Digestive System

Digestive System
 Hormones in the Digestive System

 Enzymes in the Digestive System
 Pathway for the Absorption of Nutrients
Hormones
 Secretin – is secreted by the S cells of the duodenum in response to meals and to the
presence of acid in the duodenum, secretin stimulates the production of bicarbonate by
the pancreas.
 Cholecystokinin – is a peptide secreted by I cells in response to the emptying of
the stomach contents into the duodenum, causes contraction of the gallbladder with
emptying of its contents, relaxation of the sphincter closing the end of the bile duct, and
stimulation of the production of enzymes by the pancreas. Cholecystokinin increases
intestinal peristalsis, and it is used in radiological examination of the gallbladder and in
tests of pancreatic function.
 Gastrin – increases gastric secretions
 Insulin – secreted by the beta (B) cells of the pancreas in response to a rise in
plasma glucose concentration and a fall in glucagon level. It stimulates the absorption of
carbohydrates (glucose) into stores in muscle and adipose (fatty) tissue. Insulin is used in
the treatment of diabetes mellitus.
 Glucagon – produced by pancreatic alpha (A) cells in response to a drop in plasma
glucose concentration; the effects of glucagon are opposite to those of insulin. Glucagon
stimulates the breakdown of glycogen and the production of new glucose
(gluconeogenesis) in the liver. It also decreases the production of gastric and pancreatic
secretions. Glucagon is used in the treatment of conditions in which the level of sugar in
the blood is lowered.
 Somatostatin – is a peptide secreted by the delta (D) cells in response to eating, especially
when fat enters the duodenum. It is an inhibitory modulator of the secretion of acid and
pepsin and of the release of gastrin, insulin, and other intestinal hormones.
It inhibits motility of the gallbladder and intestines and suppresses the secretion
of lipase by the pancreas.
 Serotonin – or 5-hydroxytryptamine, is an amine that is formed from amino acid 5-

hydroxytrytophan in the enterochromaffin cells (EC) and in other similar cells
called enterochromaffin-like cells (ECL). These cells also secrete histamine and kinins,
which likewise have important messenger functions in glandular secretions and on blood
vessels. Serotonin acts in paracrine fashion. Both EC and ECL cells are widely
distributed in the gastrointestinal tract.
 Gastric inhibitory peptide – is secreted by the K cells, gastric inhibitory
peptide enhances insulin production in response to a high concentration of blood sugar,
and it inhibits the absorption of water and electrolytes in the small intestine.
The cell numbers are increased in persons with duodenal ulcer, chronic inflammation of
the pancreas, and diabetes resulting from obesity.
 Intestinal glucagon – is secreted by the L cells in response to the presence
of carbohydrate and triglycerides in the small intestine, intestinal glucagon
(enteroglucagon) modulates intestinal motility and has a strong trophic influence on
mucosal structures.
 Motilin - stimulates the contraction of the fundus and antrum and accelerates gastric
emptying. It contracts the gallbladder and increases the squeeze pressure of the lower
esophageal sphincter. Motilin is secreted between meals.
 Neurotensin – is secreted by the N cells of the ileum in response to fat in the small
intestine, neurotensin modulates motility, relaxes the lower esophageal sphincter, and
blocks the stimulation of acid and pepsin secretion by the vagus nerve.
 Pancreatic polypeptide – is a hormone in response to protein meals. Their function is
intimately related to vagal and cholinergic activity. The level of pancreatic polypeptide is
frequently raised in diabetes.
 Vasoactive intestinal peptide – is secreted locally by endocrine cells or nerve endings,
vasoactive intestinal peptide is located almost exclusively in nerves distributed
throughout the gastrointestinal tract. It inhibits the release of gastrin and the secretion of
acid, is a mild stimulant of bicarbonate secretion from the pancreas, and is a powerful
stimulant of the secretion of water and electrolytes by the small and large intestines. It
relaxes the sphincters and slows intestinal transit time. There is another group of peptide
messengers that is found in quantity within the brain and in the nerves of the
gastrointestinal tract. These include substance P, endorphins, enkephalins, and bombesin.
o Substance P – is present in significant amounts in the vagus nerves and the
myenteric plexus, substance P stimulates saliva production, contraction of smooth
muscle cells, and inflammatory responses in tissues, but it is uncertain whether it
is anything other than an evolutionary vestige.
o Endorphins and enkephalins – each comprising five amino acids in the molecule,
are present in the vagus nerves and the myenteric plexus. They have the properties
of opiate (opium-derived) substances such as morphine; they bind to the same
receptors and are neutralized by the opiate antagonist naloxone. There is no
evidence that endorphins and enkephalins are circulating hormones, but the
enkephalins may have a physiological paracrine role in modulating smooth
muscle activity in the gastrointestinal tract, and endorphins may serve in
modulating the release of other peptides from endocrine cells in the digestive
system.
o Bombesin – is a peptide that is found in the intrinsic nerves of the gastrointestinal
tract, bombesin stimulates the release of gastrin and pancreatic enzymes and
causes contraction of the gallbladder. These functions may be secondary,
however, to the release of cholecystokinin, a hormone secreted by the mucosa of
the intestine that has similar effects. It is uncertain if bombesin has a
physiological role or if it is an evolutionary vestige.
o Prostaglandins – are hormonelike substances involved in the contraction and
relaxation of the smooth muscle of the gastrointestinal tract. Prostaglandins are
also able to protect the mucosa of the alimentary tract from injury by various
insults (boiling water, alcohol, aspirin, bile acids, stress) by increasing the
secretion of mucus and bicarbonate from the mucosa, which in turn stimulates the
migration of cells to the surface for repair and replacement of the mucosal lining.
Enzymes
 Amylase – is important for digesting carbohydrates. It breaks down starches into sugars.
It is secreted by both the salivary glands and the pancreas.
 Maltase – is responsible for breaking down maltose (malt sugar) into glucose (simple
sugar). The body uses glucose for energy.
 Lactase – (also called lactase-phlorizin hydrolase) is an enzyme that breaks down lactose,
a sugar found in dairy products. It turns lactose into the simple sugars glucose and
galactose. It is produced by cells known as enterocytes that line the intestinal tract.
Lactose that is not absorbed is fermented by bacteria in the gut can cause you to
have gas and an upset stomach.
 Peptidases – digest proteins and break the peptide bonds to form amino acids.
 Disaccharidases – digest small sugars, specifically disaccharides. These enzymes break
down disaccharides, such as maltose, into monosaccharides, such as glucose.
 Lipase – is responsible for the breakdown of fats into fatty acids and glycerol (simple
sugar alcohol). It's produced in small amounts by your mouth and stomach, and in larger
amounts by your pancreas.
 Nucleases – are enzymes that degrade DNA and RNA to their component nucleotides.
 Proteases – also called peptidases, proteolytic enzymes, or proteinases, these digestive
enzymes break down proteins into amino acids. They also play a role in numerous body
processes. These enzymes are produced in the stomach and pancreas. The main ones are
o Pepsin – is secreted by the stomach to break down proteins into peptides, or
smaller groupings of amino acids. Those amino acids are then either absorbed or
broken down further in the small intestine.
o Trypsin – forms when an enzyme secreted by the pancreas is activated by an
enzyme in the small intestine. Trypsin then activates additional pancreatic
enzymes, such as carboxypeptidase and chymotrypsin, to help break down
peptides.
o Chymotrypsin – breaks down peptides into free amino acids that can be absorbed
by the intestinal wall.
o Carboxypeptidase A – is secreted by the pancreas, it splits peptides into individual
amino acids.
o Carboxypeptidase B – is secreted by the pancreas, it breaks down basic amino
acids.
 Sucrase – is secreted by the small intestine, where it breaks down sucrose (the sugar in
table sugar) into fructose and glucose. These are simpler sugars that the body can absorb.
It is found along the intestinal villi. These are tiny hair-like structures that line the
intestine and absorb nutrients into the bloodstream.
Pathway for the Absorption of Nutrients

 Carbohydrates
 Mouth – salivary amylase breaks down starch into sugars.
 Small intestine – pancreatic amylase converts remaining starch into sugars.
 Final digestion – disaccharidases – sucrase, lactase, and maltase break
disaccharides into monosaccharides for absorption.
 Fats
 Small intestine – bile salts emulsify large fat globules into smaller droplets.
 Pancreas – secrete pancreatic lipase that breaks down triglycerides into fatty acids
and glycerol for absorption.
 Proteins
 Stomach – pepsin breaks down proteins into smaller peptides.
 Small intestine – pancreatic proteases, trypsin, chymotrypsin, and
carboxypeptidases, break down peptides into amino acids.
 Small intestine – other enzymes, peptidases, further break down small peptides
into tripeptides, dipeptides, or single amino acid.
 Nucleic Acid
 Pancreas and intestines – nucleases break down DNA and RNA into nucleotides
for absorption. Then, nutrients – sugars, amino acids, fatty acids, vitamins,
minerals, are absorbed through the small intestine lining into the bloodstream.
 Water and Minerals
 Small and large intestine – ensure proper balance and absorption of water and
electrolytes.
 Large intestine – water absorption and formation of feces, which consist of
undigested material, bacteria, and water.

Digestive System

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Digestive System

 Hormones in the Digestive System

 Serotonin – or 5-hydroxytryptamine, is an amine that is formed from amino acid 5-

Pathway for the Absorption of Nutrients

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