PHOTODIODE

Definition: A special type of PN junction device that generates current when exposed to
light is known as Photodiode. It is also known as photodetector or photosensor. It operates
in reverse biased mode and converts light energy into electrical energy.

The figure below shows the symbolic representation of a photodiode:

Principle of Photodiode

It works on the principle of Photoelectric effect.

The operating principle of the photodiode is such that when the junction of this two-
terminal semiconductor device is illuminated then the electric current starts flowing
through it. Only minority current flows through the device when the certain reverse
potential is applied to it.

Operational Modes of Photodiode

Photodiode basically operates in two modes:

 Photovoltaic mode: It is also known as zero-bias mode because no external reverse

potential is provided to the device. However, the flow of minority carrier will take
place when the device is exposed to light.
 Photoconductive mode: When a certain reverse potential is applied to the device
then it behaves as a photoconductive device. Here, an increase in depletion width is
seen with the corresponding change in reverse voltage.
Working of Photodiode

In the photodiode, a very small reverse current flows through the device that is termed
as dark current. It is called so because this current is totally the result of the flow of
minority carriers and is thus flows when the device is not exposed to radiation.

The electrons present in the p side and holes present in n side are the minority carriers.
When a certain reverse-biased voltage is applied then minority carrier, holes from n-side
experiences repulsive force from the positive potential of the battery.

Similarly, the electrons present in the p side experience repulsion from the negative
potential of the battery. Due to this movement electron and hole recombine at the junction
resultantly generating depletion region at the junction.

Due to this movement, a very small reverse current flows through the device known as
dark current.

The combination of electron and hole at the junction generates neutral atom at the
depletion. Due to which any further flow of current is restricted.

Now, the junction of the device is illuminated with light. As the light falls on the surface
of the junction, then the temperature of the junction gets increased. This causes the
electron and hole to get separated from each other.

At the two gets separated then electrons from n side gets attracted towards the positive
potential of the battery. Similarly, holes present in the p side get attracted to the negative
potential of the battery.

This movement then generates high reverse current through the device.

With the rise in the light intensity, more charge carriers are generated and flow through
the device. Thereby, producing a large electric current through the device.

This current is then used to drive other circuits of the system.

So, the intensity of light energy is directly proportional to the current through the device.
Characteristics of Photodiode

The figure below shows the VI

characteristic curve of a photodiode:

Here, the vertical line represents the reverse

current flowing through the device and the
horizontal line represents the reverse-biased
potential.

The first curve represents the dark current that

generates due to minority carriers in the
absence of light.

As we can see in the above figure that all the curve shows almost equal spacing in between
them. This is so because current proportionally increases with the luminous flux.

The figure below shows the curve for current

versus illumination:

It is noteworthy here that, the reverse current does

not show a significant increase with the increase in
the reverse potential.

Advantages of Photodiode

 It shows a quick response when exposed to light.

 Photodiode offers high operational speed.
 It provides a linear response.
 It is a low-cost device.

Disadvantages of Photodiode

 It is a temperature-dependent device. And shows poor temperature stability.

 When low illumination is provided, then amplification is necessary.
Applications of Photodiode

1. Photodiodes majorly find its use in counters and switching circuits.

2. Photodiodes are extensively used in an optical communication system.
3. Logic circuits and encoders also make use of photodiode.
PHOTOMULTIPLIER TUBE:

It is an extremely sensitive device and is widely used for detecting very low levels of
luminous intensity.

A photomultiplier tube consists of an evacuated glass envelope containing a

photocathode, an anode and several electrodes, known as dynodes. Its principle is
illustrated in Fig.

 It is most widely used photo emissive device having the better characteristics to
detect the very low intensity light.

 The Photomultiplier tube consists of an evacuated glass envelope containing a

photo cathode, an anode and several additional electrodes caller dynodes, each at
a higher voltage.

 The beam of incident light is first made to strike a photoemissive material coated
photocathode. As a result, electrons are emitted.

 Electrons emitted by the cathode are attracted to another electrode called dynode.

 The electrons are subsequently accelerated with a high voltage (hundreds of

volts) to a first dynode (an electrode), where they generate several secondary
electrons. Those are accelerated towards further dynodes, where the number of
electrons is getting several times larger each time.

 Thus at each dynode , the electrons are multiplied in number and finally all are
collected at anode.

 Finally, a strongly amplified photocurrent is collected with an anode near the last
dynode. It has very rapid response time
The characteristics of a typical photomultiplier tube are shown in Fig. High voltages (500
V to 5,000 V) are required to operate this device. The dark current, which flows when
the cathode is not illuminated, results due to thermal emission and the influence of the
high voltage electrodes.

For incident illumination of a given wavelength, the number of electrons emitted is

directly proportional to the illumination intensity. Thus, for a particular illumination the
anode current of the photomultiplier tube should tend to remain constant as the anode
voltage is increased.

However, the dark current always adds to the anode current caused by illumination, and
secondary emission improves with increase in applied voltage, consequently, the anode
current tends to increase slightly with increase in anode voltage.

The advantages of multiplier phototubes are that (i) these have a high frequency
response and high sensitivity (as high as 20 A/lumen as compared to 100 μ A/lumen for
photoelectric cells) and their spectral response can be varied from 100 nm to 1,000 nm
by changing the cathode material.

The drawback of such tubes is that they are large in size and expensive in cost and require
high voltage (between 500 and 5,000 V) for their operation.

Applications

These tubes, are used extensively in photoelectric measurement and control devices and
also as scintillation counters.
Photo Transistor
Photo Transistor is a three terminal semiconductor device which converts the incident
light into photocurrent. Light is incident on the base terminal and it is converted into
current which flows through emitter and collector. It is the combination of photo diode
and transistor an amplifier. The current produced by the photo diode is low, so it is sent
through the transistor and amplified.

Symbol of Photo Transistor:

The symbol of Photo Transistor is similar to the transistor. The arrows shows the light
incident on the base terminal.

Construction of Photo Transistor:

Construction of Photo Transistor

When compared to normal transistor, in photo transistor the base and collector area is
large. The base area is increased to increase the amount of current generated. Because
more the light falls more the current is generated.

Earlier it was made up of single semiconductor material like silicon or germanium.

Recently photo transistors are made up of Gallium and Arsenic to obtain higher
efficiency.

Finally photo transistor is placed inside a metallic case and a lens is kept at the top of the
case to absorb the incident radiation.
 Working of Photo Transistor:

From the above circuit we can know that base is not connected to any external bias and
only light is incident on the base terminal. Collector terminal is connected to the positive
side of external supply and output is taken from the emitter terminal.

When no light is incident on the base terminal only some leakage current flows and it is
called as dark current.

When light is incident on the lens at the base collector junction, base current is generated
which is proportional to the intensity of the incident light.

Characteristics of Photo Transistor

From the above figure we can observe how the collector current varies with the intensity
of the incident light. The collector current increases with the intensity of the incident light.
Collector current differs with the wavelength and the intensity of the light.

Advantages of Photo Transistor:

 Efficiency is high
 Faster response
 Less noise interference
 Low cost
 Small in size

Disadvantages of Photo Transistor:

 Poor performance at high frequency
 Slower than photodiode

Applications of Photo Transistor:

 Used in Counting systems
 Used in Optical tape reader
 Used to detect Object
 Used in printers

Comparison

Photodiode Phototransistor

Definition It is a type of PN-junction diode It is a type of transistor

which generates electric current which converts the light
when light or photon is incident energy into an electrical
on their surface. energy
Symbol

Generates Current Current and Voltage

Output Fast Slow

Response

Sensitivity Less More

Biasing Both forward and reversed Forward biasing (emitter is

biasing. more negative as compared
to the collector. )
Uses For generating solar power, for Smoke detector, compact
detecting ultraviolet or infrared disc players, invisible light
rays, for measuring light etc. receiver, in laser etc.