ACLC COLLEGE OF TACLOBAN

Senior High School Department

2nd Semester SY 2020-2021

General Biology 1 Prepared by:

This subject is designed to enhance the understanding of
MARIAN BATUHAN
the principles and concepts in the study of biology,
Instructor, SHS Department
particularly life processes at the cellular and molecular
levels. It also covers the transformation of energy in
For inquiries, feel free to send me a message:
organisms.
mariandelisbatuhan10@gmail.com

Name of Student: ___________________________________

Lesson Contents: Grade, Block & Section: _____________________________
Contact Number: ___________________________________
 Cell Theory 2
 Discovery of Cells 2
 Types of Cells 3 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1: Introduction, Cells, Transport Mechanisms
 Cell Structure and Functions 4
This material is solely for personal and classroom use of
 Other Structures of Cells 5 Grade 11 STEM students, SY 2024-2025.
 Cell Cycle 8
 Transport Mechanisms 15 Redistribution of this material, in any form, is strictly prohibited.
Further, the information contained in this reviewer is for general information purposes
only. Any reliance you place on this material is strictly at your own risk.

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General Biology 1 •
theory states that living creatures could arise from nonliving matter and that such processes were
commonplace and regular.
The Greek philosopher Aristotle (384–322 BC) was one of the earliest recorded scholars to articulate the
Lesson Content:
 Cell Theory theory of spontaneous generation, the notion that life can arise from nonliving matter. Aristotle proposed
that life arose from nonliving material if the material contained pneuma (“vital heat”).
 Discovery of Cells
• To disprove the theory of spontaneous generation, Louis Pasteur devised a way to flask that allowed oxygen
 Cell Structure and Functions
in, but prevented dust from entering. The broth did not show signs of life until he broke off the neck of the
 Types of Cells
flask allowing dust, and therefore microbes, to enter. Through this experiment, Pasteur demonstrated that
 Cell Cycle life arises from existing life. This experiment laid the foundation for the development of pasteurization, a
 Transport Mechanisms process of heating food for the purpose of destroying harmful human pathogens.
 Biological Molecules

Cell Theory

• Over the next two centuries after the discoveries of Hooke and Leeuwenhoek, biologists found cells
everywhere.
• Biologists in the early part of the 19th century suggested that all living things were made of cells, but the
role of cells as the primary building block of life was not discovered until 1839 when two German scientists,
Theodore Schwann, a zoologist, and Matthias Jakob Schleiden, a botanist, suggested that cells were the
basic unit of structure and function of all living things.
• Later, in 1858, the German doctor Rudolf Virchow observed that cells divide to produce more cells. He
proposed that all cells arise only from other cells.
• The collective observations of all three scientists form the Cell Theory, which states that:

• Findings since the time of the original Cell Theory have enabled scientists to "modernize" the theory,
including points related to biochemistry and molecular biology. The modern version of the Cell Theory Discovery of Cells
includes:
✓ all known living things are made up of one or more cells; The word “cell” was derived from the Latin word “cellula” meaning small compartment. It was first used
✓ all living cells arise from pre-existing cells by division; by Robert Hooke, a British biologist and early microscopist. Hooke looked at thin slices of cork under a microscope.
✓ the cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in all living organisms; The structure he saw looked like a honeycomb as it was made up of many tiny units.
✓ the activity of an organism depends on the total activity of independent cells; During the 1670s, the Dutch tradesman Antoine van Leeuwenhoek used microscopes to observe many
✓ energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) occurs within cells; microbes and body cells. Leeuwenhoek developed an interest in microscopy and ground his own lenses to make simple
✓ cells contain hereditary information (DNA) which is passed from cell to cell during cell division; microscopes. Leeuwenhoek was so good at making lenses that his simple microscopes were able to magnify much
and more clearly than the compound microscopes of his day. His microscope’s increased ability to magnify over 200x is
✓ all cells are basically the same in chemical composition in organisms of similar species. comparable to a modern compound light microscope.
• Spontaneous generation (also known as abiogenesis, autogenesis, autogeny, organic phenomenon) is a Compound microscopes, which are microscopes that use more than one lens, had been invented around
body of thought on the ordinary formation of living organisms without descent from similar organisms. This 1595 by Zacharias Jansen, a Dutch spectacle maker. Several people, including Robert Hooke, had built compound
microscopes and were making important discoveries with them during Leeuwenhoek’s time.

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organelles of specialized form and function. These membrane-bounded structures are absent in
prokaryotic cells, another distinction between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. However, in spite
Fortunately, Leeuwenhoek took great care in writing detailed reports of what he saw under his microscope. of the absence of organelles, the prokaryotic cytoplasm is not a formless soup of cytoplasm, but
He was the first person to report observations of many microscopic organisms. Some of his discoveries included tiny appears to be organized into different regions.
animals such as ciliates, foraminifera, roundworms, and rotifers. He discovered blood cells and was the first person to • Eukaryotic cells are generally much larger than prokaryotic cells. Size is a general feature of cell
see living sperm cells. In 1683, Leeuwenhoek wrote to the Royal Society of London about his observations on the structure that relates to function. The logistics of carrying out cellular metabolism sets limits on
plaque between his own teeth, "a little white matter, which is as thick as if ’twere batter." He called the creatures he cell size. At the lower limit, the smallest cells known are bacteria called mycoplasmas, which
saw in the plaque “animacules”, or tiny animals. This report was among the first observations on living bacteria ever have diameters between 0.1 and 1.0 μm. These are perhaps the smallest packages with enough
recorded. DNA to program metabolism and enough enzymes and other cellular equipment to carry out the
activities necessary for a cell to sustain itself and reproduce. Typical bacteria are 1–5 μm in
Summary of Famous Personalities in Cell Biology and their Contributions diameter, about ten times the size of mycoplasmas. Eukaryotic cells are typically 10–100 μm in
• Robert Hooke- coined the term cell; English Father of Microscopy diameter.
• Anton Van Leeuwenhoek- discovered bacteria and other microscopic organisms in rainwater; studied
structure of plant and animal cells; Father of Microscopy
• Francesco Redi and Lazzaro Spallanzani- disproved Theory of Spontaneous Generation
• Robert Brown- discovered nuclei within cells
• Felix Dujardin- noted that all living things contain a thick jelly fluid (sarcode)
• Matthias Schleiden (botanist) and Theodor Schwann (zoologist)- all plants and animals are made up of
cells
• Johannes Purkinje- coined the term protoplasm, the living matter of the cell
• Rudolf Virchow- “omnia cellula e cellula” or cells come from pre-existing cells
• Louis Pasteur- proof of Virchow’s Theory of Biogenesis
• Zaccharias Janssen- first compound microscope

Types of Cells

Cells—the basic structural and functional units of every organism—are of two distinct types: prokaryotic
and eukaryotic. Organisms of the domains Bacteria and Archaea consist of prokaryotic cells. Protists, fungi, animals,
and plants all consist of eukaryotic cells. (“Protist” is an informal term referring to a group of mostly unicellular
eukaryotes.)

Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

All cells share certain basic features:

• They are all bounded by a selective barrier, called the plasma membrane.
• Inside all cells is a semifluid, jellylike substance called cytosol, in which subcellular components
are suspended.
• All cells contain chromosomes, which carry genes in the form of DNA.
• And all cells have ribosomes, tiny complexes that make proteins according to instructions from
the genes. Prokaryote vs. Eukaryote
Difference of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells:
• A major difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells is the location of their DNA. In a CHARACTERISTICS EUKARYOTIC CELL PROKARYOTIC CELL
eukaryotic cell, most of the DNA is in an organelle called the nucleus, which is bounded by a Has Nucleus Yes No
double membrane. In a prokaryotic cell, the DNA is concentrated in a region that is not membrane- Has Membrane-Bound Organelles Yes No
enclosed, called the nucleoid. Representative Organism: Plants, animals, fungi, and Eubacteria and Archaea bacteria
• Eukaryotic means “true nucleus” (from the Greek eu, true, and karyon, kernel, referring to the protists
nucleus), and prokaryotic means “before nucleus” (from the Greek pro, before), reflecting the Main Location of Genetic Nucleus Nucleoid
earlier evolution of prokaryotic cells. The interior of either type of cell is called the cytoplasm; Material
in eukaryotic cells, this term refers only to the region between the nucleus and the plasma Ribosome Size 80s 70s
membrane. Within the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell, suspended in cytosol, are a variety of

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Animal vs. Plant Cell
CHARACTERISTICS ANIMAL CELL PLANT CELL
Presence of Plastid Absent Present
Presence of Lysosome Present Absent
Presence of Centriole Present Absent
Presence of Vacuole With small vacuoles throughout With one large vacuole at the
the cell center of the cell
Presence of Cell Wall Absent Present
Location of the Nucleus At the center of the cell At the edge of the cell
Shape Not rigid Rigid due to the presence of
cell wall

Parts of the Cell

1. Cell Membrane:
- Selectively Permeable (it chooses what substances will go in and out of the cell)
- Its structure is described as “Phospholipid bilayer” since it is a double layer of phosphate
head with lipid tails.
- Phosphate head is hydrophilic (water-loving). It is polar and charged.
- Lipid tail is hydrophobic (water-fearing). It is non-polar and not charged.
- Robert Hooke in 1665 first view the cells under the microscope and hence, he is credited
with the discovery of cell membrane.

* Cell wall: found only in plants, bacteria, and fungi; it is known for its rigidity. It is found
outside the cell membrane.
✓ Plants have cell wall that is made up of Cellulose.
✓ Bacterial cell wall is made up of Peptidoglycan.
✓ Fungi’s cell wall is made up of Chitin.

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* Chloroplast: plastid that contains green pigment called Chlorophyll, which
2. Nucleus: It is considered to be the control center of the cell. Robert Brown discovered cell nucleus functions in Photosynthesis.
in 1833. *Chromoplast: plastid that carries pigments other than green.
*The nucleolus was first discovered in eel cells in 1774 by Felice Fontana. *Leucoplast: colorless plastid that contains oil or starch.
*Only eukaryotic cell has nucleus. Prokaryotes do NOT have nucleus. Other Cellular Structures
Cytoskeleton
3. Cytoplasm: • The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers that organizes structures and activities in the cell.
- All that is inside the cell but outside the nucleus is part of the Cytoplasm. • The cytoskeleton functions in structural support for the cell and in motility and signal transmission.
- It has two parts: Cytosol and Organelles. • Nikolai K Koltsov in 1903 proposed that the shape of the cell is determined by the tubular network, the
- Cytosol: The jelly-like structures where organelles are suspended. cytoskelton. However, the word was introduced and coined by Paul Wintrebert in 1931 (in French,
- Organelles: These are membrane-bound structure that performs different specific vital cytosquelette).
functions. • Microtubules shape the cell, guide organelle movement, and separate chromosomes in dividing cells.
• De Robertis and Franchi disovered microtubules in 1953 in nerve cell and later Sabatani, Bansch, Barnette
a. Mitochondria in 1963 explained the structure of microtubule.
- Powerhouse of the cell
• Cilia and flagella are motile appendages containing microtubules. Primary cilia also play sensory and
- site of Cellular Respiration;
signaling roles.
- the inner membrane is longer than the outer membrane.
• Microfilaments are thin rods that function in muscle contraction, amoeboid movement, cytoplasmic
- Albert von Kolliker studied mitochondria in muscle cell in 1857;
streaming, and support of microvilli.
Richard Altmann first recognized them as cell organelle in 1894;
Term "mitochondria' coined by Carl Benda in 1898. • Edward David Korn discovered microfilament in 1968 in Acanthamoeba castellanii.
b. Ribosome • Intermediate filaments support cell shape and fix organelles in place.
- Site of protein synthesis; • The group of Howard Holtzer in 1968 discovered intermediate filaments.
- The eukaryotic ribosome is larger than the one in prokaryotic cell.
- Discovered by George Palade in 1955. Microtubules Intermediate Filaments Microfilaments
c. Lysosome
Fiber Diameter About 25 nm 8 to 11 nm Around 7 nm
- Suicide bag of the cell; it contains hydrolases to digest foreign
material. Protein Composition Tubulin, with two subunits, One of different types of Actin
- Discovered by Christian de Duve in 1949 (or 1950s). alpha and beta tubulin proteins such as lamin,
d. Endoplasmic Reticulum vimentin, and keratin
- It acts as an internal transport system, allowing substances to be
moved from one area to another. Shape Hollow cylinders made of two Protein fiber coils twisted into Two actin chains
- Albert Claude in Belgium and Keith Porter at Rockfeller Institue in protein chains twisted around each other twisted around one
1945. each other another
- There are two types:
▪ Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum, where lipids are being Main Functions Organelle and vesicle Organize cell shape; positions Keep cellular
synthesized and movement; form mitotic organelles in cytoplasm shape; allows
▪ Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum, which is embedded spindles during cell structural support of the movement of
with ribosomes. reproduction; cell motility (in nuclear envelope and certain cells by
e. Golgi Bodies/Apparatus cilia and sarcomeres; involved in cell- forming
- Synthesizes, packages and modifies various chemical products of flagella) to-cell and cell-to matrix cytoplasmatic
the cell. junctions extensions or
- Camillo Golgi identified it in 1897 and named after him in 1898. contraction of actin
f. Centrioles fibers; involved in
- It functions in the formation of spindle fibers that is used during cell some cell-to-cell or
division. cell-to-matrix
- Discovered by Edouard Van Beneden in 1883 and was described junctions
and coined by Theodor Boveri in 1888.
g. Plastids
- It is an organelle found in most plant cells. It stores
pigments/substances.

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Representation Mitochondria and chloroplasts display similarities with bacteria that led to the endosymbiont theory. This
theory states that an early ancestor of eukaryotic cells engulfed an oxygen-using non-photosynthetic prokaryotic cell.
Eventually, the engulfed cell formed a relationship with the host cell in which it was enclosed, becoming an
endosymbiont (a cell living within another cell). Indeed, over the course of evolution, the host cell and its endosymbiont
merged into a single organism, a eukaryotic cell with a mitochondrion. At least one of these cells may have then taken
up a photosynthetic prokaryote, becoming the ancestor of eukaryotic cells that contain chloroplasts. This theory is
consistent with many structural features of mitochondria and chloroplasts. First, rather than being bounded by a single
Extracellular components membrane like organelles of the endomembrane system, mitochondria and typical chloroplasts have two membranes
• Plant cell walls are made of cellulose fibers embedded in other polysaccharides and proteins. surrounding them. (Chloroplasts also have an internal system of membranous sacs.) There is evidence that the
• Animal cells secrete glycoproteins and proteoglycans that form the extracellular matrix (ECM), which ancestral engulfed prokaryotes had two outer membranes, which became the double membranes of mitochondria and
functions in support, adhesion, movement, and regulation. chloroplasts. Second, like prokaryotes, mitochondria and chloroplasts contain ribosomes, as well as multiple circular
• Cell junctions connect neighboring cells. Plants have plasmodesmata that pass through adjoining cell walls. DNA molecules associated with their inner membranes. The DNA in these organelles programs the synthesis of some
Animal cells have tight junctions, desmosomes, and gap junctions. organelle proteins on ribosomes that have been synthesized and assembled there as well. Third, also consistent with
their probable evolutionary origins as cells, mitochondria and chloroplasts are autonomous (somewhat independent)
organelles that grow and reproduce within the cell.
FUN FACT! The Evolutionary Origins of Mitochondria and Chloroplasts

Diversity of Cells
Different cells within a single organism can come in a variety of sizes and shapes. They may not be very big,
but their shapes can be very different from each other. However, these cells all have common abilities, such as
obtaining and using food energy, responding to the external environment, and reproducing. In part, a cell’s shape
determines its function.

Cell Size

If cells are the main structural and functional unit of an organism, why are they so small? And why are there
no organisms with huge cells? The answers to these questions lie in a cell’s need for fast and easy transport of food
and other materials. The need to be able to pass nutrients and gases into and out of the cell sets a limit on how big cells
can be. The larger a cell gets, the more difficult it is for nutrients and gases to move in and out of the cell.

As a cell grows, its volume increases more quickly than its surface area. If a cell was to get very large, the
small surface area would not allow enough nutrients to enter the cell quickly enough for the cell’s needs. However,
large cells have a way of dealing with some size challenges. Big cells, such as some white blood cells, often grow
more nuclei so that they can supply enough proteins and RNA for the cell’s requirements. Large, metabolically active
cells often have lots of cell protrusions, resulting in many folds throughout the membrane. These folds increase the
surface area available for transport of materials into or out of the cell. Such cell types are found lining your small
intestine, where they absorb nutrients from your food through protrusions called microvilli.

Scale of Measurements
• 1 centimeter (cm) = 10 millimeters (mm) = 10 2 meters (m)
• 1 mm = 1000 micrometers (µm) = 10 3 m
• 1 µm = 1000 nanometers (nm) = 10 6 m
• 1 nm = 10 3 µm

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Ostrich eggs (A) can weigh as

much as 1.5 kg and be 13 cm in
diameter, whereas each of the
mouse cells (B) shown at right are
each about 10 µm in diameter,
much smaller than the period at the
end of this sentence.

The cells you have learned about so far are much smaller than the period at the end of this sentence, so they
A small cell (left), has a larger surface area to volume ratio than a bigger cell (center). The greater the surface- are normally measured on a very small scale. The smallest prokaryotic cell currently known has a diameter of only
area to volume ratio of a cell, the easier it is for the cell to get rid of wastes and take in essential materials such as 400 nm. Eukaryotic cells normally range between 1- 100µm in diameter. The mouse cells in the figure above are about
oxygen and nutrients. In this example, the large cell has the same area as 27 small cells, but much less surface area. 10 µm in diameter. One exception, however, is eggs. Eggs contain the largest known single cell, and the ostrich egg
Imagine cells as little cube blocks. If a small cube cell like the one in the figure on the left is one unit (u) in length, is the largest of them all. The ostrich egg in the figure above is over 10,000 times larger than the mouse cell.
then the total surface area of this cell is calculated by the equation:
Cell Shape
• height ⇥u ⇥width6 ⇥⇥1 = 6number of sidesu2 ⇥ number of boxes The variety of cell shapes
• 1u ⇥ 1 seen in prokaryotes and eukaryotes
The volume of the cell is calculated by the equation: reflects the functions that each cell
• height ⇥u ⇥width1u ⇥⇥1 = 1lengthu3 ⇥ number of boxes has, confirming the structure-
• 1u ⇥ 1 function relationship seen throughout
The surface-area to volume ratio is calculated by the equation: biology. Each cell type has evolved a
• area ÷ volume shape that is best related to its
• 6÷1=6 function. For example, the neuron
A larger cell that is 3 units in length would have a total surface area of (left figure) has long, thin extensions
(axons and dendrites) that reach out to
• 3u ⇥ 3u ⇥ 6 ⇥ 1 = 54u2 other nerve cells. The extensions help
and a volume of: the neuron pass chemical and
• 3u ⇥ 3u ⇥ 3u ⇥ 1 = 27u3 electrical messages quickly through
The surface-area to volume ratio of the large cell is: the body. The shape of the red blood
• 54 ÷ 27 = 2 cells (erythrocytes) enable these cells
Now, replace the three unit cell with enough one unit cells to equal the volume of the single three unit cell. This can to easily move through capillaries.
be done with 27 one unit cells. Find the total surface area of the 27 cells: The spikes on the pollen grain help it
• 1u ⇥ 1u ⇥ 6 ⇥ 27 = 162u2 stick to a pollinating insect or animal
The total volume of the block of 27 cells is: so that it can be transferred to and
• 1 ⇥ 1 ⇥ 1 ⇥ 27 = 27u3 pollinate another flower. The long
The surface-area to volume ratio of the 27 cells is: whip-like flagella (tails) of the algae
Chlamydomonas help it swim in
• 162 ÷ 27 = 6 water.
An increased surface area to volume ratio means increased exposure to the environment. This means that nutrients and In other words,
gases can move in and out of a small cell more easily than in and out of a larger cell. • Cell size is limited by a cell’s surface area to volume ratio. A smaller cell is more effective and
transporting materials, including waste products, than a larger cell.
• Cells come in many different shapes. A cell’s function is determined, in part, by its shape.

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Cell Cycle and Cell Division
The Cell Cycle
The ability of organisms to produce more of their own kind is the one characteristic that best distinguishes
In 1882, a German anatomist named Walther Flemming developed dyes that allowed him to observe, for
living things from nonliving matter. This unique capacity to procreate, like all biological functions, has a cellular basis.
the first time, the behavior of chromosomes during mitosis and cytokinesis. (In fact, Flemming coined the terms mitosis
Rudolf Virchow, a German physician, put it this way in 1855: “Where a cell exists, there must have been a preexisting
and chromatin.) During the period between one cell division and the next, it appeared to Flemming that the cell was
cell, just as the animal arises only from an animal and the plant only from a plant.” He summarized this concept with
simply growing larger. But we now know that many critical events occur during this stage in the life of a cell.
the Latin axiom “Omnis cellula e cellula,” meaning “Every cell from a cell.” The continuity of life is based on the
reproduction of cells, or cell division.
Phases of the Cell Cycle
Cell Division
Mitosis is just one
-involves the distribution of identical genetic material or DNA to two daughter cells. What is most
part of the cell cycle. In fact,
remarkable is the fidelity with which the DNA is passed along, without dilution or error, from one generation
the mitotic (M) phase, which
to the next. Cell Division functions in reproduction, growth, and repair.
includes both mitosis and
cytokinesis, is usually the
Core Concepts:
shortest part of the cell cycle.
• All organisms consist of cells and arise from preexisting cells.
The mitotic phase alternates
• Mitosis is the process by which new cells are generated.
with a much longer stage
• Meiosis is the process by which gametes are generated for reproduction. called interphase, which often
• The Cell Cycle represents all phases in the life of a cell. accounts for about 90% of the
• DNA replication (S phase) must precede mitosis so that all daughter cells receive the same complement of cycle. Interphase can be
chromosomes as the parent cell. divided into subphases: the G1
• The gap phases separate mitosis from S phase. This is the time when molecular signals mediate the switch phase (“first gap”), the S phase
in cellular activity. (“synthesis”), and the G2
• Mitosis involves the separation of copied chromosomes into separate cells. phase (“second gap”). The G
• Unregulated cell division can lead to cancer. phases were misnamed as
• Cell cycle checkpoints normally ensure that DNA replication and mitosis occur only when conditions are “gaps” when they were first
favorable and the process is working correctly. observed because the cells
• Mutations in genes that encode cell cycle proteins can lead to unregulated growth, resulting in tumor appeared inactive, but we now
formation and ultimately invasion of cancerous cells to other organs. know that intense metabolic
activity and growth occur
The Cell Cycle control system is driven by a built-in clock that can be adjusted by external stimuli (i.e., chemical throughout interphase. During
messages) called checkpoint: all three subphases of
- a critical control point in the Cell Cycle where ‘stop’ and ‘go-ahead’ signals can regulate the cell cycle. interphase, in fact, a cell
- Animal cells have built-in ‘stop’ signals that halt the cell cycles and checkpoints until overridden by ‘go- grows by producing proteins
ahead’ signals. and cytoplasmic organelles
- Three major checkpoints are found in the G1, G2, and M phases of the Cell Cycle. such as mitochondria and
▪ The G1 Checkpoint—the Restriction Point endoplasmic reticulum. Duplication of the chromosomes, crucial for eventual division of the cell, occurs entirely
- The G1 checkpoint ensures that the cell is large enough to divide and that enough nutrients during the S phase. Thus, a cell grows (G1), continues to grow as it copies its chromosomes (S), grows more as it
are available to support the resulting daughter cells. completes preparations for cell division (G2), and divides (M). The daughter cells may then repeat the cycle. A
- If a cell receives a ‘go-ahead’ signal at the G1 checkpoint, it will usually continue with the particular human cell might undergo one division in 24 hours. Of this time, the M phase would occupy less than 1
Cell Cycle. hour, while the S phase might occupy about 10–12 hours, or about half the cycle. The rest of the time would be
- If the cell does not receive the ‘go-ahead’ signal, it will exit the Cell Cycle and switch to a apportioned between the G1 and G2 phases. The G2 phase usually ta kes 4–6 hours; in our example, G1 would occupy
non-dividing state called G0. Most cells in the human body are in the G0 phase. about 5–6 hours. G1 is the most variable in length in different types of cells. Some cells in a multicellular organism
divide very infrequently or not at all. These cells spend their time in G1 (or a related phase called G0) doing their job
▪ The G2 Checkpoint
in the organism—a nerve cell carries impulses, for example. Mitosis is conventionally broken down into five stages:
- ensures that DNA replication in S phase has been successfully completed.
prophase, prometaphase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. Overlapping with the latter stages of mitosis, cytokinesis
▪ The Metaphase Checkpoint completes the mitotic phase.
- ensures that all of the chromosomes are attached to the mitotic spindle by a kinetochore.

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Cytokinesis in Animal and Plant Cells Binary Fission in Bacteria

In animal cells: Prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) can undergo a type of reproduction in which the cell grows to roughly
double its size and then divides to form two cells. The term binary fission, meaning “division in half”, refers to this
• cytokinesis occurs by a process known as cleavage. process and to the asexual reproduction of single-celled eukaryotes, such as the amoeba. However, the process in
• The first sign of cleavage is the appearance of a cleavage furrow, a shallow groove in the cell surface near eukaryotes involves mitosis, while that in prokaryotes does not.
the old metaphase plate. On the cytoplasmic side of the furrow is a contractile ring of actin microfilaments
associated with molecules of the protein myosin. The actin microfilaments interact with the myosin
molecules, causing the ring to contract. The contraction of the dividing cell’s ring of microfilaments is like
the pulling of a drawstring. The cleavage furrow deepens until the parent cell is pinched in two, producing
two completely separated cells, each with its own nucleus and its own share of cytosol, organelles, and other
subcellular structures.

In Plant Cells:

• There is no cleavage furrow. Instead, during telophase, vesicles derived from the Golgi apparatus move
along microtubules to the middle of the cell, where they coalesce, producing a cell plate.
• Cell wall materials carried in the vesicles collect inside the cell plate as it grows. The cell plate enlarges until
its surrounding membrane fuses with the plasma membrane along the perimeter of the cell. Two daughter
cells result, each with its own plasma membrane. Meanwhile, a new cell wall arising from the contents of
the cell plate has formed between the daughter cells.

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The eukaryotic cell cycle is regulated by a molecular control system Meiosis
• Signaling molecules present in the cytoplasm regulate progress through the cell cycle. Many of the steps of meiosis closely resemble corresponding steps in mitosis. Meiosis, like mitosis, is
• The cell cycle control system is molecularly based. Cyclic changes in regulatory proteins work as a cell cycle preceded by the duplication of chromosomes. However, this single duplication is followed by not one but two
clock. The key molecules are cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdks). consecutive cell divisions, called meiosis I and meiosis II. These two divisions result in four daughter cells (rather
• The clock has specific checkpoints where the cell cycle stops until a go-ahead signal is received; important than the two daughter cells of mitosis), each with only half as many chromosomes as the parent cell—one set,
checkpoints occur in G1, G2, and M phases. rather than two. In meiosis, for a single pair of homologous chromosomes in a diploid cell, that both members of
• Cell culture has enabled researchers to study the molecular details of cell division. Both internal signals and the pair are duplicated and the copies sorted into four haploid daughter cells. Recall that sister chromatids are two
external signals control the cell cycle checkpoints via signal transduction pathways. Most cells exhibit copies of one chromosome, closely associated all along their lengths; this association is called sister chromatid
density-dependent inhibition of cell division as well as anchorage dependence. cohesion. Together, the sister chromatids make up one duplicated chromosome (see Figure 13.4). In contrast, the
• Cancer cells elude normal cell cycle regulation and divide unchecked, forming tumors. Malignant tumors two chromosomes of a homologous pair are individual chromosomes that were inherited from different parents.
invade nearby tissues and can undergo metastasis, exporting cancer cells to other sites, where they may form Homologs appear alike in the microscope, but they may have different versions of genes, each called an allele, at
secondary tumors. On the other hand, the abnormal cells may remain at the original site if they have too few corresponding loci. Homologs are not associated with each other in any obvious way except during meiosis.
genetic and cellular changes to survive at another site. In that case, the tumor is called a benign tumor. Most
benign tumors do not cause serious problems and can be removed by surgery.

Overview of meiosis: The term

“meiosis, which means “to make
smaller”, refers to the fewer
chromosomes found in cells
following this process. How
meiosis reduces chromosome
number. After the chromosomes
duplicate in interphase, the
diploid cell divides twice, yielding
four haploid daughter cells. This
overview tracks just one pair of
homologous chromosomes, which
for the sake of simplicity are
drawn in the condensed state
throughout.

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Meiosis I

Prophase I
▪ Centrosome movement, spindle formation, and nuclear envelope breakdown occur as in mitosis.
Chromosomes condense progressively throughout prophase I.
▪ During early prophase I, before the stage shown above, each chromosome pairs with its homolog, aligned
gene by gene, and crossing over occurs: The DNA molecules of non-sister chromatids are broken (by
proteins) and are rejoined to each other.
▪ At the stage shown above, each homologous pair has one or more X-shaped regions called chiasmata
(singular, chiasma), where crossovers have occurred.
▪ Later in prophase I, after the stage shown above, microtubules from one pole or the other will attach to the
two kinetochores, one at the centromere of each homolog. (The two kinetochores of a homolog, not yet
visible above, act as a single kinetochore.) The homologous pairs will then move toward the metaphase plate.
▪ PROPHASE I is divided into several stages.

o Leptotene stage or leptonema

- Progressive condensation and coiling of chromosome.
- From being diffused during the interphase, they condense into visible strands within the
nucleus.
o Zygotene stage or zygonema
- characterized by the formation of synaptonemal complex and homologous pairing of
chromosome called synapsis.
o Pachynema stage or pachytene
- Chromosomal cross-over occurs and recombination between homologous chromosome
takes place.
- There is an exchange of genes at site of the crossover.
o Diplotene or diplonema
- The synaptonemal complex degrades and the homologous chromosome in each tetrad
begin to separate, but they remain connected at their chiasmata.
o Diakinases
- Homologous chromosome or tetrads and the chiasmata become clearly visible.
- Nucleoli disappear
- Nuclear membrane disintegrates into vesicles.
- Meiotic spindle begins to form.

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▪ In animal cells like these, a cleavage furrow forms. (In plant cells, a cell plate forms.)
▪ In some species, chromosomes decondense and nuclear envelopes form.
▪ No chromosome duplication occurs between meiosis I and meiosis II.

Meiosis II

Prophase II

▪ A spindle apparatus forms.

▪ In late prophase II (not shown here), chromosomes, each still composed of two chromatids
associated at the centromere, move toward the metaphase II plate.

Metaphase II

▪ The chromosomes are positioned at the metaphase plate as in mitosis.

▪ Because of crossing over in meiosis I, the two sister chromatids of each chromosome are not
genetically identical.
▪ The kinetochores of sister chromatids are attached to microtubules extending from opposite
poles.

Anaphase II

▪ Breakdown of proteins holding the sister chromatids together at the centromere allows the
- chromatids to separate. The chromatids move toward opposite poles as individual chromosomes.
Metaphase I
Telophase II and Cytokinesis
▪ Pairs of homologous chromosomes are now arranged at the metaphase plate, with one chromosome in each
▪ Nuclei form, the chromosomes begin decondensing, and cytokinesis occurs.
pair facing each pole.
▪ The meiotic division of one parent cell produces four daughter cells, each with a haploid set of (unduplicated)
▪ Both chromatids of one homolog are attached to kinetochore microtubules from one pole; those of the other
chromosomes.
homolog are attached to microtubules from the opposite pole.
▪ The four daughter cells are genetically distinct from one another and from the parent cell.
Anaphase I
▪ Breakdown of proteins that are responsible for sister chromatid cohesion along chromatid arms allows
homologs to separate.
▪ The homologs move toward opposite poles, guided by the spindle apparatus.
▪ Sister chromatid cohesion persists at the centromere, causing chromatids to move as a unit toward the same Significance of mitosis for sexual reproduction:
pole. Mitosis is important for sexual reproduction indirectly. It allows the sexually reproducing organism to grow
and develop from a single cell into a sexually mature individual. This allows organisms to continue to reproduce
Telophase I and Cytokinesis through the generations.

▪ When telophase I begins, each half of the cell has a complete haploid set of duplicated chromosomes. Each Significance of Meiosis and Chromosome Number:
chromosome is composed of two sister chromatids; one or both chromatids include regions of non-sister Chromosomes are the cell's way of neatly arranging long strands of DNA. Non-sex cells have two sets of
chromatid DNA. chromosomes, one set from each parent. Meiosis makes sex cells with only one set of chromosomes. For example,
▪ Cytokinesis (division of the cytoplasm) usually occurs simultaneously with telophase I, forming two haploid human cells have 46 chromosomes, with the exception of sperm and eggs, which contain only 23 chromosomes each.
daughter cells.

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 ACLC COLLEGE OF TACLOBAN
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When a sperm cell fertilizes an egg, the 23 chromosomes from each sex cell combine to make a zygote, a new cell Meiosis I vs. Meiosis II
with 46 chromosomes. The zygote is the first cell in a new individual.

Significance of Meiosis for Diversity:

One of the benefits of sexual reproduction is the diversity it produces within a population. That variety is a
direct product of meiosis. Every sex cell made from meiosis has a unique combination of chromosomes. This means
that no two sperm or egg cells are genetically identical. Every fertilization event produces new combinations of traits.
This is why siblings share DNA with parents and each other, but are not identical to one another.

Important notes to remember:

• The two chromosomes of such matching pair are called HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES because they
both carry genes controlling the same inherited characteristics
• In human females, the 46 chromosomes falls neatly into 23 homologous pairs.
• For a male, the chromosomes in 1 pair do not look alike.
• The non-identical pair is the male sex chromosome.
• In mammals, males have one X chromosome and one Y chromosome.
• Females have 2 X chromosome.
• The 22 remaining pairs of chromosomes – found in both males and females are called AUTOSOMES.

Meiosis vs. Mitosis

MEIOSIS MITOSIS
Requires two nuclear divisions Requires one nuclear division
Chromosomes synapse and cross over Chromosomes do not synapse nor cross over
Centromeres survive Anaphase I Centromeres dissolve in mitotic anaphase
Halves chromosome number Preserves chromosome number
Produces four daughter nuclei Produces two daughter nuclei
Produces daughter cells genetically different from Produces daughter cells genetically identical to parent
parent and each other and to each other
Used only for sexual reproduction Used for asexual reproduction and growth

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 ACLC COLLEGE OF TACLOBAN
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Transport Mechanisms O Endocytosis
O Phagocytosis
• refers to the movement of particles (solute) across or through a membranous barrier. These O Pinocytosis,
membranous barriers, in the case of the cell for example, consist of a phospholipid bilayer. The phospholipids O Receptor-mediated endocytosis
orient themselves in such a way so that the hydrophilic (polar) heads are nearest the extracellular and O Exocytosis
intracellular mediums, and the hydrophobic (non-polar) tails align between the two hydrophilic head groups.
• Transport may involve the incorporation of biological molecules and the discharge of waste products Passive Transport
that are necessary for normal function.
• Before we understand how each transport mechanism works, let’s discuss first the characteristics of plasma
membrane and how it allows the passage of other materials while preventing the transport of others.

Plasma Membrane:

Plasma membranes—are made up of a phospholipid bilayer in an aqueous environment. Phospholipids are the
foundation of all known biological membranes. The lipid bilayer forms as a result of the interaction between the non-
polar (hydrophobic or water-fearing) phospholipid tails, the polar (hydrophilic or water-loving) phospholipid heads,
and the surrounding water.

The nonpolar tails face toward the water.

Transmembrane proteins float within the bilayer and
serve as channels through which various molecules can
pass. They function as ‘identification tags’ on cells
which enable the cell to determine if the other cells that
it encounters are like itself or not. It also permits cells
of the immune system to accept and reject foreign cells
such as disease-causing bacteria. O A kind of transport by which ions or molecules move along a concentration gradient which
means movement from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.
Many membrane proteins function as enzymes that O Does not require energy in the transport of substances.
speed up reactions in cells. Others act like paste or glue-
forming cell junctions where adjacent cells stick Diffusion
together. Membranes also contain cholesterol which reduces the cell’s permeability to substances and make the bilayer O Is the random movement of molecules in a solution which leads to a generally uniform dispersion of
stronger. It is considered as the traffic control of the cell that allows the passage of certain materials and prevents the molecules.
transport of others. Now let us discuss how materials are transported inside and outside of the cell. O Is the net movement of a substance (liquid or gas) from an area of higher concentration to one of lower
concentration.
Factors affecting transport:
O Concentration & movement is the number one factor that determines whether or not a substance moves
across a semi-permeable membrane.
O Size is another factor that affects the movement of molecules across a semi-permeable membrane.
O Permeability of the membrane, Size and charge of the solute
O Energy
O Size of type of molecules

Types of Cellular Transport Systems:

O Passive transport
O Diffusion
O Facilitated diffusion
O Osmosis
O Active transport

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 ACLC COLLEGE OF TACLOBAN
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Diffusion with the aid of channel proteins is called……Facilitated Diffusion - Isotonic environment, there is no net movement of water molecules between the cell and the
environment.

Active Transport
O requires energy for the transport of materials
O 2 types: Primary Active Transport and Secondary active transport

O Aside from water, there are certain solutes or ions that also diffuse passively in and out of the cell. These
solutes or ions however, cannot pass through the phospholipid bilayer. They need the aid of channel proteins
integrated in the lipid bilayer that are specific for particular solutes.
O Example: fructose in the small intestines is absorbed via facilitated diffusion. It does not require energy for
it to enter the bloodstream but must pass through specific channel proteins.

Osmosis
O Is the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane.
O Movement of water across a semi-permeable membrane from a region of high concentration to a region of
low concentration.
O Dissolved molecules (ions, organic compounds, etc) are called solutes
O Most solutes cannot cross membranes
O As solute concentration increases, “free” water concentration decreases
O Hypertonic-high [solute]
O Hypotonic-low [solute]
O If cells are placed in a:
- hypotonic environment, cells without cell wall swell and burst while those with cell walls like plant
cells become turgid.
- Hypertonic environment, cells shrink or undergo plasmolysis because water moves out from the cell.

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 ACLC COLLEGE OF TACLOBAN
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2nd Semester SY 2020-2021
O Primary Active Transport:
• Facilitated diffusion requires the aid of • Requires the aid of channel proteins
➢ Endocytosis channel proteins
- Came from the Greek words:
▪ -“endo” which means “inside” • Does not require energy in the transport of • Requires energy for the transport of solutes
▪ -“kytos” which means “cell” solutes
- Cell membrane engulfs in large molecules forming endosomes and release inside the
cell. • Diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis • Endocytosis, exocytosis, receptor-mediated
 Phagocytosis endocytosis
- what are being taken in are solid food particles
 Pinocytosis
- what are being taken in are droplets of liquid SAMPLE PRACTICE TEST
➢ Exocytosis Note: You are not required to answer this part. These questions were only included to serve as your guide in assessing
- Came from the Greek words: your progress in this chapter.
“exo” which means “outside” Complete Name: ___________________________________ Grade, Block, and Section: ____________________
“kytos” which means “cell” Test 1. Multiple-Choice (10 pts)
- Transport of certain cell products outside of the cell. Instructions: Encircle the letter of the BEST answer. Avoid erasures.

1.Which structure is not part of the endomembrane system?

a. Nuclear envelope
b. Chloroplast
c. Golgi apparatus
d. Plasma membrane
2.Which structure is common to plant and animal cells?
a. chloroplast
b. central vacuole
c. mitochondrion
d. centriole
3. Which structure-function pair is mismatched?
a. microtubule; muscle contraction
b. ribosome; protein synthesis
c. Golgi; protein trafficking
d. nucleolus; production of ribosomal subunits
4. Cyanide binds to at least one molecule involved in producing ATP. If a cell is exposed to cyanide, most of the
cyanide will be found within the
O Secondary Active Transport: a. mitochondria.
➢ Uniport-transports solute across the concentration gradient b. ribosomes.
➢ Symport-transports one solute and one co-transported solute in the same direction. c. peroxisomes.
➢ Antiport-transports one solute and one co-transported solute in opposite direction. d. lysosomes.
5. Which of the following is true of unsaturated fats?
a. They are more common in animals than in plants.
ACTIVE VS. PASSIVE TRANSPORT (A Summary) b. They have double bonds in the carbon chains of their fatty acids.
c. They generally solidify at room temperature.
d. They contain more hydrogen than do saturated fats having the same number of carbon atoms.
PASSIVE TRANSPORT ACTIVE TRANSPORT
6. The structural level of a protein least affected by a disruption in hydrogen bonding is the
• Transported along the concentration gradient • Transported against a concentration gradient a. primary level.
b. secondary level.
• Moves from higher concentration to lower • Moves from lower concentration to higher c. tertiary level.
concentration concentration d. quaternary level.

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 ACLC COLLEGE OF TACLOBAN
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7. Enzymes that break down DNA catalyze the hydrolysis of the covalent bonds that join nucleotides together. What
would happen to DNA molecules treated with these enzymes?
a. The two strands of the double helix would separate.
b. The phosphodiester linkages of the polynucleotide backbone would be broken.
c. The pyrimidines would be separated from the deoxyribose sugars.
d. All bases would be separated from the deoxyribose sugars.
8. The molecular formula for glucose is C6H12O6. What would be the molecular formula for a polymer made by
linking ten glucose molecules together by dehydration reactions?
a. C60H120O60
b. C60H102O51
c. C60H100O50
d. C60H111O51
e. Transport Mechanisms
9. One difference between cancer cells and normal cells is that cancer cells
a. are unable to synthesize DNA.
b. are arrested at the S phase of the cell cycle.
c. continue to divide even when they are tightly packed together.
d. cannot function properly because they are affected by density-dependent inhibition.
10. Which of the following does not occur during mitosis?
a. condensation of the chromosomes
b. replication of the DNA
c. separation of sister chromatids
d. spindle formation

Test II. Enumeration (10 pts)

Instructions: Give what is asked. Each item is worth 2 points.

11-12. Real Life Examples of Osmosis

Example: wrinkled fingers after washing the dishes and clothes
11. _____________________________________
12. _____________________________________

13-15. Real life examples/application of diffusion

Example: Water diffuses into cooking noodles, making them bigger and softer
13. _____________________________________
14. _____________________________________
15. _____________________________________

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