 AD
5 BC
6 TESL /,ti: i: es ‘el/ or /‘tesl/ Teaching English as a Second Language
7 EFL
8 VIP
9 FIFA
10 NAM /,en eɪ ‘em/ National Association of Manufacturers

2.4. Compounding
In some of the examples we have just considered, there is a joining of two separate words to
produce a single form. Thus, Lehn and Wort are combined to produce Lehnwort in German. This
combining process, technically known as compounding, is very common in languages such as
German and English, but much less common in languages such as French and Spanish. Common
English compounds are bookcase, doorknob, fingerprint, sunburn, textbook, wallpaper,
wastebasket and waterbed. All these examples are nouns, but we can also create compound
adjectives (good - looking, low - paid, and compounds of adjective (fast) plus noun (food) as in
a fast - food restaurant or a full - time job. This very productive source of new terms has been
well documented in English and German, but can also be found in totally unrelated languages,
such as Hmong (spoken in Laos and Vietnam), which has many recently created compounds.
(More examples can be found in Task I, on page 34.)
hwj ("pot") + kais ("spout") = hwjkais ("kettle")
paj ("flower") + kws ("corn") = pajkws (“popcorn”)
hnab ("bag") + rau (“put") + ntawv ("paper") = hnabrauntawr (“schoolbag”)
2.4.1. Compounds contrast with phrases, which consist of two or more words that are
grammatically related: a large card, beautiful pictures.
9
2.4.2. Compounds are found in all word classes:
Nouns: popgroup, whistle-blower,
Adjectives: class-ridden, heart-breaking, homesick
Verbs: cold-shoulder, highlight, babysit
Adverbs: good-naturedly, however, nowadays
Pronouns: anyone, everything, nobody
Numerals: sixty-three, nine-tenths
Prepositions: as for, because of, next to
Semi-auxiliaries: be going to, had better, have got to
Conjunctions: except that, rather than, whenever
2.4.3. Historically, compound verbs are derived chiefly from nouns. They may be derived
by conversion, simply a shift in word class from a compound noun without any other change:
black-mail, cold-shoulder, daydream. Or they may be derived by back-formation, the removal
of a suffix: babysit (from babysitting or babysitter), double-park (from double-parking), shoplift
(from shoplifting or shoplifter).
2.4.4. New coinages are mainly compound nouns and adjectives.
Nouns: heartache, bigwig, highbrow, flatfoot, bedclothes, houseboat,
turncoat, footballer, speedometer, teach-in, space-walk, heartburn, son-in-law, sergeant-at-
arms, smoke screen, mother-of-pearl, chain-smoker, wastepaper- basket, lighthouse-keeper,
man about town, eating apples, spending money, falling stars, laughing gas, etc.
Adjectives: up-and-coming, up-to-date, out-of-date, dim-witted, semi-
detached, heart-broken, worldly-wise, Afro-Asian, etc.
Exercise 1: Write the meaning of the followig compounds.
1. Forklift
2. Firefighter
3. Underestimate
4. Mass wedding
5. Middle class
6. Ballroom
7. Half sister
8. Black collar job
9. Bookworm
10
Exercise 2 : Indicate the meaning relation between the parts of the following English
compounds. Complete the table given below:
1 chessboard = board for playing chess on
2 flycatcher = bird that catches flies for food
3 sunlight
4 daybreak
5 frostbite = bite from frost
6 driftwood
7 popcorn
8 handshake
9 brainwashing (fig) = washing of the brain
10 match maker
11 mince-meat
12 drinking-water
13 typing-paper
14 sleepwalking = walking in one’s sleep
15 sunbather
16 homework
17 workbench
18 motorcycle = cycle powered by a motor
19 silkworm
20 sawdust
21 doorknob = knob on a door
22 tape-measure
23 soap-flake
24 cowshed
= person with butter on his fingers, person who is likely to
25 butterfingers drop things.

11
 Exercise 3: Indicate whether each italicized and underlined expression is a compound
(Comp) or a grammatical structure (GS). Pay no attention to hyphens or spaces, for these
are deceptive. Complete the table given below:
1 Comp Jim’s car is a hardtop. (= a car with a metal roof)

2 GS This jar has a rather hard top.

(= The jar has a top which is rather hard.)
3 It was a jack-in-the-box.

4 The plant in the box is rare.

A ‘hot,dog (= a hot sausage served in hot bread roll, often with onions and
5 mustard) is not a,hot ‘dog.
6 GS A ‘hot,dog is not a,hot ‘dog. (= a dog which is hot)

7 He has a dog in the manger attitude.

8 He has a dog in the manger attitude.

9 She has a,strong ‘hold on him.

10 She has a ‘stronghold on him.

11 George found his father-in-law.

12 George found his father in trouble.

13 They bought it in the ‘black,market.

14 The electricity went off, and we caught in a black, completely lightless, market.

15 Comp His spending money was a source of annoyance to his father. (= the money
spent by him)
16 GS His spending money was a source of annoyance to his father. (= the way
according to which he spends his money)

2.5. Blending
The combination of two separate forms to produce a single new term is also present in the process
called blending. However, in blending, we typically take only the beginning of one word and
join it to the end of the other word. To talk about the combined effects of smoke and fog, we can
12
 use the word smog. In places where they have a lot of this stuff, they can jokingly make a
distinction between smog, smaze (smoke + haze) and smurk (smoke + murk). In Hawai'i, near the
active volcano, they have problems with vog. Some common examples of blending are bit
(binary / digit), brunch (breakfast / lunch), motel (motor / hotel), telecast (television / broadcast),
Oxbridge (Oxford / Cambridge) for both universities considered together and the Chunnel
(Channel / tunnel) connecting England and France. The activity of fund - raising on television
that feels like a marathon is typically called a telethon, while infotainment (information /
entertainment) and simulcast (simultaneous / broadcast) are other new blends from life with
television. To describe the mixing of languages, some people talk about Franglais (Français /
Anglais) and Spanglish (Spanish / English). In a few blends, we combine the beginnings of both
words, as in terms from information technology, such as telex (teleprinter / exchange) or modem
(modulator / demodulator). A blend from the beginnings of two French words velours croche
(“hooked velvet”) is the source of the word velcro.
Some other blends (also called blendings, fusions) are slimnastics, from slim and gymnastics;
breathalyzer/bloodalyzer, from breath/blood and analyzer; Frenglish, from French and English;
slanguage, from slang and language; transceiver, from transmitter and receiver; positron, from
positive electron; spam, from spiced ham; etc,
Lewis Carroll, the author of ‘Alice in Wonderland’ and ‘Through the looking glass’ made a
special technique of using blends coined by himself such as chortle, from chuckle and snort;
galumph, from gallop and triumph; slithy, from lithe and slimy; mimsy, from flimsy and
miserable, etc.
‘Blends, although not very numerous altogether, seem to be on the rise, especially in
terminology and also in trade advertisements.’ [Arnold, 1986]
How about the word fax? Is that a blend? No, see next category.
Exercise 1: Write the words from which these words are formed.
1. Advertainment
2. Emoticon
3. Biopic
4. Infortainment
5. Webinar
6. Sexploitation
7. Sportcast
13
 8. Staycation
9. Singlish
10. Medivac
Exercise 2: Give the original of each of the following blends. Complete the table given below:
1 smog
2 telecast ← television + broadcast
3 electrocute
4 splatter ← splash + spatter
5 Amerindian
6 Eurasian
7 newsboy
8 medicare

Exercise 3: Give the blends that result from fusing these words. Complete the table given below:
1 happening + circumstances →

2 automobile + omnibus →

3 escalade + elevator → escalator

4 blare or blow + spurt →
5 squall+ squeak → squawk

2.6. Clipping
The element of reduction that is noticeable in blending is even more apparent in the process
described as clipping, the process of cutting off the beginning or the end of a word, or both,
leaving a part (the abbreviation or the clipped word) to stand for the whole (the full form). usually
beginning in casual speech.
2.6.1. This occurs when a word of more than one syllable (facsimile) is reduced to a shorter form
(fax) and the end of the word is deleted. The term gasoline is still used, but most people talk
about gas, using the clipped form. Other common examples are exam (from examination), ad
or advert (from advertisement), fan (from fanatic), lab (from laboratory), dorm (from
dormitory), prof (from professor), bike (from bicycle), gym (from gymnasium), nark (from
narcotics agent), demo (from demonstration), mike (from microphone), tec or dick (from
14
 detective), trank (from tranquilizer), vac (from vacuum cleaner), bra (from brassiere), cab (from
cabriolet), condo (from condominium), perm (from permanent wave), pub (from public house),
etc.
2.6.2. The beginning part of the word is removed in bus (from omnibus), plane (from
airplane), phone (from telephone), etc.
2.6.3. Influenza and refrigerator have been clipped at both ends, producing flu and fridge (with
a slight change of spelling in the latter example).
These clipped words are usually used in casual speech rather than in writing or formal
speech. English speakers also like to clip each other's names, as in Al, Ed, Liz, Mike, Ron, Sam,
Sue and Tom. There must be something about educational environments that encourages clipping
because so many words get reduced, as in chem, exam, gym, lab, math, phys-ed, poly-sci, prof
and typo.
A particular type of reduction, favored in Australian and British English, produces forms
technically known as hypocorisms. In this process, a longer word is reduced to a single syllable,
then - y or -ie is added to the end. This is the process that results in movie (“moving pictures”) and
telly (“television”). It has also produced Aussie (“Australian”), barbie (“barbecue”), bickie
(“biscuit”), bookie (“bookmaker”), brekky (“breakfast”), hankie (“handkerchief”) and toastie
(toasted sandwich”). You can probably guess what Chrissy pressies are. By now, you may be
ready to take a sickie (“a day of sick leave from work, whether for real sickness or not”).
Exercise 1: Write the originals of the following clipped words.
1. Demo - Demonstration
2. intro
3. lab
4. lit
5. pub
6. varsity
7. van
8. prof
9. dorm
10. fax
11. sitcom
12. satcom
15
 13. Amerindian
14. Incoterm
15. Copy
Exercise 2: Give the original words from which these clipped words were formed. Complete
the table given below:
1 ad 13 memo
2 gas 14 cello
3 taxi 15 bus ← omnibus
4 cab ← cabriolet 16 coon ← racoon
5 frat ← fraternity 17 Phil
6 photo 18 Joe
7 gin ← Geneva 19 Tom
8 curio 20 Al ←Albert, Alfred or Alvin
9 wig 21 Fred
10 bra ← brassieøre 22 Bert
11 brandy 23 Gene
12 pike (road) ← turnpike 24 Beth

2.7. Back-formation
A very specialized type of reduction process is known as backformation, the process of
deriving words by removing what is thought to be a suffix from an existing word. This is just
the reverse of the customary process of suffixation. Words formed by such a process are actually
content words.
Typically, a word of one type (usually a noun) is reduced to form a word of another type (usually
a verb). A good example of backformation is the process whereby the noun television first came
into use and then the verb televise was created from it. Other examples of words created by this
process are: donate (from “donation”), emote (from “emotion”), enthuse (from “enthusiasm”) and
liaise (from “liaison”). Indeed, when we use the verb backform (Did you know that “opt” was
backformed from “option”?), we are using a backformation. Here are some other recent creations.
automation -> automate choreography -> choreograph syllabification -> syllabify
bulldozer -> bulldoze orientation -> orientate -> orient mixture -> mix

16
 One very regular source of backformed verbs in English is based on the common pattern work -
worker. The assumption seems to have been that if there is a noun ending in -er (or something
close in sound), then we can create a verb for what that noun - er does. Hence an editor will edit,
a sculptor will sculpt and babysitters, beggars, burglars, peddlers and swindlers will babysit, beg,
burgle, peddle and swindle.
Exercise 1: Write the back-formed words of their originals given.
1. lazy → laze
2. gambler
3. greedy
4. legislator
5. manipulation
6. proofreader
7. shoplifter
8. vaccination
9. liaison
10. isolated
Exercise 2: Write the originals of the following back-formed words.
1. book-keep – book-keeping
2. handwrite –
3. bartend –
4. brain-drain –
5. complicit –
6. diplomat –
7. headhunt –
8. benefact –
Exercise 3: These verbs are back-formations. Write the words from which they are formed.
Complete the table given below:
1 bootleg ← bootlegger
2 typewrite
3 coronate
4 resurrect ← resurrection

17
 5 baby-sit
6 advance-register ← advance-registration
7 laze
8 jell
9 escalate
10 reminisce ← reminiscence
11 orate ← oration
12 donate
13 televise

2.8. Conversion
A change in the function of a word, as for example when a noun comes to be used as a verb
(without any reduction), is generally known as conversion. Other labels for this very common
process are “category change” and “functional shift.” A number of nouns such as bottle, butter,
chair and vacation have come to be used, through conversion, as verbs: We bottled the home-brew
last night; Have you buttered the toast?; Someone has to chair the meeting; They're vacationing
in Florida. These forms are readily accepted, but some conversions, such as the noun impact used
as a verb, seem to impact some people's sensibilities rather negatively. The conversion process is
very productive in Modern English, with new uses occurring frequently. The conversion can
involve verbs becoming nouns, with guess, must and spy as the sources of a guess, a must and a
spy. Phrasal verbs (to print out, to take over) also become nouns (a printout, a takeover). One
complex verb combination (want to be) has become a new noun, as in He isn't in the group, he's
just a wannabe. Some other examples of conversion are listed here.
Noun -> Verb Verb -> Noun
dust Did you dust the living room? to cheat He's a cheat.
glue I'll have to glue it together. to doubt We had some doubts.
referee Who will referee the game? to hand out I need a handout.
water Would you water my plants? to hire We have two new hires.
Verbs (see through, stand up) can also become adjectives, as in see-through material or a stand-
up comedian. A number of adjectives, as in a dirty floor, an empty room, some crazy ideas and
those nasty people, have become the verbs to dirty and to empty, or the nouns a crazy and the
nasty.
18
Some compound nouns have assumed other functions, exemplified by the ball park appearing in
a ball - park figure (as an adjective) or asking someone to ball - park an estimate of the cost (as a
verb). Other nouns of this type are carpool, mastermind, microwave and quarterback, which are
also used as verbs now. Other forms, such as up and down, can also become verbs, as in They're
going to up the price of oil or We downed a few beers at the Chimes.
It is worth noting that some words can shift substantially in meaning when they go through
conversion. The verb to doctor often has a negative sense, not normally associated with the source
noun a doctor. A similar kind of reanalysis of meaning is taking place with the noun total and the
verb run around, which do not have negative meanings. However, if you total (= verb) your car,
and your insurance company gives you the runaround (= noun), you will have a double sense of
the negative.
Conversion consists of two subcategories:
2.8.1. Complete conversion is the process of shifting a word from one word class to another
without adding an affix. In other words, a word which previously could only be used in a
certain way to make sentences begins to be used in another way though no change in form
takes place. Most instances involve the conversion of nouns to verbs or of verbs to nouns. The
following examples are basically based on Quirk at al [1973: 441-444]:
2.8.1.1. Major categories of complete conversion:
Lexical Verb → noun:
- ‘State’ (from stative verbs to nouns): doubt, love
- ‘Event/ activity’ (from dynamic verbs to nouns): laugh, walk
Adjective → noun:
Miscellaneous examples are daily (‘daily newspaper’), comic (‘comic actor’), (young)
marrieds (‘young married people’; informal).
Noun → lexical verb
Silence (n) → silence (v) [Tn] cause (sb/sth) to be silent or
quiet(er): His voice silenced everyone else.
Campaign (n) → campaign (v) [Tn] organize a campaign: Communists in
Newcastle are campaigning against rent
increase.
Carpet (n) → carpet (v) [Tn] cover (sth) with a carpet: We are going
to have the hallway carpeted.
19
 Adjective → lexical verb
- Transitive verbs meaning ‘make (more) Adj’: calm, dirty, wet
- Intransitive verbs meaning ‘become Adj’: dry, empty
wet adj covered, soaked or moistened with
liquid, esp. water: wet roads, grass, clothes,
etc.
wet v [Tn] make (sth) wet: Wet the clay a bit more
before you start to mould it.
2.8.1.2. Minor categories of complete conversion
Auxiliary Verb → noun:
must (n) [C] thing that must be done, seen, heard,
etc: This novel is a must for all lovers of crime
fiction.
Phrase → noun: When I gamble, my horse is one of the also-rans (i.e. one of the
horses which ‘also ran’ but was not among the winners)
Phrase → adjective: I feel very under-the-weather (i.e. indisposed), Have you ever
experienced such an under-the- weather feeling?
Affix → noun: Ism [noun-forming suffix → countable noun] theory, doctrine,
movement: Patriotism and any other isms you’d like to name.
Non-count noun → count noun:
- ‘A unit of N’: two coffees (‘cups of coffee’)
- ‘A kind of N’: Some paints are more lasting than others
- ‘A instance of N’ (with abstract nouns): a difficulty
Count noun → non-count noun:
‘N viewed in terms of a measurable extent’ (normally only after expressions of
amount): a few square feet of floor.
floor n [C, usu singular] surface of a room on which
one stands, walks, etc: The bare concrete floor
was cold on my feet.
floor n [U] extent, range, area, length
Proper noun → common noun (initial capital usually retained):
- ‘A person or place called N’: There are several Cambridges (‘places called
20
 Cambridge’) in the world.
- ‘A product of N or a sample or collection of N’s work’: a Rolls Royce (‘a car
manufactured by Rolls Royce’), a Sony, a complete Shakespeare
Stative noun → dynamic noun
fool n [stative] person who lack in good sense or
judgement; idiot: Remember that she’s not a
fool.
fool n [dynamic] (formerly) man employed by a king,
noble, etc. to amuse others with jokes and tricks;
clown or jester: He’s being a fool. (‘He’s
behaving like a fool.’)
Intransitive Verb → transitive verb
run v [I] move at a speed faster than a walk, never
having both or all the feet on the ground at the
same time: She ran out of the house to see what
was happening.
run v [Tn] ‘cause to V’: London Transport run extra
trains during the rush-hour.
Transitive Verb → intransitive verb
- ‘Can be V-ed’ (often followed by an adverb such as well or badly): Your book reads
well.
- ‘V oneself’: Have you washed yet? (washed yourself’)
- ‘V someone/something/etc’: We have eaten already.
- ‘Be V-ed’: The door opened.
Intransitive Verb → intensive verb
- ‘Current meaning’:
lie v [I] have or put one’s body in a flat or resting
position on a horizontal surface: He was lying on
his front/side/back.
lie v [intensive] be, remain or be kept in a certain
state: He lay flat.
- ‘Resulting meaning’:
21
 fall v [I] come or go down from force of weight,
loss of balance, etc.; descend or drop: The rain was
falling steadily.
fall v [intensive] become; pass into a specified state: He
fell flat/silent/ill/asleep. She
fell an easy prey to his charm.
Intensive verb → intransitive verb
turn v [I] become; pass into a specified state:
The milk turned sour in the heat. turn v
[I] become sour: The milk turned.
2.8.2. Approximate conversion is the process by which ‘a word, in the course of changing its
grammatical function, may undergo a slight change of pronunciation or spelling.
- Voicing of final consonants (noun → verb): advice → advise, thief → thieve,
sheath → sheathe, and (not shown in spelling) house → house.
- Shift of stress: when verbs of two syllables are converted into nouns, the stress is sometimes
shifted from the second to the first syllable: conduct, conflict, contrast, convert, convict,
export, extract, import, insult, permit, present, produce, rebel, record.
Exercise: Identify the type of conversion which the following words have undergone. Then write
the meaning of the converted words.
1. Fool N →V
2. Travel
3. Sail
4. Start
5. Ship
6. Rise
7. Contract
8. Google
9. Permit
10. Export
2.9. Derivation
In our list so far, we have not dealt with what is by far the most common word formation process
to be found in the production of new words. This process is called derivation and it is
22
accomplished by means of a large number of small "bits" of the English language that are not
usually given separate listings in dictionaries. These small “bits” are generally described as affixes.
So, derivation (affixation) is the process by which an affix is added to a base to form a new
word. Some familiar examples are the elements un-, mis-, pre-, -ful, less, -ish, -ism and -ness which
appear in words like unhappy, misrepresent, prejudge, joyful, careless, boyish, terrorism and
sadness.
Looking more closely at the preceding group of words; we can see that some affixes are added to
the beginning of the word (e.g. un-, mis-). These are called prefixes. Other affixes are added to
the end of the word (e.g. -less, -ish) and are called suffixes. All English words formed by this
derivational process have either prefixes or suffixes, or both. Thus, mislead has a prefix,
disrespectful has both a prefix and a suffix, and foolishness has two suffixes. According to Dixon
(2014:11), English has about 200 derivational affixes, divided into 90 prefixes and 110 suffixes.
Affixation can be subdivided into prefixation and suffixation.
2.9.1. Prefixation is the addition of a prefix in front of a base like in pro-life, recycle, deselect,
etc.
Below are a number of prefixes, including some initial combining forms and initial segments
that appropriately belong with them even if by some criteria they are more properly analysed as
initial bases in compounds. The following list is basically based on Greenbaum [1996: 444-452]:
Pro – meaning ‘on the other side of’: pro-choice, pro-life, pro-market, etc
anti– meaning ‘against’ or ‘opposed to’: antibody,anti-abortion, anticoagulant, etc;
‘spurious’: anti-hero, antichrist, anticlimax, etc ‘preventing’: antiseptic, antifreeze, antacid, etc.
contra– meaning ‘against’: contraception, contra-indicate, etc;
dis– meaning ‘reverse of ’ or ‘do the opposite of’: disqualify, disinvite,
disenfranchise, etc; ‘remove from’: disillusion, disambiguate, disarm,
etc; ‘not’: disloyal, distrust, disagree, etc.
un– meaning ‘reverse of ’ or ‘do the opposite of’: unscramble, untie, unlock, etc;
‘remove from’: unleaded, unmask, unfrock, etc; ‘not’: uninviting,
unknown, unhappily, etc.
mal– meaning ‘bad’ or ‘wrong’: mal-practice, mal-formation, mal- nutrition,etc;
‘badly’ or ‘wrongly’: mal-function, mal-treat, mal- adjusted.
mis– meaning ‘wrong’: mismanagement, misinformation, mismarriage, etc;
‘wrongly’: miscalculate, misgovern, mishandle, etc.
23
pseudo– meaning ‘false’: pseudo-education, pseudo-intellectual, pseudo- science.
‘imitation’: pseudo-Elizabethan, pseudo-Gothic, etc.
ante– meaning ‘before’ (place): ante-chamber, ante-room, etc; ‘before’ (time): antenatal,
antedate, etc.
circum– meaning ‘around’: circumlocution, circumcision, circumnavigate, etc
extra– meaning ‘outside’ or ‘beyond’: extramaterial, extracurricular, extrasensory, etc
fore– meaning ‘in front’ (place): forefinger, forecourt, foreskin, etc;
‘front part of’ (place): forehead, forefront, foreground, etc;
‘before’ (time): foresee, foretell, foreplay, etc.
in– (and also il–, im– and ir–) meaning ‘in’: ingathering, indoors, in-patient, etc;
‘into’: ingrown, immigrate, import, etc.
inter– meaning ‘between’: interratial, international, interdiscilinary, etc
intra– meaning ‘inside’: intramural, intra-uterine, intravenous, etc
mid– meaning ‘middle’ (place): midfield, mid-point, midway, etc;
‘middle’ (time): mid-afternoon, midwinter, midnight, etc.
out– meaning ‘out of’ or ‘outside’: outdoor, out-patient, outlook, etc;
‘surpass’: outdistance, outbid, outnumber, etc.
over– meaning ‘from above’ or ‘outer’: overthrow, overshadow, overcoat, etc;
‘excessive’: overemphasis, over-enthusiasm, etc.
sub– meaning ‘under’ or ‘below’: subway, subsoil, sub-conscious, etc;
‘secondary’: sub-editor, sub-dean, etc;
‘below the normal’: subhuman, substandard, subzero, etc;
‘subordinate part (of)’: subcommittee, sub-pilot, sublet, subtitle, etc.
super– meaning ‘above’ or ‘over’: superstructure, superimpose, superior, etc;
‘excessive’: superconformity, superconfidence, superterestrial, etc;
‘excessively’: supersensitive, superubundant, supercritical, etc;
‘beyond the norm’: superhuman, supergun, superstar, etc.
supra– meaning ‘above’: supranational, supramundance, etc
sur– meanin ‘above’: surtax, surcharge, surtitle, etc
tele– meaning ‘at a distance’: telecommunication, telephoto, television, etc
trans– meaning ‘across’: transatlantic, transnational, transsexual, etc
ultra– meaning ‘beyond’: ultraviolet, ultrasonic, etc;
24
 ‘excessively’ or ‘extremely’: ultramodest, ultra-thin, ultra-modern, etc.
under– meaning ‘below’: underground, undercarriage, underclothes, etc;
‘too litle’: under-charge, underpay, undercook, etc;
‘subodinate’: under-secretary, underclass, etc.
micro– meaning ‘small’: microtransmitter, micro-computer, microsurgery, etc;
‘minute’: micro-organism, microgram, microscope, etc.
macro– meaning ‘large’: macrocosm, macro-organism, macro-economics, etc
mini– meaning ‘small’: miniseries, minibreak, minicab, etc
midi– meaning ‘medium’: midibus, midicomputer, etc
maxi– meaning ‘maximum’: maxiskirt, maximize, maximal, etc
mega– meaning ‘very large’: megastar, megastore, megawatt, etc
hyper– meaning ‘huge and complex’: hypersensitive, hypercritical, hypertension
ex– meaning ‘former’: ex-wife, ex-president, ex-colony, etc
neo– meaning ‘new’ or ‘reform of’: neo-colonialism, neo-conservative,
neo-imperialist, etc.
post– meaning ‘after’ (time): post-modernism, post-structuralist, etc
pre– meaning ‘before’ (time): prepay, pre-existing, predate, preview, etc
re– meaning ‘again’: reprint, reapply, renew, etc
arch– meaning ‘chief’: archbishop, archangel, arch-rival, etc
co– meaning ‘joint’: co-author, co-founder, co-presenter, etc
vice– meaning ‘deputy’: vice-president, vice-chancellor, vice-admiral, etc
mono– meaning ‘single’ or ‘one’: monotheism, monorail, monoplane, etc
uni– meaning ‘one’: unidirectional, unidimentional, unilateral, etc
poly– meaning ‘many’: polysyllabic, polytheism, polygraph, etc
2.9.2. Suffixation is the addition of a suffix at the end of a base like in ageism, marginalize,
additive, etc.
Below are suffixes that continue to be productive in English. The following list is basically
based on Greenbaum [1996: 454-457]:
verb-forming suffixes:
–fy,–ify: beautify, countrify, purify, classify, personify, etc
–ise, – ize: capitalize, modernize, popularize, terrorize, etc
adjective-forming suffixes:
25
–able, –ible: readable, profitable, edible, visible, etc
–al, –ial: capital, national, managerial, editorial, etc
–ed: bored, cultured, heavy-handed, etc
–ing: boring, interesting, charming, etc
–ful: powerful, careful, resentful, etc
–less: careless, harmless, restless, etc
–ic: Arabic, aristocratic, dramatic, Arabic, etc
–ish: Swedish, feverish, youngish, moreish (or morish), etc
–like: childlike, godlike, statementlike, etc
–y: funny, sleepy, choosy, etc
the adverb-forming suffix {–ly}: candidly, surprisingly, amiably, etc
suffixes of concrete nouns:
–ant, –ent: informant, claimant, solvent, etc
–ee: trainee, mortgagee, absentee, etc
–er: teacher, carer, toaster, etc
–ery, –ry: brewery, machinery, weaponry, etc
–ing: clothing, flooring, drawing, etc
–ist: socialist, novelist, sexist, etc
suffixes of abstract nouns:
–age: postage, spillage, drainage, etc
–al: betrayal, dismissal, deferral, etc
–dom: freedom, martyrdom, officialdom, etc
–ery, –ry: snobbery, chemistry, summitry, etc
–ing: cleaning, gardening, manufacturing, etc
–ism: idealism, favoritism, ageism, etc
–ity: responsibility, technicality, publicity, etc
–ment: arrangement, embarrassment, bewilderment, etc
–ness: usefulness, carelessness, willingness, etc
–ship: dictatorship, editorship, scholarship, etc
–ion (also –tion, –sion, –xion, –ation and –ition): confession, objection, explosion,
collaboration, competition, etc
Affixation resembles conversion in that they may change the grammatical potential of a
26
 word, but unlike conversion, affixation involves a change of form.
There is a third type of affix, not normally used in English, but found in some other languages.
This is called an infix, which is an affix that is incorporated inside another word. It is possible to
see the general principle at work in certain expressions, occasionally used in fortuitous or
aggravating circumstances by emotionally aroused English speakers: Hallebloodylujah!,
Absogoddamlutely!, Aladamnbama and Unfuckinbelievable! We could view these examples of
“expletive insertion” as a special version of infixing in English. However, a much better set of
examples can be provided from Khmu (or Kamhmu), a language spoken in northern Laos and
Vietnam.
Verb Noun
("to drill") see srnee ("a drill")
(“to chisel") toh trnoh ("a chisel")
(“to eat with a spoon”) hiip hrniip (“a spoon")
(“to tie") hoom hrnoom (“a thing with which to tie")
From these examples, we can see that there is a regular pattern whereby the infix -rn- is added to
verbs to form nouns. If we know that the form srnal is the Khmu noun for "an ear ornament," then
we can work out the corresponding verb “to put an ornament in the ear”. According to Merrifield
et al. (2003), the source of these examples, it is sal.
For examples of another type of affix called a "circumfix," see Task G, on page 33.
Exercise 1: Identify all the possible suffixes in each of the given words. Complete the
table given below.
1 organists

2 personalities

3 flirtatiously 3 suffixes −ation, −ous, −ly

4 atomizers

5 contradictorily

6 trusteeship

7 greasier

8 countrified

9 friendliest

27
 10 responsibilities

Exercise 2: Identify the meaning of the affix in of each of the given words.Complete the table
given below.
1 antedate The prefix ante– means ‘before’.
2 replay
3 manly
4 keeper The suffix –er means ‘a person who …’.
5 unable
6 rainy
7 cheapest
8 subway
9 import
10 maltreat

2.10. Multiple Processes

Although we have concentrated on each of these word - formation processes in isolation, it is
possible to trace the operation of more than one process at work in the creation of a particular
word. For example, the term deli seems to have become a common American English expression
via a process of first borrowing delicatessen (from German) and then clipping that borrowed form.
If someone says that problems with the project have snowballed, the final word can be analyzed
as an example of compounding in which snow and ball were combined to form the noun snowball,
which was then turned into a verb through conversion. Forms that begin as acronyms can also go
through other processes, as in the use of lase as a verb, the result of backformation from laser. In
the expression waspish attitudes, the acronym WASP (“ white Anglo - Saxon Protestant ") has lost
its capital letters and gained a suffix (-ish) in the derivation process. An acronym that never seems
to have had capital letters comes from "young urban professional," plus the -ie suffix, as in
hypocorism, to produce the word yuppie (first recorded in 1984). The formation of this new word,
however, was helped by a quite different process, known simply as analogy, whereby new words
are formed that are similar in some way to existing words. Yuppie was made possible as a new
word by analogy with the earlier word hippie and another short-lived analogy yippie. The word
yippie also had an acronym basis ("youth international party ") and was used for some students in
the USA who were protesting against the war in Vietnam. One joke has it that vippies just grew
28
up to be yuppies. And the process continues. Another analogy, with the word yap ("to make shrill
noises"), helped label some of the noisy young professionals as yappies.
Many of these new words can, of course, have a very brief life-span. Perhaps the generally
accepted test of the "arrival" of recently formed words in a language is their published appearance
in a dictionary. In recent years, we have added app (from "application") and vape (from
"vaporizer"), both via clipping, blog (from "web log") and sexting (“sexual texting") via blending,
and unfriend and mint (– "cool") via conversion. Further examples are included in Task E, on page
30. However, new additions can sometimes lead to protests from some conservative voices, as
Noah Webster found when his first dictionary, published in 1806, was criticized for citing words
like advocate and test as verbs, and for including such "vulgar" words as advisory and presidential.
It would seem that Noah had a keener sense than his critics of which new word forms in the
language were going to last.
Exercise: Name the word formation process of each of the following words:
1. doorknob:
2. telly:
3. nylon:
4. porter:
5. silence v (Tn):
6. radar:
7. chunnel:
8. cantata:
9. ESL:
10. televise:
11. motel:
12. fiance’:
13. stepmother:
14. responsibility:
15. transport (n):
16. belongingness:
17. FDI:
18. short-legged:

29
Study questions
1. When is an eponym a neologism?
2. Which word - formation process is the source of the English word modem?
3. Which two processes were involved in the creation of the verb google, as in Have you ever
googled yourself??
4. Which process is clearly involved in creating the new term selfie?
5. What do we call the process whereby a new word is formed to be similar to an existing word?
6. Which of the following pairs contains an example of calque? How would you describe the
other(s)?
(a) footobooru (Japanese) – football (English)
(b) trening (Hungarian) – training (English)
(c) luna de miel (Spanish”moon of honey”) – honeymoon (English)
(d) jardin d’enfants (French “garden of children”) – kindergarten (German “children garden”)
7. Can you identify the different word-formation processes involved in producing each of the
underlined words in these sentences?
(a) Don’t you ever worry that you might get AIDS?
(b) That’s really fandamntastic!
(c) These new skateboards from Zee Designs are kickass.
(d) When I’m ill, I want to see a doc, not a vet.
(e) The house next door was burgled when I was babysitting the Smiths’ children.
(f) I like this old sofa – it’s nice and comfy.
(g) I think Robyn said she'd like a toastie for brekky.
(h) You don't need to button it because it's got velcro inside.
(i) Do you have a xerox machine?
(j) Shiel still parties every Saturday night.
8. Identify the prefixes and suffixes used in these words:
misfortune, terrorism, carelessness, disagreeable, ineffective, unfaithful,
prepackaged, biodegradable, reincamation, decentralization
9. In Khmu, the word kap means "to with tongs," and tiap means "to fold a small package."
What would be the words for “tongs” and “a small package"?
10. Why are the expressions my PIN number and the ATM machine slightly odd?

30
11. The English phrase road rage has become the expression vejvrede (“way anger”) among
Danish speakers. What is this process called?
12. More than one process was involved in the creation of the forms underlined in these sentences.
Can you identify the processes involved in each case?
(a) Can you FedEx the books to me today?
(b) Police have reported an increase in carjackings in recent months.
(c) Jeeves, could you tell the maid to be sure to hoover the bedroom carpet?
(d) I had to temp for a while before I got a real job.
(e) Is your friend lan still blogging?
(f) Would you prefer a decaf?
(g) Are you still using that old car-phone?
(h) Welcome, everyone, to karaokenight at Cathy’s Bar and Grill!
Tasks
A. What are "initialisms "? Were there any examples in this chapter?
B. Who invented the term “portmanteau words”"? How many examples were included in this
chapter?
C. Using a dictionary with etymological information, identify which of the following words are
borrowings and from which languages they were borrowed. Are any of them eponyms?
assassin, clone, cockroach, denim, diesel, frisbee, horde, kayak, kiosk, nickname, penguin,
robot, shampoo, sherry, slogan, snoop, taboo, tea, tomato, tuxedo, umbrella, voodoo
D. When English words are borrowed into Japanese, they are subject to nativization, a process
whereby they are typically given a syllabic pronunciation, as in ingurishu (" English "). Can you
reverse the syllabification process to identify the following English words borrowed into
Japanese? One list has items you can get at a place known as makudonarudo, the other has items
connected to supootsu.
chikin nagetto __________________ beesubouru __________________
furaido poteto __________________ booringu __________________
hotto doggu __________________ futtobouru __________________
juusu __________________ hoomuran __________________
kechappu __________________ jogingu __________________
sheiku __________________ shuuzu __________________

31
 sofuto kuriimu __________________ sokkusu __________________
E. There are a lot of new words in English from IT (an acronym for”information technology”) and
the widespread use of the internet (a blend from”international”and”network”). Using a dictionary
if necessary, try to describe the word-formation processes involved in the creation of the
underlined words in these sentences.
(1) There are some teenage netizens who rarely leave their rooms.
(2) How much RAM do you have?
(3) I can’t get some of the students to keyboard more carefully.
(4) Your friend Jason is such a techie!
(5) Doesn’t every new computer have a webcam now?
(6) You should bookmark that site.
(7) I got a great new app for my phone.
(8) We’re paying too much attention to bloggers.
(9) Subscribers have unlimited downloads.
(10) I tried to find the site, but I just got googledygook.
(11) He never put his phone down, he’s intexticated.
(12) You should check the faq because the information is usually helpful.
(13) Some people will have to learn better netiquette.
(14) Hey, just heard about the accident, ruok?
F. In this chapter we noted an example (Partnerlook) of the creation of a new German word using
one or more English words, yet with a meaning not found in English. In the following list, there
are some more words in contemporary German that have been created from English words.
(i) What is the technical term used to describe forms created in this way?
(ii) Can you work out which meanings from the set below go with which words?
der Barmixer (= ________________________________________)
der Beamer (= ________________________________________)
der Bodybag (= ________________________________________)
der Flipper (= ________________________________________)
das Handy (= ________________________________________)
der Messie (= ________________________________________)
der Oldtimer (= ________________________________________)
die Peep Toes (= ________________________________________)
32
 der Shootingstar (= ________________________________________)
der Smoking (= ________________________________________)
der Talkmaster (= ________________________________________)
der Tramper (= ________________________________________)
bartender shoulder bag tuxedo
cell phone/ mobile overnight success women's open-toed shoes
hitchhiker pinball machine video projector
hoarder/ pack rat talk show host vintage car
G. Another type of affix is called a circumfix. Here are some examples from Indonesian.
(“big”) besar kebesaran (“bigness”)
(“beautiful”) indah keindahan (“beauty”)
(“healthy”) ________ kesehatan (“health”)
(“free”) ________ kebebasan (“freedom”)
(“kind”) baik ________ (“kindness”)
(“honest”) jujur ________ (“honesty”)
1. Can you provide the missing forms in these examples?
2. What is the circumfix illustrated here?
3. For what type of word-formation process is the circumfix being used here?
4. Given the words tersedia ("available"), sulit (" difficult "), sesuai (" suitable ") and seimbang ("
balanced "), how would you translate these words?
____________________________ ("availability")
____________________________ (" difficulty")
____________________________ (" suitability")
____________________________ (" balance")
5. After analyzing the following examples, what do you think the corresponding Indonesian words
would be for "happy," "just/ fair" and "satisfied"?
ketidakjujuran (" dishonesty")
ketidaksenangan (" unhappiness")
ketidakadilan (“ injustice")
ketidakpuasan (" dissatisfaction")
H. Can you divide the following set of English compounds into nouns and verbs? How do you
decide? Which part of the compound determines whether it is a noun or verb?
33
 crash helmet, crash land, freeze dry, freeze fruine, hang glide, hang nail, kick boxer, kick
start, skim milk, skim read, sleep mode, sleep walk
I. When Hmong speakers (from Laos and Vietnam) settled in the USA, they had to create some
new words for the different objects and experiences they encountered. Using the following
translations (from Downing and Fuller, 1984), can you work out the English equivalents of the
H’mong expressions listed below?
chaw ("place") hnab ("bag") kws ("expert") hlau ("iron")
kho (“fix”) nres ("stand") tos (" wait") hniav ("teeth")
dav ("bird") kev ("way") tsheb ("vehicle") looj ("cover")
muas ("buy") ntaus ("hit") zaum ("sit") ntoo ("wood ")
tes ("hand") daim ("flat") rqaj ("rail") ntawv (“paper")
cai (“righ”) mob ("sickness") tshuaj (“medicine”)

chawkhomob _______________ kwshiau _______________

chawnrestsheb _______________ kwskhohniav _______________
chawzaumtos _______________ kwsntaustawy _______________
davhlau _______________ kwsntoo _______________
hrabloojtes _______________ kwskhotsheb _______________
kevcai _______________ kwstshuaj _______________
kevkhomob _______________ tshebnqajhlau _______________
kevnqajhlan _______________ daimntawumiastshuaj _______________
J. The process of borrowing may result in words that have more than one source. Many English
words came into the language from Latin via French (e.g. flor- > flour (fleur) > flower and flour).
Other sources may be more obscure. For example, we get tomato from the Spanish version of
tomatl, borrowed from Nahuatl, the language of the Aztecs in Mexico. Can you work out what
contemporary English words came via the same route from the Nahuatl words ahuacatl and
ahuacamolli?
Discussion Topics/ Projects
I. When we form compounds in English, how do we know whether to join the words (hairspray),
join them with a hyphen (hair-spray) or leave a space between them (hair spray)? Using the
examples below, and any others that you want to include in the discussion, try to decide if there
are any typical patterns in the way we form compounds.
34
 backpack, back-pedal, back seat, blackboard, black hole, black-tie affair, bulletin board,
double bed, double-cross, house husband, house-warming, housewife, life saving, lifestyle,
life insurance, mother-in-law, mother tongue, postcard, Postits, post office, workbook, work
experience, work-to-rule
(For background reading, see chapter 3 of Denning, Kessler and Leben, 2007.)
II. The sign below contains a word (flushable) that you may not have seen before. But it isn't hard
to understand. However, when we derive new words with a suffix such as -able, there seems to be
some type of constraint on what is permitted. The words in the left column below are "acceptable"
(that's one!), but the forms in the other two columns don't seem to be current English words. They
are marked with an asterisk to show that we think they are "unacceptable" (there's another one!).
From these examples, and any others that you think might be relevant to the discussion, can you
work out what the rule(s) might be for making new adjectives with the suffix -able?
breakable *carable *dieable
doable *chairable *disappearable
downloadable *diskable *downable
inflatable *hairable *pinkable
movable *housable *runnable
understandable *pencilable *sleepable
wearable *quickable *smilable
(For background reading, see chapter 4 of Language Files, 2018.)

35