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CHAPTER ONE : INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING

• Surveying is defined as “taking a general view of, by observation and measurement determining
the boundaries, size, position, quantity, condition, value etc. of land, estates, building, farms mines
etc. and finally presenting the survey data in a suitable form”. This covers the work of the valuation
surveyor, the quantity surveyor, the building surveyor, the mining surveyor and so forth, as

well as the land surveyor.

• Another school of thought define surveying “as the act of making measurement of the relative
position of natural and manmade features on earth’s surface and the presentation of this
information either graphically or numerically.

1.1 The process of surveying is therefore in three stages namely:

(i) Taking a general view

This part of the definition is important as it indicates the need to obtain an overall picture of what
is required before any type of survey work is undertaken. In land surveying, this is achieved during
the reconnaissance study.

(ii) Observation and Measurement

This part of the definition denotes the next stage of any survey, which in land surveying constitutes
the measurement to determine the relative position and sizes of natural and artificial features on
the land.

(iii) Presentation of Data:

The data collected in any survey must be presented in a form which allows the information to be
clearly interpreted and understood by others. This presentation may take the form of written report,
bills of quantities, datasheets, drawings and in land surveying maps and plan showing the features
on the land.

1.2 Types of Surveying

On the basis of whether the curvature of the earth is taken into account or not,surveying can be
divided into two main categories

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Plane surveying: is the type of surveying where the mean surface of the earth is considered as a
plane. All angles are considered to be plane angles. For small areas less than 250 km2 plane
surveying can safely be used. For most engineering projects such as canal, railway, highway,
building, pipeline, etc constructions, this type ofsurveying is used. It is worth noting that the
difference between an arc distance of 18.5 km and the subtended chord lying in the earth’s surface
is 7mm. Also the sum of the angles of a plane triangle and the sum of the angles in a spherical
triangle differ by 1 second for a triangle on the earth’s surface having an area of 196 km2

Geodetic surveying: is that branch of surveying, which takes into account the true shape of the
earth (spheroid).

1.3 Classification of surveying

Surveying is classified based on various criteria including the instruments used, purpose, the area
surveyed and the method used.

1.3.1 Classification on the Basis of Instruments Used.

Based on the instrument used; surveys can be classified into;

i) Chain tape surveys

ii) Compass surveys

iii) Plane table surveys

iv) Theodelite surveys

1.3.2 Classification based on the surface and the area surveyed

i) Land survey

Land surveys are done for objects on the surface of the earth. It can be subdivided into:

(a) Topographic survey: This is for depicting the (hills, valleys, mountains, rivers, etc) and
manmade features (roads, houses, settlements…) on the surface of the earth.

(b) Cadastral survey is used to determining property boundaries including those of fields, houses,
plots of land, etc.

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(c) Engineering survey is used to acquire the required data for the planning, design and Execution
of engineering projects like roads, bridges, canals, dams, railways, buildings, etc

(d) City surveys: The surveys involving the construction and development of towns including
roads, drainage, water supply, sewage street network, etc, are generally referred to as city survey.

(2) Marine or Hydrographic Survey: Those are surveys of large water bodies for navigation, tidal
monitoring, the construction of harbours etc.

(3) Astronomical Survey: Astronomical survey uses the observations of the heavenly bodies (sun,
moon, stars etc) to fix the absolute locations of places on the surface of the earth

1.3.3 CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF PURPOSE

i) Engineering survey

ii) Control Survey: Control survey uses geodetic methods to establish widely spaced vertical and
horizontal control points.

iii) Geological Survey

Geological survey is used to determine the structure and arrangement of rock strata. Generally, it
enables to know the composition of the earth.

iv) Military or Defence Survey is carried out to map places of military and strategic importance

iv) Archeological survey is carried out to discover and map ancient/relies of antiquity.

1.3.4 Classification Based On Instrument Used

i. Chain/Tape Survey: This is the simple method of taking the linear measurement using a chain
or tape with no angular measurements made.

ii. Compass Survey: Here horizontal angular measurements are made using magnetic compass
with the linear measurements made using the chain or tape.

iii. Plane table survey: This is a quick survey carried out in the field with the measurements and
drawings made at the same time using a plane table.

iv. Leveling

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This is the measurement and mapping of the relative heights of points on the earth’s surface
showing them in maps, plane and charts as vertical sections or with conventional symbols.

Vi. Theodolite Survey: Theodolite survey takes vertical and horizontal angles in order to establish
controls

1.3.5 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE METHOD USED

1. Triangulation Survey

In order to make the survey, manageable, the area to be surveyed is first covered with series of
triangles. Lines are first run round the perimeter of the plot, then the details fixed in relation to the
established lines. This process is called triangulation. The triangle is preferred as it is the only
shape that can completely over an irregularly shaped area with minimum space left.

ii. Traverse survey:

If the bearing and distance of a place of a known point is known: it is possible to establish the
position of that point on the ground. From this point, the bearing and distances of other
surrounding points may be established. In the process, positions of points linked with lines linking
them emerge. The traversing is the process of establishing these lines, is called traversing, while
the connecting lines joining two points on the ground. Joining two while bearing and distance is
known as traverse. A traverse station is each of the points of the traverse, while the traverse leg is
the straight line between consecutive stations. Traverses may either be open or closed.

1. Closed Traverse :

When a series of connected lines forms a closed circuit, i.e. when the finishing point coincides
with the starting point of a survey, it is called as a ‘closed traverse’, here ABCDEA represents a
closed traverse. (Fig)

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Closed traverse is suitable for the survey of boundaries of ponds, forests etc.

2. Open Traverse :

When a sequence of connected lines extends along a general direction and does not return to the
starting point, it is known as ‘open traverse’ or (unclosed traverse). Here ABCDE represents an
open traverse. Fig

Open traverse is suitable for the survey of roads, rivers etc

1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF SURVEYORS

Surveying is made up of various specializations known as sectors or classes as shown below:

1. General Practice Surveyors:

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• Surveyors under this class are mostly concerned with valuation and investment. Valuation
surveyors deal with property markets, land and property values, valuation procedures and property
law. Investment surveyors help investors to get the best possible return form property.

• They handle a selection of properties for purchase or sale by pension funds, insurance companies,
charities and other major investors. They also specialize in housing policy advice, housing
development and management.

2. Planning and Development Surveyors

• They are concerned with preparing planning applications and negotiating with local authorities
planners to obtain planning permission.

3. Building Surveyors

• Their work involves advising on the construction, maintenance, repair of all types of residential
and commercial property.

• The analysis of building defects is an important part of a building surveyors discipline.

4. The Quantity Surveyors

• They evaluate project cost and advice on alternative proposals. They also ensure that each
element of a project agrees with the cost plan allowance and that the overall project remains within
budget.

5. Rural Practice Surveyors:

• Surveyors in rural practice advice land owners, farmers and others with interests in the country
side.

• They are responsible for the management of country estates and farms, the planning and
execution of development schemes for agriculture, forestation, recreation, sales of properties and
live stock.

6. Mineral Surveyors

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• They plan the development and future of mineral workings. They work with local authorities and
the land owners on planning applications and appeals, mining laws and working rights, mining
subsidence and damage, the environmental effects of land and deep underground mines.

7. Land surveyors:

• They measure land and its physical features accurately and record them in the form of a map or
plan for the purpose of planning new building and by local authorities in managing roads, housing
estates, and other facilities.

• They also undertake the positioning and monitoring for construction works.

1.5 BRANCHES OF SURVEYING

1. Aerial Surveying

• Aerial surveys are undertaken by using photographs taken with special cameras mounted in an
aircraft viewed in pairs. The photographs produce three dimensional images of ground features
from which maps or numerical data can be produced usually with the aid of stereo plotting
machines and computers.

2. Hydrographic Surveying (Hydro-Survey)

• Hydro survey is undertaken to gather information in the marine environment such as mapping
out the coast lines and sea bed in order to produce navigational charts.

• It is also used for off shore oil exploration and production, design, construction and maintenance
of harbors, inland water routes, river and sea defense, pollution control and ocean studies.

3. Geodetic Survey:

• In geodetic survey, large areas of the earth surface are involved usually on national basis where
survey stations are precisely located large distances apart. Account is taken of the curvature of the
earth, hence it involves advanced Under revision mathematical theory and precise measurements
are required to be made.

• Geodetic survey stations can be used to map out entire continent, measure the size and shape of
the earth or in carrying out scientific studies such as determination of the Earth’s magnetic field
and direction of continental drifts.

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4. Plane Surveying

• In plane surveying relatively small areas are involved and the area under consideration is taken
to be a horizontal plane. It is divided into three branches.

- Cadastral surveying

- Topographical surveying

- Engineering surveying

5. Cadastral surveying

• These are surveys undertaken to define and record the boundary of properties, legislative area
and even countries.

• It may be almost entirely topographical where features define boundaries with the topographical
details appearing on ordinance survey maps.

• In the other hand, markers define boundaries, corner or line points and little account may be
taken of the topographical features.

6. Topographical Survey

• These are surveys where the physical features on the earth are measured and maps/plans prepared
to show their relative positions both horizontally and vertically.

• The relative positions and shape of natural and man –made features over an area are established
usually for the purpose of producing a map of the area of for establishing geographical information
system.

8. Engineering Survey

• These are surveys undertaken to provide special information for construction of Civil
Engineering and building projects.

• The survey supply details for a particular engineering schemes and could include setting out of
the work on the ground and dimensional control on such schemes.

1.6 Reconnaissance:

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• This is an exhaustive preliminary survey of the land to be surveyed. It may be either ground
reconnaissance or aerial reconnaissance survey.

• Reconnaissance is made on arrival to site during which an overall picture or view of the area is
obtained. The most suitable position of stations is selected, the purpose of the survey and the
accuracy required will be drawn, and finally the method of observation will be established.

1.6.1 Objectives of reconnaissance

1. To ascertain the possibility of building or constructing route or track through the area.

2. To choose the best one or more routes and record on a map

3. To estimate probable cost and draft a report. The basic principles and process surveying

1.7 BASIC PRINCIPLES IN SURVEYING

1.7.1 PRINCIPLE OF WORKING FROM WHOLE TO PART

• It is a fundamental rule to always work from the whole to the part. This implies a precise control
surveying as the first consideration followed by subsidiary detail surveying.

• This surveying principle involves laying down an overall system of stations whose positions are
fixed to a fairly high degree of accuracy as control, and then the survey of details between the
control points may be added on the frame by less elaborate methods.

• Once the overall size has been determined, the smaller areas can be surveyed in the knowledge
that they must (and will if care is taken) put into the confines of the main overall frame.

• Errors which may inevitably arise are then contained within the framework of the control points
and can be adjusted to it. Surveying is based on simple fundamental principles which should be
taken into consideration to enable one get good results.

(a) Working from the whole to the part is achieved by covering the area to be surveyed with a
number of spaced out control point called primary control points called primary control points
whose pointing have been determined with a high level of precision using sophisticated
equipments. Based on these points as theoretic, a number of large triangles are drawn. Secondary
control points are then established to fill the gaps with lesser precision than the primary control
points. At a more detailed and less precise level, tertiary control points at closer intervals are finally

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established to fill in the smaller gaps. The main purpose of surveying from the whole to the part is
to localize the errors as working the other way round would magnify the errors and introduce
distortions in the survey. In partial terms, this principle involve covering the area to be surveyed
with large triangles. These are further divided into smaller triangles and the process continues until
the area has been sufficiently covered with small triangles to a level that allows detailed surveys
to be made in a local level. Error is in the whole operation as the vertices of the large triangles are
fixed using higher precision instruments.

(b) Using measurements from two control parts to fix other points. Given two points whose length
and bearings have been accurately determined, a line can be drawn to join them hence surveying
has control reference points. The locations of various other points and the lines joining them can
be fixed by measurements made from these two points and the lines joining them. For an example,
if A and B are the control points, the following operations can be performed to fix other points.

i) Using points A and B as the centers, ascribe arcs and fix (where they intersect).

ii) Draw a perpendicular from D along AB to a point C

iii) To locate C, measure distance AB and use your protractor to equally measure angle ABC.

iv) To locate C the interior angles of triangle ABC can be measured. The lengths of the sides AC
and BC can be calculated by solving the triangle.

Fixing the third points using two points

1.8 The process of surveying:

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The survey process passes through 3 main phases – the reconnaissance, field work and
measurements, and, the office work.

(a) Reconnaissance survey

This is a pre-field work and measurement phase. It requires taking an overall inspection of the area
to be surveyed to obtain a general picture before commencement of any serious survey. Walking
through the site enables one to understand the terrain and helps in determining the survey method
to be adopted, and the scale to be used. The initial information obtained in this stage helps in the
successful planning and execution of the survey.

(b) Field work and measurement:

This is the actual measurements in the field and the recordings in the field notebook. To get the
best results in the field, the surveyor must be acquainted with the functions of the equipment and
take good care of them.

(c) Office work: This is the post field work stage in which data collected and recordings in the
field notebooks are decoded and used to prepare the charts, planes and maps for presentation to
the clients and the target audience

1.9 IMPORTANCE OF SCIENTIFIC HONESTY

• Honesty is essential in booking notes in the field and when plotting and computations in the
office. There is nothing to be gained from cooking the survey or altering dimensions so that points
will tie-in on the drawing. It is utterly unprofessional to betray such trust at each stage of the
survey.

• This applies to the assistants equally as it does to the surveyor in charge. Assistants must also
listen carefully to all instructions and carry them out to the later without questions.

1.10 CHECK ON MEASUREMENTS

• The second principle is that; all survey work must be checked in such a way that an error will be
apparent before the survey is completed.

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• Concentration and care are necessary in order to ensure that all necessary measures are taken to
the required standard of accuracy and that nothing is omitted. Hence they must be maintained in
the field at all times.

• Surveyor on site should be checking the correctness of his own work and that of others which is
based on his information.

• Check should be constantly arranged on all measurements wherever possible. Check

measurements should be conducted to supplement errors on field. Pegs can be moved, sight rails
altered etc.

• Survey records and computations such as field notes, level books, field books, setting out record
books etc must be kept clean and complete with clear notes and diagrams so that the survey data
can be clearly understood by others. Untidy and anonymous figures in the field books should be
avoided.

• Like field work, computations should be carefully planned and carried out in a systemic manner
and all field data should be properly prepared before calculations start. Where possible,
standardized tables and forms should be used to simplify calculations. If the result of a computation
has not been checked, it is considered unreliable and for this reason, frequent checks should be
applied to every calculation procedure.

• As a check, the distances between stations are measured as they are plotted, to see that there is
correspondence with the measured horizontal distance. Failure to match indicates an error in
plotting or during the survey.

• If checks are not done on observations, expensive mistake may occur. It is always preferable to
take a few more dimensions on site to ensure that the survey will resolve itself at the plotting stage.

1.11 ACCURACY AND PRECISION

These terms are used frequently in engineering surveying both by manufacturers when quoting
specifications for their equipment and on site by surveyors to describe results

obtained from field work.

• Accuracy allows a certain amount of tolerance (either plus or minus) in a measurement, while;

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• Precision demands exact measurement. Since there is no such things as an absolutely exact
measurement, a set of observations that are closely grouped together having small deviations from
the sample mean will have a small standard error and are said to be precise.

1.12 ECONOMY OF ACCURACY AND ITS INFLUENCE ON CHOICE OF

EQUIPMENTS

• Survey work is usually described as being to a certain standard of accuracy which in turn is suited
to the work in hand. Bearing in mind the purpose for which the survey is being made, it is better
to achieve a high degree of accuracy than to aim for precision (exactness) which if it were to be
altered would depend not only on the instrument used but also on the care taken by the operator to
ensure that his

work was free from mistake.

• Always remember that, the greater the effort and time needed both in the field and in the office,
the more expensive survey will be for the client. The standard accuracy attained in the field must
be in keeping with the size of the ultimate drawings.

• The equipment selected should be appropriate to the test in hand. An important factor when
selecting equipment is that the various instruments should produce roughly the same order of
precision. A steel chain best at an accuracy of 1/500 to 1/1000 would be of little use for work
requiring an accuracy of 1/1000. Similarly, the theodolite reading to one second would be pointless
where a reading to one minute is sufficient.

• Having selected the equipment necessary, the work should be thoroughly checked and if found
wanting should be adjusted, repaired or replaced or have allowance calculated for its deficiencies.
This task will be less tedious if field equipment is regularly maintained.

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CHAPTER : CHAIN SURVEYING

This is the simplest and oldest form of land surveying of an area using linear measurements only.
It can be defined as the process of taking direct measurement, although not necessarily with a
chain.

EQUIPMENTS USED IN CHAIN SURVEYING

These equipment can be divided into three, namely

(i) Those used for linear measurement. (Chain, steel band, linear tape)

(ii) Those used for slope angle measurement and for measuring right angle (Eg. Abney level,
clinometer, cross staff, optical squares)

(iii)Other items (Ranging rods or poles, arrows, pegs etc).

1. Chain:

The chain is usually made of steel wire, and consists of long links joined by shorter links. It is
designed for hard usage, and is sufficiently accurate for measuring the chain lines and offsets of
small surveys

Chains are made up of links which measure 200mm from centre to centre of each middle
connecting ring and surveying brass handless are fitted at each end. Tally markers made of plastic
or brass are attached at every whole metre position or at each tenth link. To avoid confusion in
reading, chains are marked similarly form both end (E.g. Tally for 2m and 18m is the same) so
that measurements may be commenced with either end of the chain There are three different types
of chains used in taking measurement namely:

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This may be 30m, 50m or 100m long and 13mm wide. It has handles similar to those on the chain
and is wound on a steel cross. It is more accurate but less robust than the chain. The operating
tension and temperature for which it was graduated should be indicated on the band

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3 Tapes:

Tapes are used where greater accuracy of measurements are required, such as the setting out of
buildings and roads. They are 15m or 30m long marked in meters, centimeter and millimeters.
Tapes are classified into three types;

i. Linen or Linen with steel wire woven into the fabric; These tapes are liable to stretch in use and
should be frequently tested for length. They should never be used on work for which great accuracy
is required.

ii. Fiber Glass Tapes: These are much stronger than lines and will not stretch in use.

iii. Steel tapes: These are much more accurate, and are usually used for setting out buildings and
structural steel works. Steel tapes are available in various lengths up to 100m (20m and 30m being
the most common) encased in steel or plastic boxes with a recessed winding lever or mounted on
open frames with a folding winding lever.

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Arrow consists of a piece of steel wire about 0.5m long, and are used for marking temporary
stations. A piece of coloured cloth, white or red ribbon is usually attached or tied to the end of the
arrow to be clearly seen on the field.

Pegs are made of wood 50mm x 50mm and some convenient length. They are used for points
which are required to be permanently marked, such as intersection points of survey lines. Pegs are
driven with a mallet and nails are set in the tops.

These are poles of circular section 2m, 2.5m or 3m long, painted with characteristic red and white
bands which are usually 0.5m long and tipped with a pointed steel shoe to enable them to be driven
into the ground. They are used in the measurement of lines with the tape, and for marking any
points which need to be seen

7. Optical Square:

This instrument is used for setting out lines at right angle to main chain line. It is used where
greater accuracy is required. There are two types of optical square, one using two mirrors and the
other a prism.

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• The mirror method is constructed based on the fact that a ray of light is reflected from a mirror
at the same angle as that at which it strikes the mirror.

• The prism square method is a simplified form of optical square consisting of a single prism. It is
used in the same way as the mirror square, but is rather more accurate.

This consists of two pairs of vanes set at right angle to each other with a wide and narrow slit in
each vane. The instrument is mounted upon a pole, so that when it is set up it is at normal eye
level. It is also used for setting out lines at right angle to the main chain line.

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This instrument is used for measuring angles of ground slopes (slope angle). They are of several
form, the common form is the WATKING’S CLINOMETER, which consist of a small disc of
about 60mm diameter. A weighted ring inside the disc can be made to hang free and by sighting
across this graduated ring angle of slopes can be read off. It is less accurate than abney level.

This instrument is generally used to obtained roughly the slope angle of the ground. It consists of
a rectangular, telescopic tube (without lenses) about 125mm long with a graduated arc attached. A
small bubble is fixed to the vernier arm, once the image of the bubble is seen reflected in the
eyepiece the angle of the line of sight can be read off with the aid of the reading glass

NECESSARY PRECAUTIONS IN USING CHAIN SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

1. After use in wet weather, chains should be cleaned, and steel tapes should be dried and wiped
with an oily rag.
2. A piece of colored cloth should be tied to arrow (or ribbon – attached) to enable them to be seen
clearly on the field.
3. Ranging rods should be erected as vertical as possible at the exact station point.
4. The operating tension and temperature for which steel bands/tapes are graduated should be
indicated.
5. Linen tapes should be frequently tested for length (standardized) and always after repairs.
6. Always keep tapes reeled up when not in use.
GENERAL PROCEDURE IN MAKING A CHAIN SURVEY

1. Reconnaissance: Walk over the area to be surveyed and note the general layout, the position of
features and the shape of the area.

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2. Choice of Stations: Decide upon the framework to be used and drive in the station pegs to mark
the stations selected.
3. Station Marking: Station marks, where possible should be tied - in to a permanent object so that
they may be easily replaced if moved or easily found during the survey. In soft ground wooden
pegs may be used while rails may be used on roads or hard surfaces.
4. Witnessing: This consists of making a sketch of the immediate area around the station showing
existing permanent features, the position of the stations and its description and designation.
Measurements are then made from at least three surrounding features to the station point and
recorded on the sketch. The aim of witnessing is to re-locate a station again at much later date even
by others after a long interval.
5. Offsetting:- Offsets are usually taken perpendicular to chain lines in order to dodge obstacles on
the chain line.
6. Sketching the layout on the last page of the chain book, together with the date and the name of
the surveyor, the longest line of the survey is usually taken as the base line and is measured first.

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CHAPTER :ERRORS IN SURVEYING

• Surveying is a process that involves observations and measurements with a wide range of
electronic, optical and mechanical equipment some of which are very sophisticated.
• Despite the best equipment and methods used, it is still impossible to take observations that are
completely free of small variations caused by errors which must be guided against or their effects
corrected.
TYPES OF ERRORS
1. Gross Errors
• These are referred to mistakes or blunders by either the surveyor or his assistants due to
carelessness or incompetence.
• On construction sites, mistakes are frequently made by in – experienced Engineers or surveyors
who are unfamiliar with the equipment and method they are using.
• These types of errors include miscounting the number of tapes length, wrong booking, sighting
wrong target, measuring anticlockwise reading, turning instruments incorrectly, displacement of
arrows or station marks etc.
• Gross errors can occur at any stage of survey when observing, booking, computing or plotting
and they would have a damaging effect on the results if left uncorrected.
• Gross errors can be eliminated only by careful methods of observing booking and constantly
checking both operations.
2. Systematic or Cumulative Errors
• These errors are cumulative in effect and are caused by badly adjusted instrument and the
physical condition at the time of measurement must be considered in this respect. Expansion of
steel, frequently changes in electromagnetic distance (EDM) measuring instrument, etc are just
some of these errors.
• Systematic errors have the same magnitude and sign in a series of measurements that are repeated
under the same condition, thus contributing negatively or positively to the reading hence, makes
the readings shorter or longer.
• This type of error can be eliminated from a measurement using corrections (e.g.
effect of tension and temperature on steel tape).
• Another method of removing systematic errors is to calibrate the observing
equipment and quantify the error allowing corrections to be made to further

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observations.
• Observational procedures by re-measuring the quantity with an entirely different
method using different instrument can also be used to eliminate the effect of
systematic errors.
3. Random or Compensating Errors
• Although every precaution may be taken certain unavoidable errors always exist in any
measurement caused usually by human limitation in reading/handling of instruments.
• Random errors cannot be removed from observation but methods can be adopted to ensure that
they are kept within acceptable limits.
• In order to analyze random errors or variable, statistical principles must be used and in surveying
their effects may be reduced by increasing the number of observations and finding their mean. It
is therefore important to assume those random variables are normally distributed

Corrections to Linear Measurement and their Application:

The following corrections are to be applied to the linear measurements with a chain or a tape
where such accuracy is required.
(i) Pull correction,
(ii) Temperature correction
(iii) Standard length correction
(iv) Sag correction
(v) Slope correction
(vi) Mean sea level correction.
Pull Correction :
A chain or tape of nominal length ‘L’ having cross sectional area of the link or that of a tape, as
the case may be, equal to A and standardized under a pull Ps is employed to measure a length at
a pull PF. If Young’s modulus of elasticity of the material is E the extension of its length is

The recorded length is less than the actual by this extension. The error is here, -ve, the actual
length is obtained by adding the extension to L. the correction is +ve. If PF is less than PS the
error will be +ve and correction –ve.

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Temperature Correction :
A chain or a tape of nominal length ‘L’ standardized at temperature TS and having cross
sectional area A is employed to measured length at temperature TF being the coefficient of linear
expansion of the material of the chain or tape per unit rise of temperature ,
The extension = (TF– TS)L.
If TF is more than TS, recorded length is less than the actual by the amount of extension. The
error is –ve and the correction to the length L is +ve by the amount of extension. If the field
temperature TF is less than TS the error is =+ve and the corrections is –ve.
Sag Correction :
In case of suspended measurement across a span L the chain or tape sag to take the form of
curve known as catenary.

Where w= weight of the tape per meter length W= Total weight of the tape P=pull applied (in N)
1 l = The length of tape suspended between two supports l = length of the tape = n1l (in m)
Sag correction is always negative

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CHAPTER: BEARINGS

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SURVEYS LECTURE NOTES/ Dr Mbuh/Engr Wetka Thcoupe