Gas exchange in humans (RESPIRATORY System)

Parts of the respiratory system

Nostrils → Nasal Cavity → Pharynx → Larynx → Trachea → Bronchus → Bronchiole → Alveolus

Nasal cavity – it consists of nasal hairs that filter out dust and microorganisms. It also contains cells that produce a volatile liquid
that moisturizes the inspired air. The blood vessels found in the cavity brings the inspired air to body temperature.
Trachea –
• The 'c' shaped cartilage rings are present in the trachea to prevent it from collapsing and they keep the trachea open for air to
come in and out.
• The cartilaginous rings are incomplete because this allows the trachea to collapse slightly to allow food to pass down the
esophagus.).
• The 'c' shaped cartilage also provides protection to the trachea

The importance of ciliated epithelium and goblet cells in the respiratory passage
The wall is lined with ciliated epithelial cells and goblet cells.
Goblet cells – secretes mucus that traps pathogens and dust, preventing them from entering the alveoli
Ciliated epithelium – consists of cilia that waft the mucus towards the throat

Respiratory surfaces
It is the surface where gas exchange takes place. Example, alveolus
Adaptations of Alveoli

Note: there are phagocytes present in the alveoli that engulf, release digestive enzymes to digest pathogens and kill them.
• Many alveoli are present to increase the surface for gas exchange.
• a good blood supply - Alveoli are surrounded by a large no of

capillaries in which the blood is continuously moving; so that lots of

oxygen is removed quickly from alveoli and lots of carbon

dioxide is supplied quickly to alveoli therefore, a concentration
gradient is maintained.
• Alveoli and the capillaries that surround each alveolus are one cell
thick; therefore, distance over which gases diffuse will be less.
• The inner surface of the alveoli is moist. This is important so that
gases can dissolve and diffuse.

Gas exchange
Breathing: - it is a muscular movement which brings the alveoli in close contact with the air. Breathing has 2 steps: -

Inspiration:- During inspiration, the external inter-costal muscles contract and internal intercostal muscle relaxes as a result, the
ribcage moves upwards and outwards, then the diaphragm muscles contract enabling the dome shaped diaphragm to flatten. Due
to these changes the volume in the thorax increases and the pressure decreases, so the lungs expand and the volume inside the
lungs increases hence intra pulmonary pressure decreases. As the pressure is lower than the atmospheric pressure, air is forced
into the lungs.
Expiration:- During expiration, internal intercostal muscle contracts, the external inter-costal muscle relaxes as a result, the
ribcage moves inwards and downwards, the diaphragm muscle relaxes making the flattened diaphragm to bounce back to dome
shape. Due to these changes the volume in the thorax decreases and the pressure increases, so the lungs contract and the volume
inside the lungs decrease therefore, pressure increases. As the pressure is greater than the atmospheric pressure, the air is forced
out of the lungs.
Inspiration (inhaling) Expiration (exhaling)
External Intercostal muscles Contract and raise ribs Relax and allow ribs to fall
Muscle of diaphragm Contracts, pulls diaphragm down Relaxes, allows diaphragm to rise
Volume of thorax Increases Decreases
Pressure in thorax Decreases Increases
Air movement In (from higher pressure outside) Out (from higher pressure inside)

Factors affecting breathing

Exercise Temperature

Control of breathing
The brain has a special part for controlling breathing. When you exercise the tissues respire more quickly and make more carbon
dioxide and lactic acid which lowers the pH in the tissues and the blood. Receptors in the main blood vessels send impulses to
brain, which inturn sends nerve impulses to diaphragm and to external intercostal muscles so they contract faster and further to
increase the rate and depth of breathing. By breathing deeper and more rapidly, you lower the concentration of carbon dioxide
in the blood, and this raises the blood pH back to normal and active muscles get a good supply of oxygen for aerobic respiration.

The graph shows changes in the volume of air in the The graph shows changes in the volume of air in the
lungs of a person at rest, over a period of 30 lungs of the same person immediately after they
have done five minutes of vigorous exercise

seconds.

Composition of inhaled and exhaled air

Inhaled air Exhaled air

1. High concentration of oxygen. 1. Low concentration of oxygen
2. Carbon dioxide concentration is less 2. Carbon dioxide concentration is more
3. Amount of water vapour changes 3. Saturated with water vapour

Test for carbon dioxide - Carbon dioxide can be tested by either hydrogen carbonate indicator solution or lime water.
Indicator Low CO2 Normal CO2 High CO2
Hydrogen carbonate Purple Red Yellow
Lime water Almost colourless - Cloudy
Describe an experiment to demonstrate that exhaled air contains more Carbon dioxide than inhaled air

Procedure: set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram

Blow air (exhaled air) through the mouthpiece, the solution in test tube A will turn from red to yellow. In the meantime, the
solution in B will tend to come up through the glass tube due to high pressure.
Now, suck the air through the mouthpiece. This will reduce pressure inside B, as a result the air from outside (inhaled air) will go
into the solution through the glass tube and bubble. This will cause slight or no change in the solution. This shows that exhaled air
contains more carbon dioxide than inhaled air.

Experiment to show different composition of air during gas exchange

The figure below shows four test-tubes that were set up and left for six hours at a constant warm temperature. Hydrogen
carbonate indicator (bicarbonate indicator) changes colour depending on the pH of gases dissolved in it, as shown below.

Respiration
Chemical reactions that break down nutrient molecules in living cells to release energy. Respiration involves the action of
enzymes in cells. Respiration produces energy in the form of ATP and heat.
Uses of energy in the body of humans:
Muscle Protein Cell Active Growth The passage of Maintenance of a constant body
contraction synthesis division transport nerve impulses temperature

Respiration is of two types:

1. Aerobic Respiration 2. Anaerobic Respiration

Aerobic Respiration: - aerobic respiration as the release of a relatively large amount of energy in cells by the breakdown of food
substances in the presence of oxygen

Word equation Symbol equation

enzymes enzymes
Glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water + energy C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy

It produces a large amount of energy. Energy is produced in the cytoplasm and mitochondria of the cell.
Anaerobic Respiration:- anaerobic respiration releases much less energy per glucose molecule than aerobic respiration by the
breakdown of nutrients in the absence of oxygen. This occurs in the cytoplasm only; mitochondria are not involved.
Anaerobic respiration is two types:-

Anaerobic Respiration in yeast Anaerobic Respiration in muscles

During this reaction less energy is produced. This Lactic acid causes muscle cramps. During this reaction less energy is
reaction is an example of fermentation. produced.
Glucose → Ethanol + carbon dioxide Glucose → Lactic acid
C6H12O6 → 2 C2H5OH + 2CO2 C6H12O6 → 2C3H6O3
Lactic acid builds up in muscles and blood during vigorous exercise
causing an oxygen debt
Note: reason for anaerobic respiration to produce less energy is that glucose is not fully oxidized. A lot of energy is trapped in
lactic acid and ethanol.

Oxygen debt – It is the extra oxygen that is breathed in to oxidize the lactic acid that was formed during exercise. Oxygen
supplied to muscles during exercise is not enough as there is a high oxygen demand, so muscles undergo anaerobic respiration
resulting lactic acid production. The extra oxygen is needed for; (the oxygen debt is removed during recovery):
- continuation, after exercise, of fast heart rate to transport lactic acid in blood from muscles to the liver
- aerobic respiration of lactic acid in the liver
- continuation, after exercise, of deeper and rapid contraction of breathing muscles to supply oxygen for aerobic
respiration of lactic acid to break down lactic acid
- to replenish (store) haemoglobin and myoglobin in muscles with oxygen

The effect of lactic acid in muscles during exercise

If the oxygen debt (brought about by Anaerobic Respiration) isn't paid back, then it will lead to cramps. The pH decreases in the
cell, as a result the enzymes get denatured, so muscles remain contracted for a long period of time. This is called cramp.
Aerobic Respiration Anaerobic Respiration
1. In the presence of oxygen. 1. In the absence of oxygen.
2. More energy is produced. 2. Less energy is produced.
3. By products are CO2 and H2O 3. By products can be ethanol and CO2 or lactic acid.
4. Mitochondria are involved. 4. Mitochondria not involved
Investigate the uptake of oxygen by respiring organisms, such as arthropods and germinating seeds.
Set up an apparatus with a number of respiring maggots placed in the large test tube. The apparatus was left for 20 minutes and
then a drop of coloured liquid was introduced into the capillary tube as shown.

During the next 5 minutes, the drop of coloured liquid moved along the capillary tube. The sodium hydroxide absorbs carbon
dioxide. Measurement of oxygen during breathing or consumption
• respiration of maggots uses oxygen so the coloured liquid moves towards the test tube
• release of carbon dioxide by maggots is absorbed by sodium hydroxide
• so, the volume becomes less thus pressure decreases

Investigate and describe the effect of temperature on respiration in yeast

1. Pour 300ml of hot water from the kettle (start at 70o C) into a 500cm3 beaker.
2. Use a thermometer to measure the temperature of water.
3. Pour 10ml of yeast and 20ml of 5% glucose solution into a boiling tube using separate syringes.
4. Suspend the test tube in the water bath, covering it with a bung and then connect delivery tube.
5. At the other end of the delivery tube, place another 500cm3 beaker filled with tap water where the
carbon dioxide bubbles will be seen as the product.
6. Allow respiration to occur for 2 minutes before starting step 7.
7. Using a timer, record the number of bubbles you see for 1 minute.
8. Repeat steps 1-7 but with 60, 50, 40, 30 and 20 degrees. 10. Record your results in the table below.
Conclusion As the temperature increased to 40o C, the rate of respiration of the yeast increased. Above
50o C the rate of respiration then decreases.
 EXCRETION
It is the removal from organisms of toxic materials, the waste products of metabolism (chemical reactions in cells including
respiration) and substances in excess of requirements.

Egestion- it is the removal of undigested food and the digested food that is not absorbed, from the body. Humans, for example,
cannot digest cellulose in our food – it goes straight through the alimentary canal, and out of the anus in the faeces. This cellulose
is not an excretory product. It has never been involved in any metabolic reaction in a person's cells.

Need for excretion- If excess toxins, salts, and water build up it may cause serious bodily harm to that organism. The kidneys
make sure that this doesn’t happen and allow for normal bodily functions to continue.
Example - excretory products in plants include oxygen and carbon dioxide, and in animals, they include carbon dioxide from
respiration, and nitrogenous compounds.
• Carbon dioxide, produced by aerobic respiration. Carbon dioxide dissolves in water to produce a weak acid, so if too much
builds up in the body fluids the pH drops, which can damage cells and disrupt metabolism. Carbon dioxide is transported to the
lungs dissolved in blood plasma and excreted in expired air.
• Nitrogenous excretory products, in particular urea. Excess amino acids cannot be stored in the body. In the liver, they are
converted to urea,
Excretory Organs Excretory Products
1. Kidney Water, Urea, Ammonia, Salt, vitamins,
2. Lungs hormones
3. Skin Carbon dioxide, Water vapour.
4. Liver Water, Salt (NaCl), Urea, Bilirubin.

Role of the liver in relation to amino acid

• Assimilation of amino acids by converting them to proteins, including plasma proteins, e.g. fibrinogen.
• Excess amino acids are never stored; this is because the amine part of amino acids is toxic to the cells. Therefore, they
are deaminated.

Deamination – it is the removal of the nitrogen-containing part of amino acids to form urea, followed by release of
energy from remaining parts.
Each amino acid molecule is broken down into two by the process of deamination. One molecule is converted to
carbohydrate or fat and used as a source of energy. The other molecule is ammonia (NH3) which combines with
carbon dioxide to form the excretory product urea.
 The human excretory system:-
The two kidneys in the human body are at the back of the abdomen, behind the intestine.

Excretory system consists of the following parts A pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters, urinary, bladder and urethra

Kidney – The internal structure of a kidney consists of an outer cortex and an inner medulla. Inside each kidney are
thousands of tiny tubes called nephrons which is microscopic. The function of the kidney tubules is to filter the blood
and remove waste chemicals and determine how much water is excreted. each kidney is supplied with oxygenated
blood through a renal artery. Blood is removed in the renal vein. A tube called the ureter takes urine from the
kidneys to the bladder.
Figure below is a vertical section of the kidney

Figure A shows that the tubule forms a loop which goes deeper into the medulla and back to the cortex
• Each kidney contains thousands of microscopic tubes called nephrons.
• The beginning of each nephron is a cup-shaped structure called a renal (bowman's) capsule. This is in the cortex of the
kidney.
• Then proximal convoluted tubule leads from the renal capsule down into the kidney medulla, then loops back into the cortex
before finally running back down through the medulla into the pelvis of the kidney, where it joins the ureter.
• Each nephron has a network of blood vessels associated with it. Blood arrives in the afferent arteriole from the renal artery)
and is delivered to a network of capillaries, called a glomerulus, in the cup of the renal capsule.
• Blood leaves the glomerulus in the efferent arteriole, which is narrower than the afferent arteriole.
• This leads to another network of capillaries that wraps around the nephron, before delivering the blood to a branch of the
renal vein.
Functions of the kidney
Excretion (formation of urine) Osmoregulation

2) A pair of ureters - these are the tubes which convey urine from the pelvis into the urinary bladder.
3) Urinary bladder - This is a stretchable muscular bag which holds the urine temporarily.
4) Urethra - is the passage through which urine is passed to the environment. In males the urethra carries urine and semen at
different times.

Nephron (structure and functioning of a kidney tubule)

Blood containing waste chemicals flows into the kidney in the renal artery. Inside the kidney, the renal artery branches

many times to give arterioles. Each of these arterioles supplies blood to a closely packed group of capillaries called a
glomerulus.
After filtration, blood flows out of the glomerulus into another arteriole. Blood then flows into capillaries around the
rest of the tubule which joins to form the renal vein.

▪ A collecting duct is the tube where many distal convoluted tubules join, and many collecting ducts join and open at the pelvis.
Eventually the pelvis opens into the ureter.
Excretion in the kidney - formation of urine takes place through three stages:-
Ultra-filtration Selective re- absorption Secretion
Ultra-filtration: it is the filtration of blood at high pressure; this takes place in glomerulus into renal capsule. The filtering is
earned out in the cortex.
The mechanism of ultra-filtration
• The blood vessel which brings blood to the glomerulus is wider than the vessel which takes blood away from the glomerulus.
• As a result, high hydro static pressure develops in the glomerulus; the substances that are small enough to penetrate through
the walls of capillaries will be squeezed into the renal capsule.
• The filtered substances are water, glucose, salt, and urea.
• The substances that are not filtered include blood cells and plasma protein as they are big. Once the blood is filtered, the liquid
which enters the renal capsule is called the glomerular filtrate.

Selective Re- absorption:- Some of the substances that are filtered into the renal capsule need to be retained by the body.
These include:
◼ much of the water ◼ all of the glucose ◼ some of the inorganic ions

These substances are therefore taken back into the blood through the walls of the proximal convoluted tubule. This is called
selective reabsorption.
The cells in the walls of the tubule have many mitochondria, to provide ATP for active transport. Their surfaces facing the
lumen of the tubule have a large surface area provided by microvilli.
• As the filtrate travels through the proximal convoluted tubule, certain substances are re-absorbed back into the blood
capillaries. All of the glucose, much of the water and some of the salt.
• As the filtrate travels through the loop of Henle, some water and salts are re-absorbed.
• The fluid that finally leaves the collecting duct and flows into the ureter is urine.
• Urine then travels through the ureter and is stored temporarily in the urinary bladder.

Note: re-absorption of most of the solutes from the filtrate takes place at proximal convoluted tubule; water is absorbed by
osmosis to determine the concentration of urine – at collecting duct.

Factors affecting urine production - The volume and concentration of urine produced is affected by
• water intake • temperature • exercise

Osmoregulation - It is the mechanism by which the blood water level is maintained at a constant level. This is very important for
many reasons:-
• If the water level is low, the blood will become very thick; hence the flow will be slow.