B.A.

3RD YEAR ANCIENT HISTORY

PAPER-3 UNIT-1,2,3,4&5
UPI ID :- GENUINEPRINCE@JIO

The beginnings of Indian art :-

The beginnings of Indian art can be traced back to the prehistoric period, marked by the
existence of rock art found in caves and rock shelters. The earliest evidence of artistic
expression in India dates back to around 5500 BCE in the form of petroglyphs depicting
animals, human figures, and various symbols. The sites of Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh
and Adamgarh in Chhattisgarh are notable for these ancient rock paintings.

As civilization progressed, the Bronze Age (around 3300–1300 BCE) witnessed the
emergence of the Indus Valley Civilization. Excavations at sites like Mohenjo-daro and
Harappa have revealed artifacts such as pottery, seals, and sculptures, showcasing a
sophisticated level of craftsmanship. The presence of the "Dancing Girl" figurine and the
Pashupati seal indicates an early inclination towards sculptural representation.

The Vedic period (1500–500 BCE) introduced the advent of literature, philosophy, and
religious texts known as the Vedas. Although visual arts during this time are not extensively
documented, the Rigveda contains hymns that suggest a reverence for nature and cosmic
elements, possibly influencing artistic expressions.

The Maurya Empire (322–185 BCE) marked a significant chapter in Indian art with the
patronage of Emperor Ashoka. Pillars and edicts inscribed with Buddhist teachings were
erected throughout the empire. The Mauryan capital, Pataliputra, saw the creation of the
monumental Mauryan art, as seen in the polished sandstone pillars at Sarnath.

The Shunga and Kushan dynasties (2nd century BCE – 3rd century CE) played a crucial role
in the evolution of Indian art, particularly in the realm of Buddhist art. The Gandhara school,
influenced by Hellenistic and Roman artistic styles, emerged in the northwestern regions.
Meanwhile, the Mathura school in central India produced sculptures reflecting a more
indigenous character.

The Gupta period (4th–6th centuries CE) is often referred to as the Golden Age of Indian art.
It witnessed the flourishing of sculpture, painting, and literature. The iconic Ajanta and Ellora
caves, with their intricate rock-cut architecture and frescoes, are exemplary of Gupta artistry.
Hindu temple architecture also began to take shape during this period.

In summary, the beginnings of Indian art can be traced from prehistoric rock art to the
sophisticated developments during the Indus Valley Civilization, Vedic period, Maurya
Empire, and subsequent dynasties. Each era contributed to the rich tapestry of Indian artistic
traditions, laying the foundation for the diverse and culturally significant art forms that
continue to thrive in India today.

Characteristic Features of Ancient Indian Art :-

Ancient Indian art exhibits distinctive characteristic features that have evolved over millennia,
reflecting the diversity of cultures, religions, and dynasties that shaped the Indian
subcontinent. Here are some key characteristic features:

1.Religious Influence:
- Ancient Indian art is deeply intertwined with religious beliefs and practices. Hinduism,
Buddhism, and Jainism, in particular, have been significant influences on artistic expression.
Temples, stupas, and cave complexes were adorned with sculptures and paintings depicting
deities, saints, and religious narratives.

2.Symbolism and Iconography:

- Symbolism plays a crucial role in Indian art. Various symbols, gestures (mudras), and
iconographic elements convey deeper meanings. For example, the lotus symbolizes purity
and enlightenment, while specific hand gestures represent different qualities or actions.

3.Sculpture and Carving:

- Sculpture is a prominent feature of ancient Indian art. Stone and metal sculptures, often
depicting gods, goddesses, and mythical creatures, showcase exquisite craftsmanship.
Notable examples include the iconic figurines from the Mauryan period and the sensuous
depictions of celestial beings in Khajuraho.

4.Rock-cut Architecture:
- The tradition of rock-cut architecture is exemplified by sites like Ajanta and Ellora caves.
Elaborate caves, intricately carved into rock faces, served as monastic retreats and
displayed remarkable murals and sculptures portraying the life of Buddha and various Jataka
tales.

5.Cave Paintings:
- Cave paintings, found in places like Bhimbetka and Ajanta, offer glimpses into early
artistic expressions. These paintings depict scenes from daily life, religious ceremonies, and
narratives from epics, providing valuable insights into ancient Indian culture.

6.Temple Architecture:
- Temple architecture in India evolved over centuries, characterized by distinct regional
styles. Nagara and Dravida are two primary architectural traditions, each with its unique
features. Intricate carvings, ornate pillars, and towering shikharas (spires) define these
temples.

7.Mural Paintings:
- Murals, often associated with religious sites, adorned the walls of caves and temples.
The frescoes at Ajanta, for instance, showcase masterful use of color and detail in depicting
scenes from the Jataka tales and the life of Buddha.

8.Yakshi Figures:
- Female fertility figures known as Yakshis were prevalent in ancient Indian art. These
semi-divine beings, often depicted with voluptuous forms, played a role in early Indian
religious and mythological beliefs.
9.Mathematics and Proportions:
- Indian art often adheres to principles of mathematics and proportions. This is evident in
the precise measurements and geometric patterns observed in the layout of sculptures and
architectural elements.

10.Multicultural Influences:
- Due to India's geographical location, it has been a melting pot of diverse cultures and
influences. Indian art reflects interactions with Central Asian, Persian, Greek, and Southeast
Asian artistic styles, resulting in a unique synthesis of various cultural elements.

These characteristic features collectively contribute to the rich and diverse heritage of
ancient Indian art, showcasing a profound connection between spirituality, culture, and
artistic expression.

Pre-historic Art :-
Prehistoric art refers to the artistic expressions created by early human societies before the
advent of written records. These artifacts provide valuable insights into the cultural, social,
and symbolic aspects of ancient communities. Prehistoric art can be broadly categorized into
Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) and Neolithic (New Stone Age) periods.

Paleolithic Art:

1.Cave Paintings and Petroglyphs:

- One of the most iconic forms of Paleolithic art is cave paintings, found in various
locations worldwide. Notable examples include the Lascaux and Chauvet caves in France
and Altamira in Spain. These paintings depict animals, human figures, and symbolic
markings, suggesting a connection to hunting rituals and spiritual beliefs.

2.Portable Art:
- Paleolithic people created small, portable artworks using materials like bone, ivory, and
stone. Examples include Venus figurines, such as the Venus of Willendorf, which are small
sculptures emphasizing exaggerated fertility features.

3.Venus Figurines:
- These small, carved figurines typically represent female forms with emphasized fertility
features. Scholars speculate that they might have served ritualistic or symbolic purposes
related to fertility and survival.

Neolithic Art:

1.Megalthic Art:
- Megalithic structures, characterized by large stones arranged in specific patterns, were
often adorned with carvings and symbols. Stone circles, menhirs, and dolmens are
examples found in various parts of the world.

2.Pottery and Ceramics:

 - Neolithic communities began crafting pottery for practical use and symbolic purposes.
Intricate designs and patterns on pottery vessels reveal the aesthetic sensibilities of these
early societies.

3.Figurines and Statuettes:

- Similar to the Paleolithic period, figurines continued to be created during the Neolithic
era. However, there is a shift towards more stylized and abstract representations. These
figurines might have held ritualistic or religious significance.

4.Rock Art:
- Neolithic rock art, like petroglyphs and engravings, continued to be created. These
markings often depict scenes of daily life, hunting, and animals, providing glimpses into the
cultural practices of Neolithic societies.

Common Characteristics:

1.Connection to Nature:
- Both Paleolithic and Neolithic art often reflect a close connection to the natural
environment. Animals, human figures, and natural elements are common motifs,
emphasizing the importance of the natural world to these early communities.

2.Ritual and Symbolism:

- Many prehistoric artworks are believed to have had ritualistic or symbolic significance.
The exact meanings behind these symbols remain speculative, but they likely played a role
in religious ceremonies, storytelling, and community bonding.

3.Limited Use of Color:

- While some cave paintings exhibit the use of natural pigments, prehistoric art generally
relied on simple color schemes, often using earth tones. The emphasis was on the form and
representation rather than intricate color details.

4.Survival and Fertility Themes:

- Themes of survival, particularly in the Paleolithic period, are evident in the depictions of
hunting scenes. Fertility symbols, represented by figurines, suggest a concern for
reproduction and the continuity of the community.

5.Abstract Representations:
- Early prehistoric art tends to feature more realistic representations, while later periods,
especially in the Neolithic, show a shift towards abstract and stylized forms.

Overall, prehistoric art serves as a crucial window into the early human experience, offering
clues about their beliefs, social structures, and the development of artistic expression over
time.

Harappan Art & Architecture :-

Harappan art and architecture belong to the Bronze Age civilization of the ancient Indus
Valley, which thrived around 3300–1300 BCE. The Harappan Civilization, also known as the
Indus Valley Civilization, encompassed a vast area, including present-day India and
Pakistan. Despite its significance, much about Harappan art and architecture remains
enigmatic due to the lack of deciphered written records.

Harappan Architecture:

1.Urban Planning:
- Harappan cities, such as Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, displayed remarkable urban
planning. Streets were laid out in a grid pattern, and cities featured well-organized residential
and commercial areas. The Great Bath at Mohenjo-daro is a notable public structure,
possibly used for ritual bathing.

2.Citadel and Lower Towns:

- Harappan cities were often divided into a citadel and a lower town. The citadel housed
structures with administrative or possibly religious functions, while the lower town contained
residential and commercial areas.

3.Brick Construction:
- Harappans were skilled in brick-making, and their cities were constructed using
standardized, kiln-fired bricks. The use of standardized bricks suggests a sophisticated level
of urban planning and construction techniques.

4.Great Bath:
- The Great Bath, located in the citadel of Mohenjo-daro, is a large, rectangular pool lined
with bricks and coated with a waterproof material. Its purpose remains uncertain, but it is
speculated to have had ritualistic or purificatory significance.

5.Granaries:
- Harappan cities contained large, well-built granaries. These structures had thick walls
and raised platforms, possibly used for storing surplus grains. The advanced storage
systems reflect the economic and agricultural practices of the civilization.

6.Residential Structures:
- Harappan houses were typically made of baked bricks and featured multiple rooms.
Houses often had an open courtyard, and some had a private well or bathing area. The
absence of monumental palaces suggests a relatively egalitarian society.

Harappan Art:

1.Seals and Inscriptions:

- Harappan seals are among the most iconic artifacts. Made of steatite, these seals depict
various animals, including the famous image of a unicorn. Inscriptions found on these seals
remain undeciphered, hindering a comprehensive understanding of the written language of
the Harappans.

2.Figurines:
- Small terracotta figurines were common in Harappan sites. These figurines represent
human and animal forms, with an emphasis on realistic depictions. Female figurines, often
referred to as "dancing girls," highlight the attention to detail and artistic skill of the Harappan
people.

3.Ceramics:
- Harappan pottery includes a variety of shapes and sizes. The pottery is known for its fine
craftsmanship, with some vessels featuring intricate designs and patterns. Painted pottery
often incorporates geometric motifs and animal figures.

4.Metalwork:
- The Harappans were skilled metallurgists, working with copper, bronze, and other metals.
Artifacts such as copper tools, bronze statuettes, and jewelry showcase their expertise in
metal craftsmanship.

5.Symbolism in Art:
- The unicorn depicted on many seals is often interpreted as a symbol of strength or
religious significance. Other symbols, such as the swastika, are also found in Harappan art
and may have held cultural or religious meanings.

6.Use of Beads and Ornaments:

- Harappans adorned themselves with various ornaments made of precious and
semi-precious materials. Beads of carnelian, agate, and other stones, as well as metal
jewelry, have been discovered at Harappan sites.

Harappan art and architecture showcase the sophistication of this ancient civilization,
revealing aspects of their daily life, craftsmanship, and societal organization. The mystery
surrounding the undeciphered script continues to fuel scholarly debates about the nature of
the Harappan society and its cultural practices.

Unit-II

Mauryan, Sunga and Kusana Art :-

Mauryan Art (c. 322–185 BCE):
1.Pillars and Edicts:
- The Mauryan period is characterized by the creation of monumental pillars, such as the
famous Ashoka Pillars. These pillars, made of polished sandstone, were erected throughout
the empire and inscribed with edicts and teachings of Emperor Ashoka. The Sarnath pillar,
crowned with four lions back-to-back, became a symbol of the Indian republic.

2.Sculptures:
- Mauryan art includes some significant sculptures, such as the famous Yakshi figures
found at various sites. These female fertility figures are adorned with jewelry and represent
an amalgamation of indigenous and foreign artistic influences.

3.Stupas:
- The Mauryan period witnessed the construction of early stupas, religious structures
associated with Buddhism. The stupa at Sanchi is a prominent example, featuring a
hemispherical dome, a central pillar (yasti), and a railing adorned with intricate carvings.
Sunga Art (c. 185–73 BCE):

1.Bharhut Stupa:
- The Bharhut Stupa is an important relic of Sunga art. It features a wealth of narrative
reliefs depicting scenes from the life of Buddha, Jataka tales, and various mythological
elements. The carvings are intricate and detailed, providing insights into the artistic style of
the period.

2.Amravati Stupa:
- The Amravati Stupa, though later in date, is often associated with the Sunga period. It
showcases scenes from the life of Buddha and is notable for its sculptural friezes and
narrative panels. The style is characterized by flowing lines and graceful depictions.

3.Yakshis:
- The Sunga period continued the tradition of sculpting Yakshi figures. These figures, often
depicted with elaborate hairstyles and adorned with jewelry, represent fertility and
abundance.

Kushan Art (c. 1st–3rd centuries CE):

1.Gandhara School:
- The Kushan period, especially in the Gandhara region, saw the emergence of the
Gandhara school of art. Influenced by Hellenistic and Roman styles, Gandhara art featured
realistic sculptures of Buddha and Bodhisattvas. The use of drapery and classical elements
is characteristic of this school.

2.Mathura School:
- Concurrently, the Mathura school of art in central India developed a distinct style.
Mathura sculptures often portrayed a more indigenous representation of Buddha and Hindu
deities. The figures were characterized by softer features and a sense of spirituality.

3.Buddhist Cave Temples:

- The Kushan period contributed to the creation of Buddhist cave temples. The Ajanta
Caves, although developed later, showcase a fusion of Kushan and indigenous Indian
artistic elements. The murals and sculptures depict scenes from the life of Buddha and
various Jataka tales.

4.Mathura and Gandhara Influence:

- The Kushans were instrumental in facilitating cultural exchanges between the Indian
subcontinent and Central Asia. This interaction influenced artistic styles, resulting in a
synthesis of Mathura and Gandhara elements in Kushan art.

In summary, Mauryan art is marked by monumental pillars, sculptures, and early stupas,
while Sunga art is known for its intricate narrative reliefs on stupas like Bharhut. The Kushan
period witnessed the development of distinct regional schools, with the Gandhara and
Mathura schools showcasing unique styles influenced by cross-cultural interactions.
Asokan Pillars, Capital Figures, Folk Art :-
Ashoka's Pillars (c. 268–232 BCE):

1.Purpose and Inscriptions:

- Ashoka, the Mauryan emperor, erected a series of pillars throughout his empire. These
pillars were inscribed with edicts conveying Ashoka's teachings and principles, including his
embrace of Buddhism and commitment to non-violence. The inscriptions were written in
Prakrit and Brahmi script.

2.Materials and Construction:

- The pillars were made of polished sandstone, reaching impressive heights. The pillars
had a tapering cylindrical shape and were surmounted by animal capitals, most notably the
lion capital.

3.Lion Capital:
- The lion capital atop Ashoka's pillars is renowned for its iconic representation. It features
four lions standing back-to-back, symbolizing the four directions. The lions are highly realistic
and convey a sense of majesty. This capital has become a national emblem of India.

4.Other Capitals:
- While the lion capital is the most famous, other capitals depict different animals such as
elephants, bulls, and horses. These animals symbolize different aspects of Buddha's life or
represent various virtues.

5.Distribution:
- Ashoka's pillars were strategically placed throughout his empire, with notable examples
found at Sarnath, Lauriya Nandangarh, and Vaishali. The distribution of these pillars served
administrative, political, and ideological purposes.

6.Stupas and Pillars:

- Ashoka's pillars were often associated with stupas, reinforcing the connection between
his edicts and Buddhist religious sites. The pillars marked locations where Ashoka sought to
disseminate his moral and ethical teachings.

Folk Art in Ancient India:

1.Terracotta Art:
- Terracotta art was a prevalent form of folk art. Villagers and local artisans created
terracotta figurines representing deities, animals, and everyday life. These figurines were
often used for religious and ritualistic purposes.

2.Warli Painting:
- Warli painting is a traditional folk art form originating from the Warli tribe in Maharashtra.
Characterized by simple geometric shapes and figures, Warli paintings depict scenes from
daily life, rituals, and nature. These paintings are often created on mud walls.

3.Madhubani Painting:
 - Madhubani painting, also known as Mithila painting, is a folk art form from the Mithila
region in Bihar. It involves vibrant and intricate depictions of mythological themes, religious
motifs, and scenes from nature. Traditionally, these paintings adorned the walls of homes.

4.Pattachitra Art:
- Pattachitra is a traditional painting style from Odisha, often depicting mythological stories
and religious themes. Artists use cloth or palm leaves as the canvas and paint with natural
colors. The detailed and colorful narratives make Pattachitra a distinctive folk art form.

5.Bamboo and Wooden Crafts:

- Various regions in India have a rich tradition of creating folk art through bamboo and
wooden crafts. This includes items like masks, toys, and utensils adorned with intricate
carvings and paintings.

6.Kalamkari Art:
- Kalamkari is a traditional art form involving hand-painted or block-printed fabric. Artists
use natural dyes and depict mythological stories, scenes from epics, and intricate patterns.
Kalamkari is practiced in regions like Andhra Pradesh and Telangana.

7.Tribal and Ritualistic Art:

- Numerous tribal communities in India have their unique folk art forms tied to rituals and
ceremonies. These include wall paintings, masks, and sculptures created for specific
religious or cultural occasions.

Folk art in ancient India was diverse, reflecting the cultural richness and traditions of different
regions and communities. These art forms served not only as expressions of creativity but
also as integral components of religious rituals and daily life.

Stupa: Bharhut, Sanchi, Amrawati :-

A stupa is a Buddhist architectural structure that serves as a sacred monument, typically
containing relics associated with Buddha or his followers. It has a symbolic significance in
Buddhism, representing the enlightened mind and the path to enlightenment. Stupas evolved
over time, and three notable examples from ancient India are the Bharhut Stupa, the Sanchi
Stupa, and the Amaravati Stupa.

Bharhut Stupa:

1.Location:
- Bharhut Stupa is located in Madhya Pradesh, India.

2.Period:
- The stupa dates back to the Shunga period (2nd century BCE).

3.Architectural Features:
- The Bharhut Stupa is known for its intricate railings adorned with sculpted panels. The
railing depicts scenes from the life of Buddha, Jataka tales, and various mythological
elements. These carvings provide valuable insights into Buddhist iconography and
narratives.

4.Yakshi Figures:
- The stupa features prominent Yakshi figures, which are female fertility spirits. These
figures, characterized by elaborate jewelry and headdresses, were believed to have
protective and auspicious qualities.

5.Narrative Panels:
- The narrative panels on the railing tell stories associated with Buddha's previous lives
(Jataka tales) and important events in his life. The carvings are detailed and showcase a
sense of movement and emotion.

Sanchi Stupa:

1.Location:
- Sanchi Stupa is situated in Madhya Pradesh, India.

2.Period:
- The original stupa was commissioned by Emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE, but it
was expanded and modified by later rulers, including the Shungas and the Satavahanas.

3.Great Stupa:
- The main stupa at Sanchi, known as the Great Stupa, is one of the oldest and most
well-preserved stupas in India. It has a large hemispherical dome and a central pillar (yasti)
with a set of railings.

4.Toranas (Gateways):
- Sanchi is also famous for its elaborately carved toranas or gateways. The toranas depict
scenes from Buddha's life, Jataka tales, and various motifs. These gateways are richly
ornamented and add to the grandeur of the site.

5.Ashoka Pillar:
- The site also includes an Ashoka Pillar with four lions, which is a replica of the famous
lion capital that crowns Ashoka's pillars. The original pillar is now in the Sanchi
Archaeological Museum.

Amaravati Stupa:

1.Location:
- Amaravati Stupa is located near the town of Amaravathi in Andhra Pradesh, India.

2.Period:
- The stupa dates back to the Satavahana period (2nd century BCE to 2nd century CE).

3.Architectural Features:
 - Amaravati Stupa is renowned for its sculptural friezes and narrative panels. These
carvings depict scenes from the life of Buddha, Jataka tales, and other Buddhist stories. The
narrative is presented in a continuous, flowing manner.

4.Dharmachakra (Wheel of Dharma):

- The stupa includes a prominent Dharmachakra, or Wheel of Dharma, which is a symbol
representing the Buddhist teachings. This motif is often found in Buddhist art and is
associated with the first sermon of Buddha.

5.Guardian Figures:
- The stupa is adorned with guardian figures, celestial beings, and various animals. These
sculptures contribute to the overall decorative and symbolic richness of the site.

In summary, Bharhut, Sanchi, and Amaravati stupas are significant examples of Buddhist
architecture and art in ancient India. They played a crucial role in the development and
dissemination of Buddhist teachings, and their intricate carvings provide valuable insights
into the cultural and religious aspects of the time.

Rock-cut Cave Archiltecture (Chaitya/Vihara)-Karle, Bhaja :-

Karle Caves:

1.Location:
- Karle Caves are situated near Pune, Maharashtra, India.

2.Period:
- The Karle Caves date back to the 2nd century BCE to the 2nd century CE and belong to
the Hinayana phase of Buddhism.

3.Architectural Style:
- Karle Caves are significant examples of rock-cut chaitya halls, representing Buddhist
worship spaces. The chaitya hall at Karle is among the largest and most impressive of its
kind.

4.Chaitya Hall:
- The main attraction at Karle is the Chaitya Hall, a rock-cut structure resembling a wooden
architectural style. The hall has a large stupa (stupa chamber) at its far end, symbolizing the
presence of the Buddha. The nave of the chaitya hall is flanked by a series of pillars with
intricately carved capitals and decorative motifs.

5.Pillars and Carvings:

- The pillars in the chaitya hall exhibit exquisite craftsmanship, with detailed carvings of
various animals, humans, and floral patterns. The detailing of the capitals and friezes reflects
the artistry of ancient Indian craftsmen.

6.Stupa and Votive Stupas:

 - The stupa at the rear of the chaitya hall is surrounded by votive stupas, creating a sacred
ambience. The intention behind these stupas was to allow pilgrims to circumambulate the
main stupa, an essential ritual in Buddhist worship.

Bhaja Caves:

1.Location:
- Bhaja Caves are also located near Pune, Maharashtra, India.

2.Period:
- Bhaja Caves are believed to date back to the 2nd century BCE and were later expanded
in the 2nd century CE during the Satavahana period.

3.Chaitya Halls and Viharas:

- Bhaja Caves include both chaitya halls and viharas. The chaitya hall at Bhaja is smaller
compared to Karle but is noteworthy for its intricate carvings and the presence of a large
stupa at the far end. The viharas are residential cells for monks.

4.Wooden Architecture Influence:

- Similar to Karle, Bhaja exhibits a blend of rock-cut architecture and an imitation of
wooden architecture. The wooden beam motifs, often carved in the ceiling, mimic the
structural elements of wooden buildings.

5.Carvings and Sculptures:

- Bhaja Caves feature numerous carvings and sculptures, including depictions of the
Buddha, Bodhisattvas, and scenes from Jataka tales. The carvings are expressive and
showcase the artistic achievements of the period.

6.Cisterns and Water Channels:

- The site also includes cisterns and water channels, indicating the consideration of
practical aspects of daily life in the construction of these caves. Water management was
crucial for the sustenance of the monastic community.

Common Features:

1.Buddhist Context:
- Both Karle and Bhaja Caves were created in a Buddhist context, serving as places of
worship and residence for monks.

2.Influence of Hinayana Buddhism:

- These caves belong to the Hinayana phase of Buddhism, emphasizing the worship of the
historical Buddha and the importance of individual enlightenment.

3.Rock-cut Architecture:
- Both sites showcase the mastery of rock-cut architecture, with the sculpting of large halls,
pillars, and intricate carvings directly into the rock.

4.Blend of Local and Foreign Influences:

 - The architectural elements, including the imitation of wooden structures, reveal a
synthesis of local and foreign influences, demonstrating the multicultural aspects of ancient
Indian art and architecture.

In summary, the rock-cut caves at Karle and Bhaja exemplify the skill and artistic creativity of
ancient Indian craftsmen. They are not only significant for their architectural achievements
but also for their role in preserving and propagating Buddhist traditions during a critical
period in Indian history.

Kusana Art: Evolution of Buddha Images Mathura Style & Gandhara Style :-
Kushan Art: An Overview:

The Kushan Empire (1st–3rd centuries CE) played a significant role in the evolution of
Buddhist art, particularly in the regions of Mathura and Gandhara. The Kushan rulers were
instrumental in fostering cultural exchanges between Central Asia and the Indian
subcontinent, resulting in distinctive styles of Buddha images.

Mathura Style:

1.Characteristics:
- The Mathura style of Kushan art is known for its indigenous and expressive
characteristics. The representations of Buddha are often more humanistic, emphasizing the
human qualities and emotions of the Buddha.

2.Physical Features:
- Buddha images in the Mathura style typically depict him with a more robust and earthly
appearance. The facial features are naturalistic, and the Buddha is often shown with curly
hair, which symbolizes his renunciation of worldly luxuries.

3.Mudras and Postures:

- The mudras (hand gestures) and postures in Mathura art are varied and convey different
aspects of Buddha's teachings. Common mudras include the Dharmachakra Mudra (Turning
the Wheel of Dharma) and the Abhaya Mudra (Fearlessness).

4.Iconography:
- The Mathura style places emphasis on the iconography associated with Buddha's life,
such as the depiction of events from his early life, the Enlightenment, and the First Sermon
at Sarnath. Scenes from Jataka tales, stories of Buddha's previous lives, are also prevalent.

5.Decorative Elements:
- Mathura sculptures often include elaborate ornamentation, such as jewelry, robes, and
celestial beings surrounding the Buddha. The emphasis on ornamentation adds a sense of
richness to the artistic representations.

6.Popular Artistic Motifs:

 - Lotus motifs and other decorative elements, along with a sense of movement in the
sculptures, are characteristic of the Mathura style. The artistic expressions in Mathura were
influenced by the local cultural context.

Gandhara Style:

1.Characteristics:
- The Gandhara style of Kushan art reflects influences from Hellenistic and Roman artistic
traditions due to the region's proximity to Central Asia and the Greco-Bactrian cultural
legacy.

2.Physical Features:
- Gandhara Buddha images often exhibit a more idealized and majestic appearance. The
facial features are classical and show influences of Greco-Roman aesthetics. The drapery
and clothing resemble classical Roman attire.

3.Mudras and Postures:

- The mudras in Gandhara art are often more stylized, with the Buddha frequently depicted
in the Dharmachakra Mudra or the Abhaya Mudra. The postures convey a sense of grace
and serenity.

4.Iconography:
- Gandhara sculptures focus on specific episodes from Buddha's life, such as the Birth of
Buddha, the Great Departure, and scenes from the life of Buddha as a prince. The
iconography is more symbolic and less narrative compared to the Mathura style.

5.Architectural Influence:
- Gandhara art is associated with the creation of Buddhist rock-cut cave temples and
stupas. The depiction of Buddha often integrates with architectural elements, showcasing a
harmonious relationship between sculpture and structure.

6.Classical Elements:
- The Gandhara style incorporates classical elements such as Corinthian columns, friezes,
and acanthus leaves. This fusion of classical and Buddhist iconography is a distinctive
feature of Gandhara art.

Evolution of Buddha Images in Kushan Art:

1.Cultural Synthesis:
- The evolution of Buddha images in Kushan art represents a cultural synthesis, blending
indigenous Indian styles with influences from Central Asia, Hellenistic traditions, and
classical Roman aesthetics.

2.Regional Diversity:
- The diversity in the representations of Buddha reflects regional variations and the diverse
cultural influences present in the vast territory of the Kushan Empire.

3.Symbolism and Expression:

 - Both Mathura and Gandhara styles contribute to the rich tapestry of Buddhist art, with
each style emphasizing different aspects of symbolism, expression, and artistic
representation.

In summary, the Kushan Empire played a pivotal role in shaping the evolution of Buddha
images, and the Mathura and Gandhara styles stand as distinct expressions of the fusion of
cultural influences during this period. The regional variations in Kushan art showcase the
dynamic and diverse nature of artistic developments in ancient India.

Unit-III

Gupta Art: Essential features :-

The Gupta Empire (c. 320–550 CE) in ancient India is considered a golden age of classical
art, marked by significant achievements in sculpture, painting, and architecture. Gupta art is
characterized by its refinement, grace, and a revival of classical Indian aesthetics. Here are
the essential features of Gupta art:

1. Sculpture:

1.Iconography:
- Gupta sculptures feature a wide range of deities, especially Hindu gods like Vishnu,
Shiva, and Devi. Buddha and Bodhisattvas are also depicted, reflecting the continued
influence of Buddhism.

2.Naturalism and Realism:

- Gupta sculptures emphasize naturalism and realism. Figures are portrayed with
well-proportioned bodies, realistic facial features, and a sense of grace and balance. Artists
achieved a harmonious blend of idealization and lifelike representation.

3.Yakshas and Yakshis:

- The Gupta period witnessed the creation of exquisite yaksha and yakshi figures. These
semi-divine beings, often associated with fertility, are depicted with sensuous forms and
elaborate jewelry.

4.Bodhisattva Figures:
- Bodhisattva figures from the Gupta period, such as those found at Sarnath, exhibit a
serene and compassionate expression. The portrayal of Bodhisattvas reflects the Mahayana
Buddhist emphasis on compassion and enlightenment for the benefit of all sentient beings.

2. Temple Architecture:

1.Cave Temples:
- Gupta architecture includes the construction of cave temples, such as the Udayagiri
Caves in Madhya Pradesh. These cave temples feature intricate carvings and sculptures,
showcasing the Gupta Empire's patronage of the arts.

2.Structural Temples:
 - Although Gupta temple architecture has not survived in its original form, later temples
built in the medieval period were influenced by the Gupta style. Key features include a
shikhara (tower) atop the sanctum, intricate carvings on the temple walls, and elaborately
carved doorways.

3. Metal Sculptures and Coins:

1.Metal Sculptures:
- The Gupta period produced remarkable metal sculptures, particularly in bronze. Small
bronze figurines of deities and divinities exhibit exceptional craftsmanship and attention to
detail.

2.Gold Coins:
- Gupta rulers issued gold coins that are considered masterpieces of numismatic art. The
coins feature portraits of the rulers, symbols of royalty, and sometimes Hindu deities. The
gold coins of Kumaragupta I are especially noteworthy.

4. Painting:

1.Ajanta Cave Paintings:

- The Ajanta Caves, created during the Gupta period, house some of the finest examples
of ancient Indian frescoes. The paintings depict scenes from the life of Buddha, Jataka tales,
and celestial beings. The use of vibrant colors and detailed storytelling is a hallmark of
Gupta painting.

5. Literature and Art Integration:

1.Celebration of Poetry and Art:

- The Gupta period witnessed a close integration of literature and art. Poetry, drama, and
scientific texts from this era often describe the beauty of art, emphasizing the
interconnectedness of intellectual and aesthetic pursuits.

6. Patronage and Cultural Flourishing:

1.Royal Patronage:
- Gupta rulers, such as Chandragupta II and Kumaragupta, actively patronized the arts.
This royal patronage played a crucial role in the flourishing of literature, sculpture, and
architecture during the Gupta period.

2.Cultural Flourishing:
- The Gupta Empire's political stability and prosperity contributed to a cultural renaissance.
Artists and scholars were supported, leading to a flowering of creativity that left an indelible
mark on Indian art and culture.

Gupta art represents a pinnacle in the development of classical Indian art, characterized by
its grace, realism, and integration of diverse cultural elements. The artistic achievements of
this period continue to influence and inspire artistic expressions in India and beyond.
Beginning of temple Architecture-Bhitargaon temple, Deogarh temple :-
1. Bhitargaon Temple:

Location:
- Bhitargaon Temple is located in Bhitargaon village near Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India.

Period:
- The Bhitargaon Temple is often dated to the Gupta period, around the 5th century CE,
making it one of the earliest examples of temple architecture in India.

Architectural Style:
- The temple is an early example of North Indian brick temple architecture, showcasing a
transition from rock-cut caves to free-standing structures.

Key Features:

1.Material and Construction:

- The Bhitargaon Temple is primarily made of bricks, a departure from the earlier rock-cut
structures. The use of bricks allowed for more intricate and decorative elements in the
temple's design.

2.Shikhara (Tower):
- The temple features a curvilinear shikhara (tower) that is characteristic of early North
Indian temple architecture. The shikhara is topped with an amalaka, a disk-like ornament.

3.Ornamentation:
- The temple is adorned with intricate terracotta panels and friezes. The terracotta
ornamentation includes depictions of various deities, floral motifs, and scenes from Hindu
mythology.

4.Moldings and Decorative Elements:

- The temple has a series of moldings and decorative elements, adding to its aesthetic
appeal. The careful arrangement of these elements contributes to the overall sense of
balance and symmetry.

5.Garbhagriha (Sanctum):
- The inner sanctum or garbhagriha houses a small square shrine with a shikhara. The
sanctum is a sacred space that typically contains the main deity's idol or representation.

6.Devakoshta (Niche):
- Devakoshtas, or niches, in the temple contain images of deities. The placement of these
niches is a common feature in early Indian temple architecture.

2. Deogarh Temple:

Location:
- The Deogarh Temple is located in Deogarh, Lalitpur District, Uttar Pradesh, India.
Period:
- The Deogarh Temple is believed to date back to the late Gupta period (6th century CE) and
may have been expanded during subsequent periods.

Architectural Style:
- The temple is an excellent example of early North Indian temple architecture, showcasing
elements that became integral to later temple constructions.

Key Features:

1.Material and Construction:

- Similar to the Bhitargaon Temple, the Deogarh Temple is constructed primarily using
stone and brick. The use of stone allows for greater durability and intricacy in architectural
details.

2.Vishnu Temple:
- The main temple at Deogarh is dedicated to Lord Vishnu. The sanctum sanctorum
houses an idol of Vishnu in his Varaha (boar) avatar.

3.Mandapa (Pavilion):
- The temple has a mandapa or pavilion in front of the sanctum, providing an open space
for gatherings and religious ceremonies. The mandapa is supported by intricately carved
pillars.

4.Carvings and Sculptures:

- The Deogarh Temple is renowned for its intricate carvings and sculptures. The walls
feature depictions of various deities, celestial beings, and scenes from Hindu mythology. The
carvings display a high level of craftsmanship.

5.Garbhagriha (Sanctum):
- The sanctum of the temple houses the main deity's idol, and it is considered the most
sacred space in the temple complex.

6.Decorative Elements:
- The temple is adorned with decorative elements, including floral motifs, geometric
patterns, and narrative scenes. These elements contribute to the overall grandeur of the
structure.

Significance:

1.Development of Temple Architecture:

- Both the Bhitargaon and Deogarh temples represent crucial stages in the evolution of
North Indian temple architecture. They showcase the transition from rock-cut structures to
free-standing temples made of durable materials like stone and brick.

2.Artistic and Architectural Heritage:

 - These temples are important cultural and artistic heritage sites, providing insights into the
early phases of temple construction in India. They reflect the artistic achievements of the
Gupta period and the subsequent centuries.

3.Religious Significance:
- The temples, dedicated to Hindu deities, continue to hold religious significance and
attract pilgrims and visitors interested in exploring India's rich architectural and religious
history.

The Bhitargaon and Deogarh temples stand as early masterpieces of Indian temple
architecture, offering a glimpse into the innovative styles and techniques that laid the
foundation for later temple constructions across the subcontinent.

Ancient Indian Paintings with special reference to Ajanta Temple architectural styles
:Nagara, Dravid, Besara :-
The Ajanta Caves, located in Maharashtra, India, are known for their ancient murals and
paintings, but they are not temples. Temples and caves represent different architectural
forms. However, I'll provide information on the Ajanta Caves and the associated architectural
styles:

Ajanta Caves:

1.Location:
- The Ajanta Caves are situated in the state of Maharashtra, India.

2.Period:
- The caves date back to various periods, primarily from the 2nd century BCE to the 6th
century CE. The majority were created during the Vakataka and Gupta periods.

3.Architectural Style:
- The caves at Ajanta represent a fusion of architectural and artistic styles, incorporating
elements of both Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhism.

4.Paintings:
- The caves are renowned for their exquisite mural paintings that depict scenes from the
life of Buddha, Jataka tales, and various deities. The paintings showcase a high level of
artistic skill and use vibrant colors to convey emotions and narratives.

Architectural Styles Associated with Temples (Nagara, Dravida, Besara):

While Nagar, Dravida, and Besara are architectural styles associated with temples rather
than caves, I can provide information on these styles within the context of temples:

1. Nagara Style:

1.Geographical Influence:
 - The Nagara style is prevalent in Northern India, especially in the regions of Rajasthan,
Gujarat, and parts of Madhya Pradesh.

2.Key Features:
-Shikhara (Tower): Nagara temples typically have a curvilinear shikhara (tower) that rises
above the sanctum. It is often topped with an amalaka (disk-like ornament).
-Mandapa and Garbhagriha: The temple structure includes a hall (mandapa) and a
sanctum (garbhagriha) that houses the main deity.

3.Examples:
- Famous examples of Nagara style temples include the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple in
Khajuraho and the Jagdish Temple in Udaipur.

2. Dravida Style:

1.Geographical Influence:
- The Dravida style is prevalent in Southern India, particularly in the states of Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh.

2.Key Features:
-Vimana (Tower): Dravida temples have a pyramidal vimana (tower) that is typically more
ornate and decorated than its Northern counterpart.
-Mandapa and Garbhagriha: Similar to Nagara temples, Dravida temples consist of a hall
(mandapa) and a sanctum (garbhagriha).

3.Examples:
- Prominent examples of Dravida style temples include the Brihadeshwara Temple in
Thanjavur and the Meenakshi Temple in Madurai.

3. Besara Style:

1.Geographical Influence:
- The Besara style is associated with the state of Odisha in Eastern India.

2.Key Features:
-Rekha Deula (Tower): Besara temples feature a rekha deula, a distinctive tower structure
with a curvilinear spire.
-Jagamohana and Garbhagriha: The temple structure includes a porch (jagamohana) and
a sanctum (garbhagriha).

3.Examples:
- Famous Besara style temples include the Lingaraja Temple in Bhubaneswar and the
Jagannath Temple in Puri.

In summary, while the Ajanta Caves showcase murals rather than temples, the architectural
styles mentioned (Nagara, Dravida, Besara) are associated with temples and represent
distinct regional variations in Indian temple architecture.
 Unit-IV

Art & Architecture under: Chalukyas: Aihole, Pattadakal :-

Chalukyan Dynasty Overview:
The Chalukyas were a powerful dynasty that ruled over parts of South and Central India
from the 6th to the 12th centuries. They made significant contributions to art and
architecture, leaving behind remarkable structures that blend Dravidian and Nagara
architectural styles.

Aihole:

1.Location:
- Aihole is an archaeological site in Karnataka, India, known for its Chalukyan temples.

2.Period:
- Aihole temples were built during the reign of the Chalukyan kings, primarily from the 6th
to the 8th centuries.

3.Durga Temple:
- The Durga Temple at Aihole is one of the most iconic structures. It's an example of early
Chalukyan architecture and exhibits a blend of Dravidian and Nagara styles.

-Key Features:
- The temple is elevated on a high platform.
- The shikhara (tower) is curvilinear, resembling the North Indian (Nagara) style.
- Sculptures on the outer walls depict various deities, scenes from epics, and intricate
ornamentation.

4.Lad Khan Temple:

- The Lad Khan Temple is another noteworthy structure at Aihole.

-Key Features:
- It is a smaller temple dedicated to Lord Shiva.
- The temple has a simple exterior with minimal decoration.
- The interior features a Shiva Linga in the sanctum and a Nandi sculpture.

5.Ravana Phadi Cave:

- The Ravana Phadi Cave is a rock-cut cave temple at Aihole.

-Key Features:
- Carved out of a single rock, it has columns resembling wooden pillars.
- The carvings depict scenes from the Ramayana, including the abduction of Sita.

Pattadakal:

1.Location:
 - Pattadakal, also in Karnataka, is another UNESCO World Heritage site known for its
Chalukyan temples.

2.Period:
- Temples at Pattadakal were constructed in the 7th and 8th centuries during the reign of
the Chalukyan kings.

3.Virupaksha Temple:
- The Virupaksha Temple is one of the most prominent structures at Pattadakal.

-Key Features:
- The temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva.
- It follows the Dravidian architectural style with a towering vimana (tower).
- Elaborate carvings depict episodes from the Ramayana and Mahabharata.

4.Mallikarjuna and Virabhadra Temples:

- These temples exemplify the eclectic mix of Dravidian and Nagara styles.

-Key Features:
- The Mallikarjuna Temple has a Dravidian-style shikhara.
- The Virabhadra Temple has a Nagara-style tower.
- Both temples have intricately carved walls showcasing stories from Hindu epics.

5.Papanatha Temple:
- The Papanatha Temple represents a blend of North and South Indian architectural styles.

-Key Features:
- The temple has a mix of Dravidian and Nagara features, reflecting the transitional
phase.
- Intricate carvings depict various deities and mythological scenes.

Common Features in Aihole and Pattadakal:

1.Chalukyan Architecture:
- Both Aihole and Pattadakal exhibit the distinct Chalukyan architectural style
characterized by a fusion of North Indian (Nagara) and South Indian (Dravidian) elements.

2.Artistic Detailing:
- The temples are adorned with intricate carvings, depicting gods, goddesses, mythological
scenes, and intricate ornamentation.

3.Experimental Phase:
- Aihole represents an experimental phase where various temple styles were tested before
reaching a mature form at Pattadakal.

4.Rock-Cut and Structural Temples:

- Aihole features both rock-cut and structural temples, while Pattadakal is predominantly
known for its structural temples.
Significance:

1.UNESCO World Heritage:

- Both Aihole and Pattadakal, along with Badami, are collectively recognized as a
UNESCO World Heritage site as the "Group of Monuments at Pattadakal."

2.Cultural Legacy:
- These sites showcase the cultural and architectural legacy of the Chalukyan dynasty,
contributing to the rich tapestry of Indian art and history.

The Chalukyan temples at Aihole and Pattadakal stand as architectural marvels, reflecting
the creativity and experimentation of the Chalukyan dynasty during this period. The
synthesis of North and South Indian architectural elements in these sites is a testament to
the cultural diversity and artistic innovation of ancient India.

Art & Architecture under Chandela: Khajuraho Temples :-

1. Historical Context:

The Khajuraho temples were built during the reign of the Chandela dynasty, a medieval
Indian dynasty that ruled in the central part of India. The temples are known for their
exquisite architecture and intricate sculptures, primarily constructed between the 9th and
11th centuries.

2. Architectural Style:

1.Nagara Style:
- The Khajuraho temples predominantly follow the Nagara style of temple architecture,
characterized by the prominent tower (shikhara) that gradually narrows as it rises.

2.Panchayatana Layout:
- The temples often follow the panchayatana layout, consisting of a main shrine
surrounded by four subsidiary shrines. This layout is symbolic and represents the five
aspects of Shiva worship.

3.Mandapa and Garbhagriha:

- Each temple typically includes a hall (mandapa) for gatherings and a sanctum
(garbhagriha) housing the main deity. The mandapa and garbhagriha are interconnected.

3. Sculptures:

1.Erotic Sculptures:
- Khajuraho is famous for its erotic sculptures that adorn the temple exteriors. These
intricate carvings depict various aspects of human life, including sensuality and love, and are
a distinctive feature of Khajuraho art.
2.Narrative Panels:
- The temple walls are adorned with narrative panels depicting scenes from Hindu
mythology, including episodes from the epics Ramayana and Mahabharata. These panels
serve both decorative and educational purposes.

3.Apsaras and Celestial Beings:

- The sculptures include finely carved apsaras (celestial nymphs) and celestial beings that
showcase the high level of craftsmanship and artistic expression during the Chandela
period.

4. Temples of Khajuraho:

1.Kandariya Mahadeva Temple:

- The largest and most ornate temple, dedicated to Lord Shiva. It features a towering
shikhara adorned with intricate carvings, including erotic sculptures and deities.

2.Lakshmana Temple:
- Dedicated to Lord Vishnu, it features a pyramidal spire and a large porch with intricately
carved pillars. The temple is known for its three-headed idol of Vishnu.

3.Devi Jagadambi Temple:

- Dedicated to the Goddess Jagadambi (a form of Devi), this temple features a simple yet
elegant design with a square garbhagriha and a mandapa.

4.Chitragupta Temple:
- Dedicated to Surya, the Sun God. The temple is known for its imposing idol of Surya
driving a chariot, drawn by seven horses.

5. Symbolism:

1.Spiritual Symbolism:
- The temples at Khajuraho are not just architectural marvels but are also infused with
spiritual symbolism. The erotic sculptures, often misunderstood, are believed to represent
the celebration of life and the union of male and female energies.

2.Astrological Significance:
- The temples are aligned with astrological principles. The placement of the temples is
believed to be based on the positions of the stars, suggesting a deep connection between
architecture and astronomy.

6. Preservation and UNESCO World Heritage Site:

1.Preservation Efforts:
- In recent times, efforts have been made to preserve and restore the Khajuraho temples.
Conservation initiatives have been undertaken to protect the delicate sculptures from
weathering.

2.UNESCO World Heritage Site:

 - The Khajuraho Group of Monuments was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in
1986, recognizing its cultural and historical significance.

7. Legacy:

1.Cultural Legacy:
- The Khajuraho temples are a testament to the rich cultural and artistic heritage of
medieval India. They represent the architectural and sculptural achievements of the
Chandela dynasty.

2.Tourist Attraction:
- Khajuraho has become a major tourist attraction, drawing visitors from around the world
to marvel at the exquisite sculptures, architectural splendor, and the unique blend of
spirituality and sensuality.

In summary, the Khajuraho temples under the Chandela dynasty stand as a remarkable
example of medieval Indian art and architecture. They reflect the cultural and spiritual ethos
of the time, blending intricate sculptures with architectural brilliance.

Art and Architecture of Orissan Temples: Lingaraja and Konark

Orissa, now known as Odisha, is renowned for its rich cultural heritage, particularly in the
field of temple architecture. The Lingaraja Temple in Bhubaneswar and the Konark Sun
Temple are two remarkable examples that showcase the distinct features of Orissan
architecture.

Lingaraja Temple:

1.Location:
- The Lingaraja Temple is located in Bhubaneswar, the capital city of Odisha.

2.Period:
- The construction of the Lingaraja Temple began in the 11th century and continued over
several centuries. It is considered one of the finest examples of Orissan architecture.

3.Architectural Style:
- The Lingaraja Temple represents the Kalinga style of architecture, a regional variant of
the Nagara style. It is characterized by a towering shikhara (spire) and intricate carvings.

4.Shikhara and Vimana:

- The temple has a prominent rekha deula (tower) that rises above the sanctum. The
vimana, or tower structure, is intricately carved with sculptures and decorative elements.

5.Jagamohana and Natamandira:

- The temple complex includes a jagamohana (assembly hall) and a natamandira (dancing
hall). These structures are also adorned with sculptures depicting various deities, celestial
beings, and scenes from Hindu mythology.
6.Deul Harpist Sculptures:
- One distinctive feature of the Lingaraja Temple is the presence of deul harpist sculptures.
These intricate carvings depict musicians playing musical instruments on the temple walls.

7.Bindu Sarovar:
- The Lingaraja Temple complex includes a sacred tank known as Bindu Sarovar. Pilgrims
believe that a dip in this tank purifies them before entering the temple.

Konark Sun Temple:

1.Location:
- The Konark Sun Temple is situated in Konark, Odisha, along the eastern coast of India.

2.Period:
- The Konark Sun Temple was constructed in the 13th century during the reign of King
Narasimhadeva I of the Eastern Ganga Dynasty.

3.Architectural Style:
- The Konark Sun Temple exemplifies the Kalinga style of architecture and is renowned for
its monumental and awe-inspiring design.

4.Sun Temple Design:

- The temple is designed in the form of a colossal chariot with 24 intricately carved wheels,
each representing an hour of the day. The chariot is pulled by seven horses, symbolizing the
days of the week.

5.Kalinga Architecture Elements:

- The temple showcases various elements of Kalinga architecture, including the deul
(tower), jagamohana (assembly hall), and natamandira (dancing hall). The deul is the most
prominent structure, with a shikhara adorned with intricate sculptures.

6.Erotic Sculptures:
- The Konark Sun Temple is known for its explicit and elaborate erotic sculptures. These
carvings depict various aspects of human life, and while they are artistically significant, their
exact symbolic meanings are still a subject of scholarly debate.

7.Magnetism of the Main Tower:

- The main tower of the temple was once said to be magnetized, leading to legends about
the temple's construction techniques. However, the temple's original tower collapsed, and
the current structure is a partial reconstruction.

Common Features:

1.Architectural Splendor:
- Both the Lingaraja and Konark Sun Temples exhibit architectural grandeur and intricate
carvings, showcasing the rich cultural and artistic heritage of Odisha.

2.Intricate Carvings:
 - The temples are adorned with intricate sculptures depicting deities, celestial beings,
mythological narratives, and scenes from daily life.

3.Symbolism:
- The architecture of both temples is laden with symbolic elements that convey religious,
cultural, and cosmological meanings.

4.Cultural Significance:
- These temples serve as important religious and cultural landmarks, attracting pilgrims,
tourists, and scholars interested in the history and artistry of Odisha.

The Lingaraja Temple and the Konark Sun Temple stand as testament to the artistic
brilliance and architectural innovation of Odisha, showcasing the unique features of
Kalinga-style temple architecture.

Unit-V

Art & Architecture under Rashtrakutas: Kailash Temple of Elora :-

The Rashtrakuta Dynasty, ruling from the 8th to the 10th century, contributed significantly to
Indian art and architecture. The Kailash Temple at Ellora, carved out of a single monolithic
rock, stands as an outstanding example of their architectural prowess.

Rashtrakuta Dynasty:

1.Period:
- The Rashtrakuta Dynasty ruled from the 8th to the 10th century, with their capital initially
at Manyakheta.

2.Cultural and Architectural Contributions:

- The Rashtrakutas made significant contributions to art and architecture, combining
elements of various regional styles.

Kailash Temple at Ellora:

1.Location:
- The Kailash Temple is located in the Ellora Caves complex in Maharashtra, India.

2.Period of Construction:
- The construction of the Kailash Temple is attributed to the Rashtrakuta king Krishna I and
is estimated to have taken place during the 8th century.

3.Architectural Style:
- The Kailash Temple represents a marvelous example of Dravidian architecture,
particularly the Dravida Vimana style, which is more commonly associated with South Indian
temples.

4.Monolithic Structure:
 - The most remarkable feature of the Kailash Temple is that it is carved entirely from a
single rock. It is considered one of the largest monolithic structures globally.

5.Inspiration from Mount Kailash:

- The temple is dedicated to Lord Shiva, and its design is inspired by Mount Kailash, the
mythical abode of Lord Shiva in the Himalayas. The entire temple complex symbolizes the
sacred mountain.

6.Layout and Sculptures:

- The Kailash Temple is a multi-storied structure with elaborately carved galleries,
mandapas, and shrines. The temple complex includes a Nandi Mandapa, an assembly hall,
and a sanctum housing the lingam.

7.Courtyard and Enclosures:

- The temple is surrounded by a courtyard and enclosures with numerous shrines,
sculptures, and decorative elements. The complex is adorned with intricate carvings
depicting various deities, mythological scenes, and religious narratives.

8.Depiction of Scenes from Hindu Epics:

- The carvings on the walls depict scenes from Hindu epics like the Ramayana and
Mahabharata. Various forms of Lord Shiva, Parvati, Ganesha, and other deities are
intricately sculpted.

9.Ratha and Pillars:

- The temple complex includes a Rath (chariot) dedicated to Lord Shiva, mimicking the
form of a processional chariot. The pillars in the temple are intricately carved with detailed
ornamentation.

10.Carved Elephant Sculptures:

- Noteworthy are the life-sized elephant sculptures in the courtyard, adding to the grandeur
of the temple. The elephants are symbolic and often associated with royal processions.

11.Dvarapalas and Guardians:

- The temple entrances are guarded by impressive dvarapalas (doorkeepers) and other
guardian figures, showcasing the mastery of Rashtrakuta sculptors.

Significance:

1.Engineering Marvel:
- The Kailash Temple is celebrated for its architectural and engineering marvel. The entire
temple was carved from a single, massive rock, showcasing the exceptional skills of the
Rashtrakuta craftsmen.

2.Religious Significance:
- The temple is a significant pilgrimage site for followers of Lord Shiva. Its design, inspired
by Mount Kailash, adds to its sacred aura.

3.Cultural Heritage:
 - The Kailash Temple at Ellora is recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site and
stands as a testament to the cultural and artistic achievements of the Rashtrakuta Dynasty.

The Kailash Temple at Ellora remains an unparalleled example of monolithic temple

architecture, reflecting the artistic excellence and ingenuity of the Rashtrakutas during their
rule in the Indian subcontinent.

Art and Architecture of the Pallavas: Rathas of Mahabalipuram

The Rathas of Mahabalipuram, also known as the Pancha Rathas (Five Chariots), are a
group of monolithic rock-cut temples that exemplify the architectural and artistic prowess of
the Pallava dynasty. Located in Mahabalipuram (Mamallapuram), Tamil Nadu, India, these
structures are UNESCO World Heritage Sites and represent a unique style in South Indian
temple architecture.

Pallava Dynasty:

1.Period:
- The Pallava dynasty ruled from the 3rd to the 9th centuries CE, and their contributions to
art and architecture left a lasting impact on the region.

2.Architectural Styles:
- Pallava architecture evolved through various styles, with the rock-cut and monolithic
structures of Mahabalipuram being among their most iconic creations.

Rathas of Mahabalipuram:

1.Location:
- The Rathas are situated in Mahabalipuram, along the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of
Bengal.

2.Period of Construction:
- The Rathas were likely constructed during the reign of Narasimhavarman I (Mamalla),
who ruled in the 7th century CE.

3.Artistic and Architectural Features:

a. Dharmaraja Ratha:
- The Dharmaraja Ratha is dedicated to Lord Shiva. It features a square plan and a
pyramidal shikhara (tower) with intricate carvings of deities, including Shiva and Parvati.

b. Bhima Ratha:
- The Bhima Ratha, dedicated to Draupadi (wife of the Pandava prince Bhima), has a
simple square plan and a tower. It showcases the Pallava love for monolithic
experimentation.

c. Arjuna Ratha:
 - The Arjuna Ratha, dedicated to Lord Shiva, is characterized by its tall and slender tower.
The exterior is adorned with sculptures depicting various deities, celestial beings, and
animals.

d. Nakula-Sahadeva Ratha:
- These two Rathas share a common platform and are dedicated to the Pandava twins
Nakula and Sahadeva. Both structures are square in plan and have shikhara-like
projections.

e. Draupadi Ratha:
- The Draupadi Ratha is dedicated to the queen of the Pandavas, Draupadi. It is notable
for its apsidal (semicircular) shape and exquisite carvings.

4.Monolithic Construction:
- The Rathas are carved from single granite blocks, showcasing the Pallava mastery in
monolithic rock-cut architecture. Each ratha imitates a distinct architectural style, reflecting
experimentation and artistic innovation.

5.Sculptural Details:
- The Rathas are adorned with intricate sculptures that depict various deities, including
Shiva, Vishnu, Durga, and others. The carvings also portray scenes from Hindu mythology
and daily life.

6.Nandi Shrine:
- Each ratha has a small Nandi (sacred bull) shrine in front of it. The Nandis are also
monolithic and exhibit detailed carvings.

7.Unfinished Structures:
- Some of the Rathas remain unfinished, providing valuable insights into the carving
techniques employed by the Pallava artisans. These unfinished structures are referred to as
"rathas in the making."

Significance:

1.Architectural Experimentation:
- The Rathas of Mahabalipuram showcase the Pallavas' bold experimentation with
architectural styles, going beyond traditional temple forms to create unique monolithic
structures.

2.Cultural and Artistic Heritage:

- These structures are a testament to the Pallava dynasty's cultural and artistic
contributions, reflecting the synthesis of indigenous and external influences.

3.UNESCO World Heritage Site:

- The Rathas, along with other monuments in Mahabalipuram, have been recognized as a
UNESCO World Heritage Site, underscoring their global cultural significance.

4.Tourist Attraction:
 - The Rathas attract tourists and scholars from around the world, providing a glimpse into
the artistic brilliance of ancient Indian civilizations.

The Rathas of Mahabalipuram stand as a remarkable example of Pallava rock-cut

architecture, showcasing the dynasty's artistic ingenuity and bold experimentation with
architectural forms. They remain an enduring symbol of India's rich cultural and architectural
heritage.

Art and Architecture of the Cholas: Brihadishwara Temple of Tanjavur

The Brihadishwara Temple, also known as the Peruvudaiyar Kovil, is a masterpiece of Chola
architecture and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Constructed by Rajaraja Chola I in the
11th century, this temple in Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, stands as an iconic example of the Chola
dynasty's artistic and architectural prowess.

1. Period and Patronage:

1.Rajaraja Chola I:
- The Brihadishwara Temple was built by Rajaraja Chola I, one of the greatest Chola
rulers, between 1003 and 1010 CE.

2.Patronage of the Arts:

- Rajaraja Chola I was a strong patron of the arts and religion. The construction of the
temple was not only an architectural endeavor but also a reflection of the Cholas' devotion to
Lord Shiva.

2. Architectural Style:

1.Dravida Style:
- The Brihadishwara Temple is a classic example of Dravida style, a distinct South Indian
architectural tradition characterized by its towering vimana (tower), intricately carved
sculptures, and spacious courtyards.

2.Vimana (Tower):
- The main tower, or vimana, of the temple is one of the tallest in India, standing at around
66 meters. It is capped by a massive octagonal dome.

3.Pyramidal Structure:
- The vimana has a pyramidal structure with a series of diminishing storeys, each adorned
with carved sculptures, pilasters, and moldings.

3. Temple Layout:

1.Axial Alignment:
- The Brihadishwara Temple follows a strict axial alignment, with the main sanctum
(garbhagriha) and the tower situated along the same axis. This alignment is a characteristic
feature of Chola temple architecture.
2.Courtyards and Halls:
- The temple complex consists of multiple courtyards and halls, including the main
sanctum, Ardhamandapa (ante-chamber), Mahamandapa (main hall), and Nandi Mandapa.
These spaces serve different ritualistic and congregational purposes.

4. Sculptures and Carvings:

1.Exquisite Carvings:
- The temple is adorned with exquisite carvings and sculptures that depict various deities,
mythological narratives, celestial beings, and daily life scenes. The detailing and
craftsmanship of these carvings are exceptional.

2.Dvarapalas (Guardians):
- Sculptures of Dvarapalas (guardian figures) flank the entranceways of the temple. These
imposing figures, often depicted with well-defined muscles and elaborate ornamentation,
serve a protective role.

3.Nataraja Panel:
- The temple features a famous panel depicting Nataraja, the cosmic dancer form of Lord
Shiva. This panel is celebrated for its dynamic portrayal of the dancing deity and is
considered a masterpiece of Chola art.

5. Frescoes:

1.Ceiling Frescoes:
- The temple once had vibrant frescoes on its ceilings, depicting various deities, celestial
beings, and scenes from mythology. While many of these frescoes have faded over time,
some sections are still visible.

6. Granite Construction:

1.Use of Granite:
- The entire temple, including the vimana and the sculptures, is constructed using granite.
The use of this durable material has contributed to the temple's preservation over centuries.

7. Cultural and Religious Significance:

1.Hindu Religious Practices:

- The Brihadishwara Temple continues to be a place of active worship, and various Hindu
religious practices and ceremonies are conducted regularly.

2.UNESCO World Heritage Site:

- In recognition of its architectural and cultural significance, the Brihadishwara Temple was
designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987.

8. Symbolism and Legacy:

1.Cosmic Symbolism:
- The temple's architecture and sculptures are laden with cosmic symbolism, reflecting the
Cholas' cosmological worldview and their devotion to Lord Shiva.

2.Influence on Later Temples:

- The Brihadishwara Temple has had a profound influence on later South Indian temples,
inspiring architects and builders for centuries. Its architectural and artistic elements have
been emulated in various temples across the region.

In summary, the Brihadishwara Temple of Tanjavur stands as a testament to the Chola

dynasty's architectural brilliance and artistic sophistication. Its towering vimana, intricate
sculptures, and cultural significance make it a cornerstone of South Indian temple
architecture and a cherished heritage site.