Instrumentation PDF

CRO(CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE)
INTRODUCTION:
The cathode ray oscilloscope is an electronic test instrument, it is used
to obtain waveforms when the different input signals are given. In the
early days, it is called as an Oscillograph. The oscilloscope observes the
changes in the electrical signals over time, thus the voltage and time
describe a shape and it is continuously graphed beside a scale. By seeing
the waveform, we can analyze some properties like amplitude,
frequency, rise time, distortion, time interval and etc.
Block diagram:
Applications of CRO
Voltage measurement
Current measurement
Examination of waveform
Measurement of phase and frequency
Uses of CRO
In laboratory, the CRO can be used as
It can display different types of waveforms
It can measure short time interval
In voltmeter, it can measure potential difference
Digital Multimeter
A digital multimeter is used to measure AC Voltage, DC voltage, AC
current, DC current, resistance with digital display. It gives digital
output, which is very accurate.
SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS
SENSORS: Sensors is an instrument which detects changes in physical
parameter and turns it into a signal which can be measured or
recorded.
ex: Thermometer ,Bimetallic strip
TRANSDUCERS: Transducers is a device which converts non-electrical to
electrical.
Ex: R.T.D, Thermocouple
Active and passive transducers
Active transducers do not require any external source of power for their
operation. They are also called self generating type transducers.
These transducers produce an equivalent electrical signal without any
external source of energy being used.
Passive transducers require external source of power for their
operation.
These transducers produce output signals in the form of variation in
electrical parameters like resistance, capacitance or inductance.
Primary and secondary
transducers
Some transducers contain mechanical as well as electrical device. The
mechanical device converts physical quantity to be measured into
mechanical signal such devices are called primary transducers as they
deal with physical quantities.
The electrical device then converts this mechanical signal into a
corresponding electrical signal. Such devices are called secondary
transducers.
Analog and digital transducers
Analog transducers convert the input quantity into an analog output
which is continuous in time.
Digital transducers convert the input quantity into an electrical output
which is in the form of pulses and its output is represented by 0 and 1.
Transducer and inverse
transducer
Transducer converts non electrical quantity to electrical quantity.
Inverse transducer convert electrical quantity to non electrical quanity.
Eg. Piezo electric crystals convert the applied voltage to mechanical
displacement by changing the dimensions of the crystal.
LVDT(LINEAR VARIABLE
DIFFERIENTIAL TRANSFORMER)
LVDT is most widely used inductive transducer to translate linear motion into
electrical signal.
A differential transformer consists of primary and two secondary windings, the
windings are arranged connectivity next to each other.
A ferromagnetic core in the shape of a rod or cylinder is attached to sensing shaft
The a.c excitation is applied across the primary winding and the movable core varies
the coupling between it and the two secondary windings.
As the core moves away from the centre position the coupling to one secondary
becomes more ,hence its output voltage increases .
THERMOCOUPLE
A Thermocouple is a sensor used to measure temperature.
Thermocouples consist of two wire legs made from different metals.
The wires legs are welded together at one end, creating a junction. This
junction is where the temperature is measured.
When the junction experiences a change in temperature, a voltage is
created.
The voltage can then be interpreted using thermocouple to calculate
the temperature.
Let the P and Q are the two junctions of the thermocouples. The
T1 and T2 are the temperature at the junctions. As the
temperature of the junctions is different from each other, the
EMF generates in the circuit.
RTD(RESISTANCE
TEMPERATURE DETECTOR)
A resistance temperature detector (RTD) can also be called a resistance
thermometer as the temperature measurement will be a measure of
the output resistance.
The main principle of operation of an RTD is that when the temperature
of an object increases or decreases, the resistance also increases or
decreases proportionally.
The main difference between a RTD and a thermistor is that the sensing
element used in a RTD is a metal and a thermistor uses ceramic or
polymer material.
As platinum is the most commonly used metal for making RTD’s, the
device can also be called Platinum Resistance Thermometers (PRT’s).
The variation of resistance of the metal with the variation of the
temperature is given as.
Where, Rt and R0 are the resistance values at toC and t0oC

temperatures. α and β are the constants depends on the metals.

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CRO(CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE)

Where, Rt and R0 are the resistance values at toC and t0oC

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