the brighter the light, the lower the resistance of the Cadmium sulphide LDR. The symbolic representation of a photoresistor is stnp
shown in Fig. 2.18. Light
incident Cadmium sulphide cells This device is capable of reacting with a broad range of frequencies of light, including infrared (IR), visible light, and ultraviolet (UV) below lHz. Therefore, this type of a device is suitable for data links and picture scanning. It is suitable for street light control as an automatic on/of Switch. Silicon-based photodiodes and phototransistors Terminals Symbol photo resistor are faster compared to CdS cells. An ORP12 is a well Fig. 2.18 LDR or photoresistor known LDR. It is used for control of camera light, street light, security alarms, heaters, outdoor clocks, etc. Piezoresistive material This type of material can change their resistance due to a change in the applied pressure and is known as a piezoresistive material. When pressure is applied on it, the material is either elongated or compressed due to a mechanical force, resulting in a change in resistance too. This is referred to as a piezoresistive or piezoelectric effect. Thermoresistive sensors Thermoresistive transducers are made of materials the resistivity of which changes with temperature. These are simple interface circuits, with good sensitivity and long-term stability. These transducers are of three types: RTDs, P-N junction detectors, and thermistors. Resistance temperature detectors The resistance of most metallic resistors change with change in temperature and the change remains linear over a certain range with increase in temperature. An RTD is made from positive temperature coeficients (PTCS) resistive element wire of Pt, Ni, Cu, etc. A thin film RTD is made by depositing thin layers of platinum or its alloys on a suitable silicon substrate using micro-machining. It maintains a large length to breadth ratio in the shape of a serpentine. It works in the temperature range from -200°C to 0°C. However, it is also made of platinum and tungsten for higher ranges of temperature-200°C to +850°C, and 600°C, respectively. An RTD transducer offers high is reproducible over a time period of 0.5-5 s. The relation between stability, and temperature change and change in resistance is given as follows: Mathematically. R,= Ro(1 +xt +yft zr) or R, =Ro{1 +a(T- T)} (2.15) where x,), and z represent the constants related to RTD material properties, and t is the resistance at temperature T, R, =resistance at temperature T, To = reference temperature: R, = temperature, and a=resistance temperature coefficient. Thermodio des and transistors As semiconductors are temperature sensitive, diode transistors and integrated circuits (ICs; thermal sensors) are used as temperature sensors in the to 150°C. The output signal of a semiconductor sensor is available as an temperature range of -40°C electrical signal, like a current or voltage. An IC output signal of a thermal sensor does not require any circuit of an additional interface to be converted into a digital signal. Therefore, signals can be sent directly to further Semiconductor transducers that use diodes, transistors, etc., are more signal-processing If such circuits. temperature-dependent. devices are forward biased using a constant-current source, as shown in Fig. 2.19(a), the output voltage has a linear relationship with the junction temperature, as shown in Fig. 2.19(b). The calibration of such a transducer done using its sensitivity and its line of intercept. The input-output relation of voltage and current is given by Eq. (2.16). SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS 49
Output voltage (mV) St -2.0 mVPC S 600 mV Transistor
-2.3 mV/PC = L0 mA
400 mV
Diode |= 10 LA
200 mV Vo: Output
Ground -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 Forward biased diode and transistor Temperature (°C) (a) (b)
Fig. 2.19 (a) Temperature transducers: diodes and transistors (b) V-Icharacteristic curve
When there is a temperature change at the P-N junction, the charge in carrier mobility also changes, affecting the rate of electron-hole difusion across the junction. In this way, a potential difference () is developed across the junction, causing a current to flow through it. If the current is constant, the voltage developed is directly proportional to the temperature (in Kelvin unit) of the IC thermal sensor. Mathematically, I=I(ekI - 1) and I, = T³Re gVglkT (2.16) where k is the Boltzmann's constant, I the diode current, T the temperature, the junction voltage, and q a Constant.
Thermistors This device shows the thermal relationship with the resistor, literally. It is used for measurement of temperature, as its electrical resistance changes with temperature change. It is used as an absolute-temperature transducer referenced to an absolute-temperature scale. The material for fabrication of Such a sensor uses mixtures of semiconductor oxides of chromium, cobalt, iron, manganese, and nickel. It is available in various forms such as beads, discs, and rods, as shown in Fig. 2.20.
Bead-type thermistor
Symbol thermistor Disc Terminals Rod Disc-type thermistor Rod-type thermistor Fig. 2.20 Various types of thermistors 50 MECHATRONICS
The relation between resistance and temperature is given mathematically as follows:
R,- Rye where R, = resistance of the thermistors at temperature t, Roreference resistance of the thermistors (2.17) B= materialproperty constant, and t= temperature The change in thermistor resistance with temperature is shown by anon-linear and exponential curve, as shown in Fig. 2.21. However, achievement of a linear input-output relationship over a range of requires linearization and ease of calibration at the cost of sensitivity of the device. temperature Thermistor integrated with an operational amplifier outputs an electrical current or a voltage signal. The resistance of the 1000 thermistor is given by the following equation: (R/Ros) R= R[1 + A(T,-T) + B(T, - T)] (2.18) 100 where Ro and T are the reference resistance and temperature, 25°C respectively. However, a thermistor IC (KTY-81)offers an operating range at 10 resistance of-55°Cto +150°C, for coefficients of A= 0.007874/K and B= 1.874 x 10 /K2. 1 Types of thermistors There are two types of thermistors w.r.t depending on the properties of material, as discussed in the resistance following subsections. 0.1 Non-linear curve Negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistors Thermistors in that are made from silicon and germanium semiconducting Change0.01 materials have an NTC. The resistance of such a thermistor decreases with increase in temperature due to the NTC. For example, due to the reverse property of thermistor, it is used 0.001 to protect from current surge in electrical systems like fine temperature-measuring devices. Positive temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistors These -S00 50 100 150 200 thermistors are made of oxides of manganese, cobalt, nickel, and Input: Temperature in °C copper. The resistance of PTC thermistors increases, due to a Fig. 2.21 Thermistor characteristics PTC, with increase in temperature, as shown in Fig. 2.22. The value of change in resistance can be measured with the help ofa bridge circuit, as shown in Fig. 2.23. V, Thermistor R R Ry To amplifier Excitation, V voltage
PL = thermal power loss
Thermistor Fig. 2.22 Thermistor in circuit Fig. 2.23 Thermistor in bridge circuit Almetallic resistors offer PTC characteristics with a low temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) as compared to RTD (small). However, ceramic-based PTC materials using barium and strontium titanate offer a SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS 51
change in resistance with temperature change over certain ranges, asshown in Fig 2.24. verylarge temperature This type of thermistor is used for switching on an electrical system or switching it off for protection. Characteristics of thermistors Figure 2.25shows the characteristic curves of a PTC, an NTC, and an RTD. Thefollowing observations are made based on the curves.
NTC curve Ohm's law
NTCcurve change PTC curve PTC Curve Resistance Current V-I curve of PTC
RTD curve Negative resistance
T;>T;>T, T 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 Temperature (°C) Voltage Fig. 2.25 Hcharacteristic curve of PTC, NTC, and RTD Fig. 2.24 Input-Output characteristic curve of PTC Mathematically, the TCR is defined as follows: AR (2.19) RAT highest value of 2°C, that is, The change in coefficient is significantly high with temperature at point x Solid chemical 200% per °Cchange. Positive electrolyte Reference Applications A PTC thermistor is used for protecting an electrical electrode electrode circuit. It is also suitable for use in level detectors with heat dissipation, bio-medical applications, thermostats, etc. M 2.10 ELECTROLYTE-TYPE POTENTIOMETRIC (CHEMICAL) C TRANSDUCERS A L in Fig. 2.26. It is used An electrolyte-type potentiometric transducer is shown filling to determine the analytical concentration of acomponent(s) of an analyte The gas chemical sensor. or solution. Therefore, this transducer can be used as a difference across Output of the transducer provides an electrical potential Fig. 2.26 Electrolyte-type potential without any the electrodes with respect to the reference electrode depends potentiometric transducer Cürrent flow. The output potential diference between the electrodes On the concentration of the analyte of the solution or gas.
2.11 INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCERS
shape of a coil, to produce a An inductor is an electrical passive element made from a conducting wire in the through it, the kinetic magnetic field. When it is connected to an electrical circuit to allow an electrical current
