GEN BIOLOGY reviewer/notes

The Cell Discoveries and Cell Theory Felix Dujardin

CELL ▪ He discovered a semi-transparent living

substance known as Sarcode, in which later in
▪ from Latin cella, meaning small room was changed to protoplasm. A French biologist
▪ The organism’s basic structural and functional discovered the "protoplasm". The colorless
unit of life. materials comprising the living part of the cell.

▪ The building blocks of life. Mathias Schleiden

Robert Hooke ▪ a German Botanist proposed on his studies about

the entire parts of a plant. He concluded that all
▪ The most useful instrument in studying about plants are made up of cells. A German botanist.
the parts of a cell is the compound microscope. Discovered the cells in plant only.
One of the pioneers of the cell study who used
his own made microscope was Robert Hooke, an Theodor Schwann
English scientist, 1665, when he conducted a ▪ a German Zoologist Theodor Schwann also
study about the cell by slicing a very thin slice of observed and study about the animal parts. He
cork from an oak cork and observed it under his concluded that all animals are composed of cells.
own microscope. These evidences lead a further study about the
▪ He observed, drew and described what he saw cell theory and considered as a gratefully help in
that the piece of cork was made up of minute the conceptualization of the cell theory. A
partitions, room like structures. German zoologist. Discovered “cell in animal”.
▪ His most significant contribution to biology is
▪ Hooke only saw the cell wall considering that the considered to be the extension of cell theory to
cork cells are not alive. Saw minute partitions, animals.
room like structures. Discovered the minute
hallow compartments known as "CELL". Rudolf Virchow

Anton Van Leeuwenhoek ▪ German Physician Biologist, Pathologist, etc.

▪ expert in grinding lenses and the one who ▪ Known as "the Father of Modern Pathology" and
discovered the tiny living organisms which he as the founder of social medicine.
called “animalcules” from the drop of rain water.
Some of the tiny animalcules are known as
bacteria ▪ states that "All living cells come from other
existing cells and therefore this proof justify that
▪ Most of the "animalcules" are now referred to as the creation of new cells were came from other
unicellular organisms. He independently joined living cells. Rudolf Virchow a German Physician,
with Hooke in studying the cell. Leeuwenhoek Justify the creation of new cells were came from
convinced other biologist to continue and other cells. A German Physician, Justify the
seriously focus their study on cell. Discovered creation of new cells were came from other
minute living organisms known as "Animalcules". cells.
▪ Father of microbiology, all of his discoveries are
microscopic.

Robert Brown
WHAT OPERATIONS CAN CELLS DO?
▪ Scottish botanist and palaeobotanist.
Cells are similar to human, they can perform many
▪ He discovered the center part of the cell which is activities.
the nucleus.
Conceptualizing the theory of a cell, based on the different
▪ Nucleus is the transmitter, controller of studies made by different scientists that support us a clear
information and carrier of genes. Discovered the understanding about what cells can do. According to the
carrier of genetic materials called "NUCLEUS". principles formulated by Matthias Schleiden and Theodor
GEN BIOLOGY reviewer/notes

Schwann developed a theory of cell and known as the cell microorganisms, animals and plant cells including cellular
theory. structures. Further study made by different scientists
pertaining to the cell that led the formulation of the cell
THE CELL THEORY STATES THAT: theory, which states that "Living organisms contain cells
1. Cells are the building block and the functional unit of all and cells originate from the parent cells.
living organisms it includes the life cycle, metabolic Our knowledge about cell structures that composed of a
activities and the ability to transfer character traits. mass of protoplasm, containing semi-transparent fluid,
2. All living organisms are containing one or more cells. cellular particles continuous floating on the surface that
preformed their individual function and nucleus located at
3. Cells arise from the pre-exciting cells the center. Cells are consisting of different features as the
result of dissimilar characteristics differs from one cell to
The first principle states that a man is made up of trillion of another in terms of types, sizes, location, arrangement and
cells in his body, therefore man do all the work just functions.
because all the cells are totally functional and working.
This principle implies of unity. Cell main parts

The second principle states that, our human body compos ▪ Cell membrane

well-organized group of chemical compound, from the ▪ Cytoplasm

smallest or simplest chemical compound up to complex,
therefore man has a capacity to perform his life processes ▪ Nucleus
in order for him to survive. This principle implies of Cell membrane
functionality
▪ It is composed of a lipid bilayer (phospholipids)
The third principles states that a single cell can be divide and associated proteins (Integral and Peripheral
and multiply to produce two daughter cells the same as protein) together with oligosaccharide side
their parents cells. This principle implies of reproducibility. chains.
MODERN CELL THEORY: ▪ Functions:
1. All living organisms are composed of trillions of cell in a) It envelops the cell.
their body.
b) It aids in maintaining its structural and
2. Cell is fundamental and building blocks of all living functional integrity.
organisms.
c) It has a sensory device that permits the cell to
3. Cells come from other cells by cell division. recognize (and be recognized by) other cells and
4. The cell consists of genetic material which is passed macro-molecules.
from generation up to the last generation d) It has a semi- permeable membrane between
5. All cells are made up of the same in chemical the cytoplasm and the external environment.
composition. ▪ Every cell in the body is bounded by a plasma
membrane. It has a double layer of phospholipid,
fats, carbohydrates and protein materials that
embedded in it. The protein provides structural
support, form channels to regulate the flow of
Cell structure and functions materials into and out of the cell, helps to
maintain cell shape, act as receptor sites and
Cell - is the basic structural and functional unit of life.
functional carrier of molecules, provide
Cell structure and Functions of the major parts of the cell identification boundary. It is made up of
including the subcellular organelles. semipermeable membrane that actively controls
the exit and entrance of the materials inside the
From the time when Robert Hooke discovered the basic cell. A membrane located on the outer portion
unit of life known as cell in 1665, invention of microscopes creates a partition from neighboring cell
and various staining techniques that enlighten the mind of considering as membrane boundary of cell.
early biologists to discovered the great deals of
GEN BIOLOGY reviewer/notes

Cell wall materials and responsible for protein synthesis.

They usually floating around the cytoplasm,
▪ The external boundary outer cell membrane that located in entire cell and some are found in the
located in plants only. It consists of cellulose rough endoplasmic reticulum.
structure and other substances that protect the
plants from invading pathogenic organisms as Endoplasmic reticulum
well as to prevent dryness.
▪ It is the external covering of the bacteria, fungi ▪ is a complex network of flattened sacs and tubes
and plant. extending from the nuclear membrane to the
▪ Bacterial cell wall is composed of peptidogylcan a plasma membrane.
complex, interwoven network that surrounds the ▪ A network or interconnected of tubes and
entire cell. flattened sacs, extending in the entire cytoplasm
▪ Plant cell wall is mainly composed of cellulose. and channels, membranous tube-like structure
▪ Fungi cell wall is composed of chitin. known as cisternae. Acts as transport vesicles to
▪ Functions: It provides rigid support for the cell carry different substances, responsible for
that maintains the shape of the cell and allows carbohydrates, protein, lipids synthesis, modifies
the cell to withstand media of low osmotic protein materials.
pressure. ▪ Function: It transports substances through the
Cytoplasm inside of the cell, synthesizes lipids, enzymes and
proteins.
▪ Pertains to the fluid portion of the cell which
contains the three main structural components: Two Types of Endoplasmic Reticulum:
cytoskeleton, organelles and inclusions. A. Rough endoplasmic reticulum - Composed of network
▪ The cytoplasm is one of the major parts of the flattened membranous tubes containing ribosomes stud on
cell that located outside the nucleus, inside the outer surface. It involved in manufacturing protein
cell membrane. It composed of a jelly-like materials, protein folding, and site of protein synthesis.
substance that filled up in the entire cytoplasm.
It also contains cytosol, organelles and B. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum - It consists of network
inclusions. Cell expansion, growth, metabolic tubular sacs that lacking of ribosomes on its surface. Its
activities and cell replication are main functions function responsible to detoxify drugs, manufacturing
of cytoplasm. lipids, carries carbohydrates, lipids and non- protein
▪ The cytosol is the semi-transparent fluid in which materials.
cytoplasmic organelles and particles are
suspended. It is one of the major cellular Golgi apparatus
components that give structural support and ▪ It is made up stacks of flattened membranous
holds the organelles inside the cell. sacs carrying the protein from rough
▪ CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES: An organelle is a endoplasmic reticulum to the outside of part of
membrane-enclosed with specialized subunit the cell. It contains enzymes that responsible to
that located inside the cell performed individual modify protein, packages and secreted proteins.
task. Individual organelle usually enclosed within
its own lipid bilayers. Each little organ that
suspended in the cytoplasm has its own
structural characteristics.

Ribosome Mitochondria

▪ are structures that serve as protein factories. ▪ It is known as the "Power house of the cell".
▪ refers to an organelle that specializes in
▪ Site of protein synthesis. adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production by
aerobic respiration. It contains circular DNA and
▪ small rounded dark bodies which composed of
ribosome.
ribosomal proteins and ribonucleic acids. They ▪ This is the location wherein energy produces by
are the one which connect amino acids together synthesis of Adenosine Triphosphate.
to form long chains of protein. They are bounded ▪ Mitochondrion has two layers of membranous
by a membrane but they are not membranous in
sacs, the inside membrane is enfolds to form
structure. Ribosomes are the builders of protein
GEN BIOLOGY reviewer/notes

cristae and encloses by a matrix. A sausage enzymes is important in the process of cell
shape like organelle consider as the sites for development.
cellular respiration, conversion of energy
originating from simple sugar and lipids into ATP Gycocalyx
energy. It regulates cellular metabolism ▪ It is known as the Cell Coat that located in the
Parts: outer part of cell membrane of anima cell, its
functions for cell recognition and cellular
• Outer membrane is the outer boundary of the adhesion. It is also responsible for tissue
mitochondria. organization.

• Inner membrane is the interior of the mitochondria and Microbodies or Peroxisomes

contains a series of double-layered membranous sheets
called ―cristae. ▪ is a membrane-bound vesicles contains oxidative
enzymes.
• Matrix refers to the aqueous compartment.
▪ For detoxifying substances.
• Cristae are the deep folds of the inner mitochondrial
membrane. ▪ are membranous sacs that containing oxidative
enzymes for the function of detoxifying harmful
Vacuole substance.

▪ are the sac-like structures surrounded by a Cytoskeleton

membrane called tonoplast.
▪ is a system of interconnected protein filaments
▪ Plant stores the materials such as water and and fibers that support cell structure.
other dissolved substances. ▪ It is composed of collective network of protein
filamentous, thread-like structure called
▪ Animal plays a major role in disposing of microtubules, microfilaments which produce a
materials, debris or toxic substances. strong ability to support and maintain the cell
shape. It is the fundamental framework of the
▪ Single membranous sac that plays important cytoplasm containing protein filament that assist
roles in storage of materials and water, releasing for the organelles to move inside.
of cellular waste products, conducts intercellular
digestion, maintaining hydrostatic pressure. The A. MICROTUBULE is a hollow cylinder made out of protein
vacuole in plants is large that plays a vital role in tubulin that provides support for cell shape and play a role
turgor pressure and serves as for the storage of in the formation of spindle fibers during cell division, e.g
water. The vacuole in animals is small for the centriole, flagella, cilia.
storage of food products
B. MICROFILAMENT is a long, thin fiber that consists of
Lysosomes subunits of the protein actin. Its function is for cell
movement, cytoplasmic streaming, and muscle
▪ is a small membrane bordered structures that contraction.
contain the powerful enzymes necessary for
cellular digestion. C. INTERMEDIATE FILAMENT includes keratin, desmin,
vimentin, and neurofilaments.
▪ Also known as the suicide bag of the cell
"scavenger of the cell" INCLUSIONS

▪ membranous bag structure which contain strong Inclusions refer to the accumulations of material that are
hydrolytic enzymes and use by the cell to digest not metabolically active. It provides mechanical stability to
macromolecules. These are single-membranous cells. e.g. glycogen, lipid droplets, lipofuscin
organelles that worn-out the damaged parts,
fuse with the lysosomes and broken down by Functions: Provide mechanical stability to cells.
nucleic acids and some lipids. The digested Plastids
products can reuse again by the cell for the
synthesis of cellular materials. The programmed ▪ The largest, rounded membranous organelles
of cell destruction with the use of lysosomal that contain DNA usually located in plant cell but
GEN BIOLOGY reviewer/notes

not common in animal cell for coloring pigments PARTS OF THE NUCLEUS
in plants.
▪ A double- membranous structure enclosed by a NUCLEAR ENVELOPE (nuclear membrane)
thylakoid membrane consists of chloroplasts Consists of two-membranous layered w/c surrounded the
which contain chlorophyll use by the plants for entire Nucleus and serves as a boundary to separates the
making their food through the process of nuclear material from the cytoplasm. It is containing
photosynthesis. thread-like materials called chromatin and usually located
Parts of the plastids in a darker area of the nucleus. The nuclear membrane
controls the continuous flow of materials inside and
▪ Thylakoid is the flattened membranous sacs. outside the nucleus.
▪ Grana refers to the stacked arrangement of
thylakoid. -a highly regulated membrane barrier that separated the
▪ Stroma is a space outside the thylakoid which nucleus from cytoplasm in eukaryotic cell.
contains the enzymes for carbohydrate synthesis. - it enclosed the cell
Different Plastids and their coloring pigments NUCLEOPLASM
A. Chloroplast - green pigment It is known as the nuclear sap containing fluid substance
B. Chromoplast – colored pigment like red, yellow and that suspended in the internal part forming the protoplasm
orange of the nucleus also known as Karyoplasm.

1. Carotenoids - orange -it holds the nucleolus

2. Anthocyanin - violet -the entire space in the nucleus

3. Anthoxanthin - white -a type of protoplasm that made up mostly of water, a

mixture of various molecules, and dissolved ions.
4. Xanthophyll - yellow
-main function is to serve as the suspension substance for
C. Leucoplastid - white and colorless pigment the organelles inside the nucleus.

Amyloplasts- stored starch grains NUCLEOULUS

Proteinoplasts - stored protein A spherical shape made up of granular structures that

found inside the nucleus containing Ribosomal Nucleic
Elaioplasts- stored oil substance Acid (RNA) which rich of protein materials for the protein
THE CENTROSOME AND THE CENTRIOLE synthesis and carrying hereditary traits.

THE CELL NUCLEUS -the largest structure in the nucleus of eukaryotic cell. It is
best known as the site ribosomes biogenesis.
Nucleus
NUCLEAR PORES
A spherical shape, large structure and the most visible part
that can be seen easily located near or at the central part Holes on the nuclear envelope which provide entrance an
of a cell. There are important functions of the nucleus to exit of material in the nucleus.
controls, directs all biochemical reactions that the cell CHROMOSOMES
undergoes. It regulates the cell activity due to the presence
of enzymatic structures. These are long thread stands associated with protein
materials that suddenly coiled, appear thicker, denser and
Also inside the nucleus there are chromatin materials that shorter when cells divide. It contains genetic materials
containing hereditary information to determine the traits known as DNA that embedded inside the chromosomes. It
of an organism. From the process of cell division, the cell is also bounded protein which serves as packaging for
prepares and divides the chromatin to become short, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and controls the hereditary
coiled, and thick then condense to convert into characteristics.
chromosomes in which DNA is form.

- The largest organelle inside the cell

GEN BIOLOGY reviewer/notes

OTHER PARTS

FLAGELLA are cytoplasmic projections that made of two

central and nine pairs of peripheral microtubules which
extend from surface of cell; covered by plasma membrane;
many single-celled organisms use them for propulsion and
other function of flagella for cell locomotion.

CILIA are relatively short projections that extend from the

surface of cell and allowing the materials to move on
surface of some tissues in form of waves.

PLASMIDS Plasmids are extrachromosomal,

doublestranded, circular DNA molecules that are capable
of replicating independently of the bacterial chromosome.
CAPSULE A capsule is a gelatinous layer covering the entire CELL TYPES
bacterium.
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
Function: It plays a role in the adherence of bacteria to
human tissues, which is an important step in causing Epithelial tissues form the covering of the surfaces of the
body located both in internal and external parts. One
infection.
example is skin found in the uppermost layer of the body
PILI (Fimbriae) Pili (Fimbriae) are hair-like filaments that which made of epithelial cells.
extend to the cell surface.
❑ Packed tightly (to no intercellular space)
Function: It forms the attachment between the male ❑ Act as a barrier against mechanical injury, microbes, and
(donor) and the female (recipient ) bacteria during fluid loss
conjugation ❑ It has a free surface that is exposed to air or fluid
❑ Cells are attached to a basement membrane.
PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELL
❑ Avascular – not associate with blood vessel
PROKARYOTE pro means “before” and kary means
“nucleus”. “Before the nucleus”

-found in one cell organisms

-unicellular organism “one”

-cell without membrane-bound structures

Ex. bacteria
THREE BASIC SHAPES
EUKARYOTE eu means “true” and kary means “nucleus”.
“True nucleus” 1. Squamous Cells
2. Cuboidal Cells
-more complex internal structure 3. Columnar Cells

-cell with membrane bound structure SQUAMOUS CELLS

-two or more cell
✓ Flattened, central nucleus
-multicellular organisms ✓ Delicate and thin sheet of cells

Ex: protist, fungi, plants, and animals. Location:

• Lung alveoli
• Blood vessels
• Buccal mucosa

Functions:
• Diffusion
• Gas exchange
GEN BIOLOGY reviewer/notes

CUBOIDAL CELLS TYPES OF LAYERING

✓ Cube-shaped, central
✓ Spherical nucleus

Locations:
• Linings of kidney tubules and ducts
• Salivary glands

Functions:
• Secretion
• Absorption

COLUMNAR CELLS

✓ Oval nucleus near at basal end

✓Apical surface may have cilia or microvilli

Locations:
• Digestive tract
• Upper respiratory tract
• Oviducts
NAMING OF A EPITHELIAL TISSUE
Functions:
❑ First name: Number of layers.
• Absorption
• Secretion ❑ Last name: Shape of its cells.

Example: Simple squamous epithelium.

GEN BIOLOGY reviewer/notes

MUSCULAR TISSUE

The muscle tissues are composed of muscle cells that are

designed for contraction and movement.

These can help us to do the work. The muscle cells are also
called muscle fibers.

CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Connective tissues are a kind of tissue cells that use to

connect, bind, hold, and support one part of another part
of the body.
✓ Binding and supporting
✓ Protecting
✓ Insulating
3 MAJOR CATEGORIES
✓ Storing reserve fluid and energy
• Striated Muscles ✓ Transporting substances within the body
• Smooth Muscles ✓ Movement
• Cardiac Muscles
4 TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE
• Proper Connective Tissue
• Cartilage Connective Tissue
• Bone Connective Tissue
• Blood Connective Tissue

PROPER CONNECTIVE TISSUE

❑ Loose Connective Tissue – have fewer fibers, more cells,
and more ground substance

» Areolar – (fibroblast cells, elastic fibers, collagen fibers)

• found below epithelial tissue
• Vascular
• Has lots of space

» Adipose – (adipocytes, nucleus, lipid vacuole)

We find Smooth Muscles in :
• also called as “fat tissues”
• Iris
• Compact
• Brochi
• Stomach » Reticular – (reticular fibers, developing blood cells)
• Uterus • reticular fiber
• Soft internal framework
• Supports developing blood cells
•
❑ Dense Connective Tissue -

» Regular – (fibroblast nucleus, collagen fibers)

- collagen fibers are parallel position
- tendons (connect muscle to bones) and ligaments
(connect bone to bone)

» Irregular – (fibroblast, collagen fibers)

- irregular shape of collagen fibers
GEN BIOLOGY reviewer/notes

Neurons are the specialized building blocks of the nervous

» elastic – (elastic fibers) system. They generate and conduct the electrochemical
- found in joints, vertebrae nerve impulses that let you think.
(spinal cord)

CARTILAGE CONNECTIVE TISSUE

Avascular – does not have any blood or nerves

» hyaline – (chondrocytes, lacunae)

- most common type of cartilage
- sticky and starchy, glassy and transparent in color
- “hyal” = glassy / transparent

» elastic – (elastic fibers, chondrocytes)

- it has more elastic fibers Cell body or soma is the neuron’s life support. It’s got all
- similar to hyaline cartilage that have chondrocytes or the necessary goods like a nucleus, mitochondria, and
cartilage cells DNA.

» fibro – (collagen fibers, chondrocytes) Dendrites are the finger-like cells present on the end of a
neuron. They are short, branching fibers extending from
BONE CONNECTIVE TISSUE the cell body of the nerve cell.
BONE TISSUE (osseous tissue) - is a calcified connective
tissue, perfect for supporting and protecting your body’s Axon - the long, rope-like is the transmission cable– it
various structures. carries messages to other neurons, muscles, and glands

» spongy bone – also called cancellous or trabecular bone.

It is found in the long bones and is surrounded by compact » GLIAL CELLS
bone Glial cells provide support and protection to the neurons
(nerve cells), maintain homeostasis, clean up debris, and
» compact bone – also called as cortical bone, surround form myelin.
spongy bone. They are heavy, tough, and compact in
nature.
• Osteocyte (within lacuna) CLASSIFYING NEURONS BY STRUCTURES
» multipolar – function is 3 or more process. 99% of the
BLOOD CONNECTIVE TISSUE neurons in our body are multipolar.
Blood develops from mesenchyme and is made up of cells » bipolar – has 1 axon, dendrite, and cell body
surrounded by an extracellular nonliving matrix: in this » unipolar – found in sensory (retina eyes)
case, the ground substance is your blood plasma, which
has protein fibers floating around in it. CLASSIFYING NEURONS BY FUNCTIONS
» Sensory Neurons (Afferent Neurons)
» red blood cells – erythrocytes – transmit impulses from sensory receptores toward the
» white blood cells – leukocytes Central Nervous System
» platelets – small blood fragments used for blood clot – mostly unipolar
» Motor Neurons (Efferent Neurons) – impulse moves
NERVOUS TISSUE from the CNS to the rest of the body
– mostly multipolar
Nervous or the nerve tissue is the main tissue of our » Interneurons – impulse moves between sensory and
nervous system. It monitors and regulates the functions of motor neurons
the body. – mostly multipolar

That basic nervous tissue has two big functions -- sensing CELL DIVISION : MITOSIS
stimuli and sending electrical impulses throughout the NUCLEUS – The nucleus is a large, dark structure that
body, often in response to those stimuli. contains genetic material encoded in the DNA of
chromosomes.
Two different cell types – neurons and glial cells

» NEURONS
GEN BIOLOGY reviewer/notes

» Sister chromatids held together by centromere

» Telomeres - found at ends of DNA molecules and
prevent DNA from coming apart

Parts of a Chromosome
• Centromere - point where sister chromatids are joined.
• P=short arm; upward
• Q=long arm; downward
• Telomere - tips of chromosome

DNA BASES : CHROMOSOME

Adenine, Thymine A thread-like structure of nucleic acids and
Cytosine, Guanine proteins found in the nucleus of most living cells,
carrying genetic information in the forms of genes.
PARTS OF THE NUCLEUS
• Nuclear membrane / Nuclear envelope refers to a CHROMATID
double membrane that surrounds the nuclear material. Each of the two thread-like strands into which a
• Nuclear Pores permit the passage of materials in and out chromosome divides longitudinally during cell division.
of the nucleus. Each contains a double-helix of DNA.
• Nucleoplasm/Karyoplasm consists of a matrix that is
surrounded by the nuclear envelope. CHROMATIN
• Nucleolus refers to one or more spherical bodies which The material of which the chromosomes of organisms
is involved in the synthesis of ribosomal Ribonucleic Acid other than bacteria (i.e. eukaryotes) are composed,
(rRNA) and it assembles into precursors of ribosomes. consisting of proteins, RNA and DNA
• Chromatin refers to the double-stranded DNA complexes
with proteins that constitute the chromosomes.
• Chromosomes are carriers of genetic information. 1. Originally divided into two stages (observations were
limited by microscopes at the time)
a. Interphase- cell appeared to be at rest b. Mitosis- cell
dividing

2. Improved techniques and tools later allowed scientist to

identify 4 distinct stages

INTERPHASE
• Longest phase in cell cycle
• For growth, DNA Replication, and Cell Functions

a. Gap 1 (G1) - cell carries out normal functions

Cell Growth and Division
1).Cell increases in size
I. The Cell Cycle has four main stages
2).Organelles increase in numbers
The cell cycle is a regular pattern of growth, DNA
b. Synthesis (S) - Cell makes copy of its nuclear DNA.
replication, and cell division in eukaryotic cells
1). Synthesis means “the combining of parts to make a
whole.
A. Chromosomes condense at start of mitosis
2). By end of S stage, cell nucleus contains two complete
Chromosome - one long continuous thread of DNA
sets of DNA.
a. Consists of numerous genes
b. You have 46 chromosomes
c. Gap 2 (G2) - Cells continue to carry out normal
functions
1).Additional growth occurs
B. Must be condensed to fit into cell nucleus 2). Critical checkpoint (before cell goes through mitosis cell
1). DNA wraps around proteins called histones must be adequate size, undamaged DNA)
2). When loosely condensed called chromatin

» Chromosome looks like “X” (each half is identical DNA-

called a chromatid)
GEN BIOLOGY reviewer/notes

Mitosis (M) - Includes two processes

1). Mitosis - Division of cell nucleus and its contents.
2). Cytokinesis - Process that divides the cell cytoplasm.
Two identical daughter cells produced.

MITOSIS begins after G2 and ends before G1

B. Cells divide at different rates
1. Rates of cell division vary widely
a. Prokaryotic cells typically divide much faster than
eukaryotic cells
b. Rate at which cells divide linked to body’s need for
those cells

In human cells, S, G2 , and M stages together usually take

about 12 hours
a. Length of G1 stage differs most for different cell types
b. Rate of cell division greater in embryos and children MECHANISM OF CELL DIVISION
Mitosis and Cytokinesis
G0 – Gap zero or Quiescence phase
• Cells is neither dividing nor preparing to divide. MITOSIS – Division of nucleus
• Reproductively resting but functional - Same full set of DNA
• “Post mitotic phase” - Somatic cells, except sex cells
• E.g. Hepatocytes (except for injury to the liver) - Divided into four phases: Prophase, Metaphase,
Anaphase, Telophase
• Quiescence can be reversible or irreversible
• Plant cells » A. PROPHASE
• Reversible – DNA condenses into tightly coiled chromosomes. Nuclear
• Temporary – liver, kidney, stomach cells envelope breaks down. Centrioles move to poles and
• Irreversible spindle fibers form.
• Non-proliferative (non dividing) cells – The Cell begins the division process
• E.g. nerve cells, osteoclasts, heart muscles 1. The nucleolus disappears
2. The nuclear membrane breaks apart
• Stop dividing when they reach maturity.
3. The chromosomes become visible
4. The spindle apparatus forms and attaches to the
C. Cell size is limited
centromeres of the chromosomes
1. Cells have upper and lower size limits a. Must be big
enough to “hold” everything b. Upper limit due to ratio of
» B. METAPHASE
cell surface area to volume
– Spindle fibers attach to each chromosome.
Chromosomes align along cell equator (middle)
To maintain suitable cell size, growth and cell division
– The Second Phase of Mitosis
must be coordinated.
1. The Nuclear Membrane is completely gone
2. The duplicated chromosomes line up along the
THE THREE CHECKPOINTS
cell's equator.
Evaluate the state of the genetic information.
» C. ANAPHASE
• The G1/Restriction or Start checkpoint/Major
– Chromatids separate to opposite sides of cell
checkpoint
– The third phase of Mitosis
• The G2/M checkpoint
1. Diploid sets of daughter chromosomes separate
• The Metaphase/Spindle checkpoint
2. They are pushed and pulled toward opposite
poles of the cell by the spindle fibers
IMPORTANCE OF CHECKPOINT
• The checkpoint control cell cycle;
D. TELOPHASE
• Reliability of DNA is assessed at G1 checkpoint
– Nuclear membrane starts to form. Chromosomes begin
• Proper chromosome duplication is assessed at G2
to uncoil, and spindle fibers fall apart
checkpoint
– The nuclear membrane and nucleoli (nucleus) reform.
• Attachment of each kinetochore to a spindle fiber is
– Cytokinesis is nearly complete
assessed at M checkpoint
– The Cell Plate begins to form
– The Cell prepares for final division
GEN BIOLOGY reviewer/notes

CELL DIVISION : MEIOSIS

4. CYTOKINESIS
– division of cytoplasm. Different in animal and plant cells. MEIOSIS
– The final stage of Mitosis ▪ Type of cell division which creates gametes or sex cells.
– The cytoplasm, organelles, and nuclear material are ▪ Gametes have half of the number of chromosomes in
evenly split and two new cells are formed. each of the body cell.
▪ Occurs in gonads (testes or ovaries) SPERMATOGENESIS -
Male OOGENESIS - Female
REGULATION OF CELL CYCLE
A. Internal and external factors regulate cell division. MEIOSES VOCABULARY
Diploid (2N) – A cell with 2 chromosome sets in each of its
1. External factors cell; all body (somatic cell)
a. Include physical and chemical factors. Haploid (N) – A cell with 1 chromosome sets in each of its
b. Once a cell touches another cell, it stops dividing cell; all gametes (sperm and egg cell)
(contact inhibition).
c. Stops dividing when detached from culture dish
(anchorage dependent). CHROMOSOMES
d. Many cells release chemical signals (growth factors) that – are made up of DNA and Protein.
trigger cell growth. – Bearer of hereditary component called DNA.
– DNA is “Blue-print of life.”
2. Internal factors
a. External factors trigger internal factors that affect cell 46 Chromosomes (human body cells)
cycle 23 Chromosomes (gametes)
b. Two of the most internal factors are;
a. Kinases – enzymes that transfer phosphate Centromere – part of chromosome where sister
group from one molecule to target molecule. chromatids are held together
b. Cyclins- group of proteins that activates kinases. Chromatid – strands of replicated chromosome
Destroyed to continue G1 to M stage

MEIOSIS
3. Apoptosis 1. Interphase
– programmed cell death (signals activate genes producing 2. Meiosis I
self-destructive enzymes 3. Meiosis II

B. Cell division is uncontrolled in cancer. A. INTERPHASE

1. Cancer – common name for class or diseases - Longest phase in cell cycle
characterized by uncontrolled cell division - It includes Gap 1 (G1), Synthesis (S), Gap 2 (G2)
a. Form from disorganized clumps called tumors
b. Two types of tumors » GAP 1 (G1)
1). Benign - cancer cells typically remain - Cells carries out normal function
clustered together. - Cells begin to increase in size
2). Malignant - Some cell break away (or - organelles increase in numbers
metastasize) from the tumor and spread through
body »SYNTHESIS (S)
- Cell makes a copy of its nuclear DNA
2. Cancer cells come from normal cells that have suffered - Synthesis means the combining of parts to make a whole
damage to genes that make proteins involved in cell - By the end of S-stage, cell nucleus contains two complete
division sets of DNA
a. damage from radiation, inherited, chemicals,
ultraviolet radiation » GAP 2 (G2)
b. Carcinogens - Substances know to cause cancer - Cells carries out normal functions
c. Cancer can be treated with both radiation and - Additional growth occurs
chemotherapy.(these typically kill both cancerous and - Critical checkpoint (before cell goes to mitosis, cell must
healthy cells) be adequate in size and undamaged DNA)
GEN BIOLOGY reviewer/notes

B. MEIOSIS I » ANAPHASE II
– First part of cell division in meiosis. ▪ The spindle fibers will pull the centromere causing it to
– It includes the stages of PMAT I: Prophase I, Metaphase break apart and chromatids move to the opposite poles of
I, Anaphase I and Telophase I. the cell.

» PROPHASE I » TELOPHASE II
▪ Longest and most complex phase of meiosis. ▪ Splitting of cytoplasm.
▪ Chromosomes condense. ▪ Nuclear envelope begins to form, surrounding the
▪ SYNAPSIS: homologous structure come together to form chromosomes.
tedrad.
▪ TEDRAD: is two chromosomes or four chromatids CELL DIVISION : MITOSIS
▪ Occurs the process called “Crossing over.” by: Sir Rogelio
▪ Crossing over results to a recombinant chromosomes.
▪ Chiasmata is the site for crossing over. CELL DIVISION
▪ Nucleolus disappears. Cell division is an essential aspect of life. It enables a
▪ Nuclear envelope breaks apart. multicellular organism to grow and reach the adult size,
▪ Homologous chromosomes or tedrads become visible. replaces worn-out or damage cells, and keeps the total
▪ Centriole moves to the opposite poles of the cell. number cells in an adult organism relatively constant.
▪ Spindle fiber begins to form.
TWO KINDS OF CELL DIVISION
» METAPHASE I • MITOSIS (Division of somatic cells)
▪ Shortest phase. • MEIOSIS (Division of gametes or sex cells
▪ Homologous chromosome or tedrads align at the
metaphase plate or at the middle portion of the cell.
▪ Centromere is attached to the spindle fiber IMPORTANT PARTS OF MITOSIS

» ANAPHASE I 1. NUCLEUS
▪ Homologous chromosomes separate and move towards – The largest organelle in animal cell.
the poles. – Organelle where DNA is located.
▪ Sister chromatids remain attached at their centromere.
2. CHROMOSOME
» TELOPHASE I – Bearer of hereditary components called DNA.
▪ The chromosomes are now positioned at the two
opposite poles of the cell. 3. CENTRIOLE AND SPINDLE
▪ Nuclear envelope reforms, surrounding the – A minute cylindrical organelle near the nucleus in animal
chromosomes. cells, occurring in pairs and involved in the development of
▪ Cytokinesis occurs resulting to two haploid cell. spindle fibers in cell division.

REASONS FOR MITOSIS

C. MEIOSIS II ⁍ Growth
– Second phase of meiosis. ⁍ Repairing or Healing
– Meiosis II is very similar to mitosis. ⁍ Asexual Reproduction
– In is divided in distinct stages, PMAT II: Prophase II,
Metaphase II, Anaphase II, and Telophase II.
CELL DIVISION BY MITOSIS
» PROPHASE II
- Cells division varies widely.
▪ Same in prophase of mitosis.
- Some cells divide constantly: cells the embryo, skin cells,
▪ Nuclear envelope disappears.
gut lining, etc.
▪ Chromosomes become visible.
- Other cells that divide rarely or never.
▪ Centrioles will move to the two opposite poles of the
– Mitosis creates two identical cells.
cell.
▪ Spindle fibers form.

» METAPHASE II
▪ Chromosomes lines at the metaphase plate or at the
middle part of the cell.
GEN BIOLOGY reviewer/notes

» GAP 2 (G2)
- Cells carries out normal functions
- Additional growth occurs
- Critical checkpoint (before cell goes to mitosis, cell must
be adequate in size and undamaged DNA)

B. MITOSIS (CELL DIVISION)

– Mitosis produces two genetically identical cells.
– Mitosis referred as process of PMAT stages: Prophase,
Metaphase, Anaphase, and Telophase.

» PROPHASE
CELL CYCLE - Prophase is the starting point of cell division.
- Chromatin condenses into chromosomes.
- The cell cycle has four main stages. - Nucleolus disappears.
- Cell cycle is a regular pattern of growth, DNA replication, - Nuclear envelope breaks apart
and cell division in eukaryotic cells. - The chromosomes become visible.
- Originally divided into two stages: interphase and - Centrioles move to two opposite poles of the cell.
mitosis. - The spindle fibers begin to form.
- But, improved techniques and tools later allowed
scientist to identify “four distinct stages.” » METAPHASE
- The chromosomes line up at the equator of the cell or the
“metaphase plate.”
- Centrioles are positioned at the two opposite poles of the
cell and spindle fibers are attached to the centromere of
the chromosome.

» ANAPHASE
- In anaphase, centromere divides.
- Chromosomes break at centromeres, and sister
chromatids move to opposite ends of the cell.

» TELOPHASE
- Telophase is where nucleus divides.
- The chromosomes are at the two opposite sides of the
cell.
- The nuclear envelope re-forms around the two sets of
chromosomes.
A. INTERPHASE
– Longest phase in cell cycle. CYTOKINESIS
– It includes Gap 1 (G1), Synthesis (S), and Gap 2 (G2). – The division of cytoplasm.
✓ Growth – The cytoplasm, organelles, and nuclear materials are
evenly split and two new cells are formed.
✓ DNA Replication
✓ Cell Functions

» GAP 1 (G1)
- Cells carries out normal function
- Cells begin to increase in size
- organelles increase in numbers

»SYNTHESIS (S)
- Cell makes a copy of its nuclear DNA
- Synthesis means the combining of parts to make a whole
- By the end of S-stage, cell nucleus contains two complete
sets of DNA