CLASS 11ᵗʰ

SCIENCE
CHEMISTRY
STRUCTURE OF AN
ATOM
▪Matter is anything that takes up space and has mass.

▪All matter is made up of atoms

▪Atoms are the building blocks of matter, sort of how bricks are the
building blocks of houses.
 Introduction
▪The word 'atom' has been derived from the Greek word ‘a-tomio'
which means uncut-able' or 'non-divisible'.
▪Atom was discovered by John Dalton.
▪He proposed the famous atomic theory in 1807.
▪Atoms are fundamental unit of matter.
▪The existence of different kinds of matter is due to
different atoms constituting them.
Atomic Theory

1808 - John Dalton

1897 - Thomson Model
1911 - Rutherford Foil Experiment
1912 - Bohr Model of Atom

Quantum Mechanic
Atomic Theory

All matter is made up of atoms.

Atoms of an element are identical.
Each element has different atoms.
Atoms can engage in a chemical reactions.
Atoms can neither be created nor be destroyed.
Atoms are indivisible.
STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM

▪The discovery of the two fundamental particles (electrons

and
protons) inside the atoms led to the failure of the aspect
of Daltons atomic theory.
▪For explaining the arrangement of electrons and protons in an
atom, many scientists proposed various atomic models.
 Discovery of Electron

▪In mid 1850s many scientists

mainly Faraday began to
study electrical discharge in
partially evacuated tubes,
known as cathode ray
discharge tubes.
• A cathode ray tube is made of glass containing two thin pieces of
metal, called electrodes, sealed in it.

• The electrical discharge through the gases could be observed

only at very low pressures and at very high voltages.
• The pressure of different gases could be adjusted by evacuation
of the glass tubes.
▪When sufficiently high voltage is applied across the electrodes,
current starts flowing through a stream of particles moving in
the tube from the negative electrode (cathode) to the positive
electrode (anode).

▪These were called cathode rays or cathode ray particles. The

flow of current from cathode to anode was further checked by
making a hole in the anode and coating the tube behind anode
with phosphorescent material zinc sulphide.

▪When these rays, after passing through anode, strike the zinc
sulphide coating, a bright spot is developed on the coating.
 Properties of Cathode Rays

▪The cathode rays start from cathode and move towards the anode.

▪These rays themselves are not visible but their behaviour can
be observed with the help of certain kind of materials
(fluorescent or phosphorescent) which glow when hit by them.
Television picture tubes are cathode ray tubes and television
pictures result due to fluorescence on the television screen coated
with certain fluorescent or phosphorescent materials.
▪ In the absence of electrical or magnetic field, these rays travel in
straight lines .
▪ In the presence of electrical or magnetic field, the behaviour of
cathode rays are similar to that expected from negatively
charged particles, suggesting that the cathode rays consist of
negatively charged particles, called electrons.

▪The characteristics of cathode rays (electrons) do not depend

upon the material of the electrode and the nature of the gas
present in the cathode ray tube .
 Charge to Mass Ratio

The charge to mass ratio is basically a physical quantity that is

directly connected to the mass and electric charge of any given
particle.
It depends upon

• Magnitude of the negative charge

• Mass of the particle
• Strength of electric/ magnetic field
Thus, we can conclude that
electrons are basic constituent
of all the atoms & contains
negative charge .
Discovery of Protons

Eugene Goldstein noted streams of positively charged particles in

▪ cathode rays in 1886.

▪ Particles move in opposite direction of cathode rays.

▪ Called "Canal Rays" because they passed through holes (channels or
canals) drilled through the negative electrode.
 Properties of Canal Rays
▪Unlike cathode rays, mass of positively charged particles
depends upon the nature of gas present in the cathode ray tube.
These are simply the positively charged gaseous ions.
▪The charge to mass ratio of the particles depends on the gas
from which these originate.
▪Some of the positively charged particles carry a multiple of the
fundamental unit of electrical charge.
▪The behaviour of these particles in the magnetic or electrical
field is opposite to that observed for electron or cathode rays.
▪The smallest and
lightest positive ion
was obtained from
hydrogen and was
called proton.
DISCOVERY OF NEUTRONS

▪In 1932, J. Chadwick discovered another subatomic particle

which had no charge and a mass nearly equal to that of a
proton. It was eventually named as neutron.

▪Neutrons are present in the nucleus of all atoms, except hydrogen.

▪In general, a neutron is represented as 'n'. The mass of an atom

is therefore given by the sum of the masses of protons and
neutrons present in the nucleus.
▪Neutrons are the
neutral particles.
Thompson Model of Atom

In 1897, the English scientist

J.J.Thomson
▪ provided the
first hint that an atom is
made of even smaller
particles.
Thompson Model of Atom

▪He proposed a model of the atom that is sometimes called the

"Plum Pudding" model.
▪Atoms were made from a positively charged sphere with
negatively charged electrons embedded in it, like raisins in a
puddi ng.
▪The negative and positive charges are equal in magnitude. So,
the atom
stable. as a whole is electrically
▪In 1908, the English

physicist Ernest Rutherford

was hard at work on an
experiment that seemed to
have little to do with
unraveling the mysteries of
the atomic structure.
▪Rutherford's experiment Involved firing a stream of tiny
positively charged alpha (a) particles at a thin sheet of gold
foil.
▪ The expected result was that the a-particles would be deflected
by the subatomic particles in gold atoms. Since a - particles
were much heavier than protons, he did not expect to see larger
deflections
Postulates of Rutherford's model of an atom:

▪In his experiment, theα particles were made to strike on a thin

gold foil .
▪Many of theαparticles passed linearly through the gold foil.
▪Some of the particles deviated at small angles.
▪One out of everyparticle appeared to bounce.
 Conclusions of Rutherford's model of an atom:

The space inside an atom is empty as most of theα particles passed

without deflection through the gold foil.
The positive charge occupies a minimum space which indicates that
very few particles were diverted from their path.
A very small proportion of α particles were diverted by a large angle.
 Defects of Rutherford's model of an atom:
▪ The movement of electrons was not specified by him and was
expected to be unstable.

▪ Any particle in a circular orbit undergoes acceleration and radiate

energy due to which the revolving particle identified by Rutherford was
unstable as they tend to fall inside the nucleus.

Dual character of the electromagnetic radiation could not be explained

Experimental results regarding atomic spectral emission lines could
not be explained
Atomic Number

▪The number of protons in an atom is referred to as its Atomic

Number.
▪It is denoted by the letter ' Z'.
▪Elements are defined by the number of protons they posses.
▪The atomic number of hydrogen is 1.
Mass Number

▪The mass of an atom resides in its nucleus.

The mass of an atom is practically due to protons and neutrons
alone.
▪Therefore, Mass Number of an atom is the sum of neutrons and
protons present in the nucleus of an atom
▪for hydrogen, its mass number is 1 u.
Isotopes

•Isotopes are atoms of same element, which have different mass

numbers but same atomic number.
•Their chemical properties are similar but physical properties are
different.
 Applications of Isotopes

▪An isotope of uranium is used as

a fuel in nuclear reactors.
▪An isotopes of cobalt is used in

the treatment of cancer.

▪An isotope of iodine is used in
the treatment of goitre.
Isobars

▪ Atoms of different elements with different atomic numbers, which

have the same mass number are known as isobars.
▪ Examples of isobars are: calcium(z=20)and argon(z=18).their
mass number is 40 u.
 Isotones

Isotones aretwo or more species of

atoms or nuclei that have the same
number of neutrons. Their atomic
number(Z) and mass number (A) are
different. But the value ( number of
neutrons) is the same.
Bohr’s Atomic Model

▪In 1913, the Danish scientist

Niels Bohr proposed an
improvement.

▪In his model, he placed each

electron in a specific energy
level.
Development leading to Bohr’s Atomic Model

▪Dual character of the electromagnetic radiation which means

that radiations possess both wave like and particle like
properties, and
▪Experimental results regarding atomic spectra.
▪In an atom, it was realised that the attraction between
the electrons and the protons should make the atom
unstable
▪Bohr proposed a model in which the electrons would
stably occupy fixed orbits, as long as these orbits had
special discrete locations
• Atom has a centre called nucleus . Electrons revolve only in fixed

circular orbits with fixed energy & fixed velocity .

▪Quantisation condition- Electrons revolve only in those circular orbits

for which their angular momentum is an integral multiple of h/2π

Angular momentum is defined as:The property of any rotating object

given by moment of inertia times angular velocity.
▪ Energy is emitted or absorbed only when an electron Jumps from higher
energy level to lower energy level and vice-versa.
▪ del Е = E2 – E1 = hv = hc / lamda is known as Bohr’s frequecy
rule ( h = 6,62607015 × 10⁻³⁴) J s
▪ The most stable state of an atom is its ground state or normal
state.
Emission & Absorption Spectra

The
▪ spectrum of radiation emitted by a substance that has absorbed
energy is called an emission spectrum.
Atoms,
▪ molecules or ions that have absorbed radiation are said
to be "excited".
To
▪ produce an emission spectrum, energy is supplied to a
sample by heating it or irradiating it and the wavelength (or
frequency) of the radiation emitted, as the sample gives up the
absorbed energy, is recorded.
• The study of emission or absorption spectra is referred to as spectroscopy.
• The spectrum of the visible light, was continuous as all wavelengths (red to
violet) of the visible light are represented in the spectra.

• The emission spectra of atoms in the gas phase, on the other hand, do not
show a continuous spread of wavelength from red to violet, rather they
emit light only at specific wavelengths with dark spaces between them.
• Such spectra are called line spectra or atomic spectra because the emitted
radiation is identified by the appearance of bright lines in the spectra

E = hc/λ
 Line Spectrum of Hydrogen

▪When an electric discharge is passed through gaseous

hydrogen, the H2 molecules dissociate and the energetically
excited hydrogen atoms produced emit electromagnetic
radiation of discrete frequencies.
▪The hydrogen spectrum consists of several series of lines
named after their discoverers.

R= 10 973 731.6 m-1

Ques- For Hydrogen atom, Calculate the wavelength
when electron deexcites from second shell tk first shell .
Continuous Spectrum

Absorption Spectrum

Emission Spectrum
 Wave nature of Electromagnetic Radiation
▪James Maxwell (1870) was the first to give a
comprehensive explanation about the interaction
between the charged bodies and the behaviour of
electrical and magnetic fields on macroscopic level.
▪He suggested that when electrically charged
particle moves under accelaration, alternating
electrical and magnetic fields are produced and
transmitted.
▪These fields are transmitted in the forms of waves
called electromagnetic waves or electromagnetic radiation.
 Electric Field
Component

The electric and magnetic field

components of an electromagnetic
wave. These components have the
same wavelength, frequency, speed
and amplitude, but they vibrate in
Direction of
two mutually perpendicular planes.
Magnetic Field propagation
Component
Properties of electromagnetic wave

▪The oscillating electric and magnetic fields produced by

oscillating charged particles are perpendicular to each other and both are
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave.
▪ Unlike sound waves or waves produced in water, electromagnetic waves
do not require medium and can move in vacuum. It is now well
established that there are many types of electromagnetic radiations,
which differ from one another in wavelength (or frequency). These
constitute which is called electromagnetic spectrum
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Different kinds of units are used to represent electromagnetic
radiation.
These radiations are characterised by the properties, namely,
frequency (v) and wavelength (Λ)

In vaccum all types of electromagnetic radiations, regardless of

wavelength, travel at the same speed, i.e., 3.0 × 108 m s-'
(2.997925 × 108 ms', to be precise). This is called speed of
light and is given the symbol c.
Wavelength (^) It is defined as the distance between
two consecutive crests or troughs

Frequency (v) It is defined as the number of waves passing through a point in one s
second. The SI units of frequency are
Hertz (Hz or sec 1) 1Hz = 1 cycle/sec.

Velocity (C) It is the linear distance travelled by the

wave in one second. It is represented by c. Its units are cm/sec or m/sec.
• Amplitude It is the height of the crest or depth of the trough.

It is represented by 'a. Its units are cm or metre.

▪Wave Number (v)

It is defined as the number of waves per unit lengths. It is
reciprocal of the wavelength.
 Black Body Radiation

An ideal body, which emits and

absorbs radiations of all frequencies
uniformly, is called a black body and
the radiation emitted by such a body is
called black body radiation. In
practice, no such body exists. Carbon
black approximates fairly closely to
black body.
 Experimental Facts

Blackbody spectrum depends only on the

temperature of the object, and not on what it is
made of.
As the temperature of an object increases, it emits
more blackbody energy at all wavelengths.
As the temperature of an object increases, the
peak wavelength of the blackbody spectrum
becomes shorter (bluer).
The blackbody spectrum always becomes small at
the left-hand side (the short wavelength, high
frequency side).
 Particle Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation:
Planck's Quantum Theory E = hv
The nature of emission of radiation from hot bodies (black-body radiation)
ejection of electrons from metal surface when radiation strikes it (photoelectric

effect) variation of heat capacity of solids as a function of temperature

Line spectra of atoms with special reference to hydrogen. These phenomena

indicate that the system can take energy only in discrete amounts.

All possible energies cannot be taken up or radiated.

Photoelectric Effect
 Result of Photoelectric Effect

The electrons are ejected from the metal surface as soon as the beam of light strikes the

surface

The number of electrons ejected is proportional to the intensity or brightness of light

For each metal, there is a characteristic minimum frequency, vo (threshold frequency)

below which photoelectric effect is not observed.

At a frequency v ›Vo, the ejected electrons come out with certain kinetic energy
Albert Einstein explained the photoelectric effect in
1905:

Explanation - Einstein's theory was based on the

idea that light is made up of tiny packets of
energy called photons. He explained that when
photons with enough energy hit a metal surface,
they can transfer their energy to the electrons in
the metal, causing them to be ejected.
Wave Particle Nature of Light

Wave Particle
diffraction photoelectric effect

All electromagnetic waves behave like a wave & particle

De-Broglie Hypothesis

According to the de-Broglie

hypothesis,a moving material
particle behaves like a wave at times
and like a particle at other times.
Every moving material particle is
connected with a wave.
De Broglie's Hypothesis says that Matter consists of both the particle nature
as well as wave nature.
De Broglie wavelengthis given as,

From the above relation, it can be said that the wavelength of the matter is

inversely proportional to the magnitude of the particle's linear momentum.

This relation is applicable to both microscopic and macroscopic
particles

The de Broglie equation is one of the equations that is

commonly used to define the wave properties of matter.

Electromagnetic radiation exhibits the dual nature of a particle

(having a momentum) and wave (expressed in frequency, and
wavelength).
 why we cannot observe these waves?
because the wavelength of their motion is
extremely small
Davisson–Germer

Davisson and L.H. Germer

performed an experiment
known as the Davisson
Germer experiment to explain
the wave nature of electrons
through electron diffraction.
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle

▪Heisenberg’s uncertainty
principlestates that it is
impossible to measure or
calculate exactly both the
position and the momentum of
an object.
▪This principle is based on the wave-particle duality of matter.

▪Although Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle can be

ignored in the macroscopic world (the uncertainties in
the position and velocity of objects with relatively large
masses are negligible), it holds significant value in the
quantum world.

▪Since atoms and subatomic particles have very small

masses, any increase in the accuracy of their positions
will be accompanied by an increase in the uncertainty
associated with their velocities.
 Uncertainity in momentum

Uncertainity in position
 Drawbacks of Bohr's atomic mode

He could not explain the details of the Hydrogen and Helium atomic spectrum.
He did not explain the splitting of spectral lines in presence of a
magnetic field.
The intensity of spectral lines was not explained by him.
He considered electron as a moving particle.
He could not explain the Zeeman effect i.e. splitting of spectral lines in
Magnetic field as well as the Stark effect i.e. splitting of spectral lines
in electric field.
QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL OF ATOM

▪The branch of science that takes into account this dual

behaviour of matter is called quantum mechanics.

Quantum mechanics is a theoretical science that deals with the

study of the motions of the microscopic objects that have both
observable wave like and particle like properties.

Quantum mechanics was developed independently in

1926 by Werner Heisenberg and Erwin Schrödinger.
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Location of an Electron
A large number of orbitals are possible in an atom. Qualitatively these
▪
orbitals can be distinguished by their size,
▪ shape and orientation.
An orbital of smaller size means there is more chance of finding
▪ the electron near the nucleus.
Similarly shape and orientation mean that there is more
▪ probability of finding the electron along certain directions than
along others.
▪Atomic orbitals are precisely distinguished by what are
known as quantum numbers.
 Quantum Numbers

Each electron in an atom is identified in terms of four quantum numbers.

▪ Principal quantum number(n)

▪ Azimuthal or Orbital or Subsidary quantum number (I)
▪ Magnetic quantum number (m)
▪ Spin quantum number (s)
Principal Quantum number (n)

▪It tells us about the main shell in which electron resides. It also
gives an idea about the energy of hell and average distance of the
electron from the nucleus(Size)
▪Value of n = any integer.
▪n= 1,2,3,..... for shell K, L, M, ..
Azimuthal Quantum number (l)
It tells about the number of subshells (s. p, d, f) in any main shell.
It also represent the angular momentum of an electron and
shapes of subshells.

It defines the three-dimensional shape of the orbital. For a given value of

n, l can have n values ranging from 0 to n - 1, that is, for a given
value of n, the possible value of l are : 1 = 0, 1, 2, .... (n-1) For
example, when n = 1, value of lis only 0. For n = 2, the possible value
of l can be 0 and 1. For n = 3, the possible l values are 0, 1 and 2.
 ▪Azimuthal Quantum numbers
also tells about the shape of the
orbital .

▪Note- Orbital is the 3-D discription

where the probability of finding an

electron is maximum.
 Magnetic Quantum number (m)
▪ It tells about the number of orbitals and orientation of each subshell.
▪ Value of m = -l to +l including zero.
▪ Number of orbitals in each subshell = (2l + 1)
▪ Number of orbitals in main energy level = n2
 Spin Quantum number (s)

▪It indicates the direction of

spinning of electron, i.e.,
clockwise or anti-clockwise.
▪Shows how the electron can rotate
about its own axis .

▪Maximum number of electrons in

main energy level = 2n2 ms = + 1/2 ms = - 1/2
 Pauli Exclusion Principle

▪It states, no two electrons in an atom can

have identical set of four quantum numbers.

"Only two electrons may exist in the same orbital

and these electrons must have opposite spin"

▪The maximum number of electrons in s subshell is 2, p

subshell is 6 d subshell is 10 and f subshell is 14.
Example
Aufbau principle:

▪ Afbau is a German word which means structure or

constructuction.

▪ Aufbau Principle states that in the ground state of an atom,

the electrons fill atomic orbitals of the lowest available
energy levels before occupying higher levels i.e. orbitals are
filled in the increasing order of their energies.
The graphic below depicts the sequence in which atomic orbitals are filled.

l=0l=1l=2l=3
n=1
n=2
n=3
n=4
n=5
n=6
n=7
n=8
n=9
n=10
▪ Therule may be used to identify the sequence in which the energy of orbitals
grows, where the sum of the main and azimuthal quantum numbers defines
the energy level of the orbital.

▪ Lower values indicate lower orbital energy. If two orbitals have equivalent
values, the orbital with the lower value is said to have lower energy.

▪ If value of (n + l) is same for any two subshell, then the deciding factor will
be the value of n. Greater the value of n, greater will be its energy.
The orbitals are filled with electrons in the following order:

and so on.
Electronic Configurations according to Aufbau Principle:
 Hund’s Rule

▪Hunds Rule of Maximum Multiplicity rule states that for a given

electron configuration, the term with maximum multiplicity falls lowest in
energy. According to this rule electron pairing in p, d and f orbitals
cannot occur until each orbital of a given subshell contains one electron
each or is singly occupied.
Electronic Configuration upto 30 Elements
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