Nucleic Acids

Nucleic acids are biomolecules that store, transmit, and express genetic information. They
are the foundation of life, enabling the synthesis of proteins and the inheritance of traits. The
two main types of nucleic acids are DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid).

Composition

Nucleic acids are polymers made up of monomers called nucleotides. Each nucleotide
consists of three components:

1. Nitrogenous Base:
Purines: Adenine (A), Guanine (G).
Pyrimidines: Cytosine (C), Thymine (T, in DNA), Uracil (U, in RNA).
2. Pentose Sugar:
Deoxyribose in DNA.
Ribose in RNA.
3. Phosphate Group:
Links the sugar molecules of adjacent nucleotides via phosphodiester bonds.

Classification

Nucleic acids are classified into two types:

1. Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

Structure: Double helix with complementary base pairing (A-T and G-C).
Function: Stores genetic information that directs protein synthesis and cellular activities.
Location: Found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells, and in mitochondria and chloroplasts.

2. Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

Structure: Single-stranded molecule.

Function: Involved in protein synthesis and other cellular processes.
Types of RNA:
mRNA (messenger RNA): Carries genetic information from DNA to ribosomes.
tRNA (transfer RNA): Brings amino acids to the ribosome for protein synthesis.
rRNA (ribosomal RNA): Structural and functional component of ribosomes.
Location: Found in the nucleus and cytoplasm.

Functions of Nucleic Acids

1. Genetic Information Storage:

DNA stores hereditary information essential for growth, development, and
reproduction.
2. Protein Synthesis:
RNA plays a direct role in translating genetic instructions into proteins.
3. Cellular Regulation:
 Some RNA molecules regulate gene expression (e.g., microRNA).
4. Energy Transfer:
Nucleotides like ATP (adenosine triphosphate) serve as energy carriers.
5. Signaling:
Nucleotides act as signaling molecules (e.g., cyclic AMP in cellular communication).

Sources of Nucleic Acids

Nucleic acids are not consumed directly as nutrients but are present in foods that provide
nucleotides and their precursors. These include:

Animal-Based Sources

Organ meats (liver, kidney).

Fish and seafood.
Eggs.

Plant-Based Sources

Legumes (lentils, beans).

Vegetables (spinach, broccoli).
Whole grains.

Lipids

Lipids are a diverse group of organic compounds that are hydrophobic (insoluble in water)
but soluble in nonpolar solvents. They include fats, oils, waxes, and certain vitamins. Lipids
are essential for energy storage, cell structure, and signaling.

Composition
Lipids are composed of:

Carbon (C)
Hydrogen (H)
Oxygen (O)
(Some lipids also contain phosphorus (P), nitrogen (N), or sulfur (S).)

They consist of one or more fatty acid chains and a glycerol backbone, although their
structures can vary widely.

Classification

Lipids are classified based on their structure and function into several categories:

1. Simple Lipids

Definition: Esters of fatty acids with alcohol.

Examples:
Fats: Esters of fatty acids with glycerol (solid at room temperature).
Oils: Same as fats but liquid at room temperature.
Waxes: Esters of fatty acids with long-chain alcohols.

2. Complex Lipids

Definition: Contain additional groups like phosphate, sugar, or protein.

Examples:
Phospholipids: Contain a phosphate group (e.g., lecithin).
Glycolipids: Contain carbohydrate groups.
Lipoproteins: Lipids bound to proteins.

3. Derived Lipids

Definition: Lipids derived from hydrolysis of simple or complex lipids.

Examples: Steroids (cholesterol, hormones), fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K).

Functions of Lipids

1. Energy Storage:
Provide 9 kcal per gram, more than twice the energy of carbohydrates or proteins.
2. Structural Role:
Major components of cell membranes (phospholipids and cholesterol).
3. Insulation and Protection:
Insulate the body and protect vital organs.
4. Hormone Production:
Serve as precursors for steroid hormones (e.g., testosterone, estrogen).
5. Vitamins and Absorption:
Aid in the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K).
6. Signal Transduction:
 Involved in cell signaling pathways (e.g., prostaglandins).
7. Waterproofing and Lubrication:
Waxes provide waterproofing in plants and animals; oils act as lubricants.

Sources of Lipids

Healthy Sources

Plant-Based:
Nuts and seeds (almonds, walnuts, sunflower seeds).
Avocados.
Plant oils (olive oil, flaxseed oil, coconut oil).
Animal-Based:
Fatty fish (salmon, mackerel, sardines).
Dairy products (cheese, butter).
Eggs.

Unhealthy Sources (Should be limited)

Trans fats: Found in processed foods like baked goods and fried items.
Saturated fats: Found in red meat, butter, and full-fat dairy.

Proteins

Proteins are essential macromolecules that play a crucial role in the structure, function, and
regulation of the body’s tissues and organs. They are made up of amino acids linked by
peptide bonds and are vital for growth, repair, and enzymatic processes.

Composition

Proteins are composed of the elements:

 Carbon (C)
Hydrogen (H)
Oxygen (O)
Nitrogen (N) (a distinguishing feature from carbohydrates and lipids)
Sometimes Sulfur (S) and other elements.

Proteins are polymers of amino acids, which are organic molecules containing:

1. An amino group (-NH₂)

2. A carboxyl group (-COOH)
3. A unique side chain (R group) that determines the amino acid's properties.

Classification

Proteins can be classified based on their structure, composition, or function.

1. Based on Structure

Primary Structure: Sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain.

Secondary Structure: Regular folding patterns like alpha-helices and beta-sheets
stabilized by hydrogen bonds.
Tertiary Structure: Three-dimensional folding of a single polypeptide.
Quaternary Structure: Complex of multiple polypeptides.

2. Based on Composition

Simple Proteins: Yield only amino acids upon hydrolysis (e.g., albumin, globulin).
Conjugated Proteins: Contain a non-protein component (prosthetic group). Examples:
Glycoproteins (protein + carbohydrate).
Lipoproteins (protein + lipid).

3. Based on Function

Structural Proteins: Provide support (e.g., collagen, keratin).

Enzymatic Proteins: Catalyze biochemical reactions (e.g., amylase, protease).
Transport Proteins: Carry molecules (e.g., hemoglobin for oxygen).
Hormonal Proteins: Regulate bodily processes (e.g., insulin).
Defensive Proteins: Protect against pathogens (e.g., antibodies).
Storage Proteins: Store nutrients (e.g., ferritin).

Functions of Proteins

1. Structural Support:
Proteins like collagen and elastin provide strength and elasticity to tissues.
2. Enzymatic Catalysis:
Enzymes are proteins that speed up chemical reactions essential for life.
3. Transport and Storage:
Hemoglobin transports oxygen; myoglobin stores oxygen in muscles.
4. Regulation:
 Hormones like insulin regulate glucose metabolism.
5. Immune Defense:
Antibodies protect against infections.
6. Growth and Repair:
Proteins are essential for cell growth, repair, and maintenance.
7. Energy Source (in extreme cases):
When carbohydrates and fats are unavailable, proteins provide energy (4 kcal per
gram).

Sources of Proteins

Animal Sources (Complete Proteins: Contain all essential amino acids)

Meat (beef, chicken, lamb).

Fish (salmon, tuna, cod).
Eggs.
Dairy (milk, cheese, yogurt).

Plant Sources (Incomplete Proteins: May lack some essential amino acids)

Legumes (lentils, chickpeas, beans).

Nuts and seeds (almonds, sunflower seeds, chia).
Whole grains (quinoa, buckwheat).
Soy products (tofu, tempeh, edamame).
Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are organic compounds composed of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen
(O), typically in the ratio of Cn(H2O)n\text{C}_n(\text{H}_2\text{O})_n. They are one of the
primary macronutrients that provide energy to living organisms and serve as structural
components in some organisms.

Composition

Carbohydrates are made up of three elements:

Carbon (C)
Hydrogen (H)
Oxygen (O)

The general formula for most carbohydrates is Cn(H2O)n\text{C}_n(\text{H}_2\text{O})_n,

where nn is the number of carbon atoms. They consist of monosaccharide units, which can
join together to form more complex carbohydrates.

Classification

Carbohydrates are classified into three main types based on the number of sugar units:

1. Monosaccharides

Definition: Simplest form of carbohydrates; cannot be broken down further.

Examples: Glucose, fructose, galactose.
Functions: Immediate source of energy.
2. Disaccharides

Definition: Formed by the condensation of two monosaccharide units.

Examples:
Sucrose (glucose + fructose)
Lactose (glucose + galactose)
Maltose (glucose + glucose)
Functions: Energy source after digestion.

3. Polysaccharides

Definition: Long chains of monosaccharide units joined by glycosidic bonds.

Examples:
Starch (plants' energy storage)
Glycogen (animals' energy storage)
Cellulose (structural component in plant cell walls)
Functions: Energy storage (starch, glycogen), structural support (cellulose).

Functions of Carbohydrates

1. Energy Source:
Provide 4 kcal per gram.
Glucose is the primary fuel for the brain and muscles during activity.
2. Energy Storage:
Stored as glycogen in animals and humans.
Plants store energy as starch.
3. Structural Role:
Cellulose in plant cell walls provides rigidity.
Chitin in the exoskeletons of arthropods.
4. Biological Signaling:
Involved in cell recognition and signaling (glycoproteins, glycolipids).
5. Prevent Protein Catabolism:
Ensure proteins are not used as an energy source.

Sources of Carbohydrates

Natural Sources

Simple Carbohydrates (Sugars):

Fruits (glucose, fructose): Apples, bananas, berries.
Honey (fructose, glucose).
Dairy (lactose): Milk, cheese.
Complex Carbohydrates (Starch and Fiber):
Whole grains: Rice, wheat, oats, quinoa.
Legumes: Lentils, beans, chickpeas.
Vegetables: Potatoes, sweet potatoes, carrots.
Processed Sources

Refined sugars: Candy, soft drinks, desserts.

Refined grains: White bread, pasta, and rice.

Vitamins

Vitamins are organic compounds essential for normal growth, development, and bodily
functions. They are required in small amounts and cannot be synthesized in sufficient
quantities by the body, so they must be obtained from the diet.

1. Classification

Vitamins are classified based on their solubility:

Fat-Soluble Vitamins: Stored in the liver and fat tissues, absorbed with dietary fat.
Vitamins A, D, E, K.
Water-Soluble Vitamins: Not stored in the body, excess excreted in urine.
Vitamin C and B-complex vitamins (B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B7, B9, B12).

2. Functions

Vitamin A: Vision, immune function, skin health.

Vitamin B-complex: Energy metabolism, red blood cell formation, nerve function.
Vitamin C: Antioxidant, immune support, collagen synthesis.
Vitamin D: Bone health, calcium absorption.
Vitamin E: Antioxidant, protects cell membranes.
Vitamin K: Blood clotting, bone metabolism.

3. Sources

Vitamin A: Carrots, sweet potatoes, liver.

Vitamin B-complex: Whole grains, meat, dairy, leafy greens.
 Vitamin C: Citrus fruits, strawberries, bell peppers.
Vitamin D: Sunlight, fortified milk, fatty fish.
Vitamin E: Nuts, seeds, vegetable oils.
Vitamin K: Spinach, kale, broccoli.

4. Deficiency and Symptoms

Vitamin A: Night blindness, dry skin.

Vitamin B-complex: Fatigue, anemia, nerve damage.
Vitamin C: Scurvy (bleeding gums, fatigue).
Vitamin D: Rickets (soft bones), osteomalacia.
Vitamin E: Neurological issues, muscle weakness.
Vitamin K: Excessive bleeding, bruising.

5. Excess and Toxicity

Excessive intake of vitamins, particularly fat-soluble ones, can cause toxicity:

Vitamin A: Liver damage, headaches, blurred vision.

Vitamin D: Hypercalcemia, kidney damage.
Vitamin E: Bleeding risk.
Vitamin K: Rare, but can interfere with blood thinning medications.

6. Importance and Recommendations

Vitamins are crucial for overall health and disease prevention.

A balanced diet with diverse food groups usually provides sufficient vitamins.
Supplements should only be taken under medical guidance to avoid overuse.
Minerals

Minerals are inorganic nutrients essential for various physiological processes in the body.
Unlike vitamins, minerals are not synthesized by living organisms and must be obtained
through the diet. They play structural, regulatory, and metabolic roles.

1. Classification

Minerals are classified based on the amounts required by the body:

Macrominerals: Needed in larger amounts.

Calcium, Phosphorus, Potassium, Sodium, Magnesium, Sulfur, Chloride.
Trace Minerals: Needed in smaller amounts.
Iron, Zinc, Copper, Iodine, Selenium, Fluoride, Manganese, Chromium.

2. Functions

Calcium: Bone and teeth formation, blood clotting, muscle contraction.

Phosphorus: Energy production (ATP), bone and teeth structure.
Potassium: Fluid balance, nerve signaling, muscle function.
Sodium: Fluid balance, nerve transmission, muscle contraction.
Magnesium: Enzyme activation, muscle function, nerve function.
Iron: Hemoglobin formation, oxygen transport.
Zinc: Immune function, wound healing, DNA synthesis.
Iodine: Thyroid hormone production, metabolism regulation.

3. Sources

Calcium: Dairy products, leafy greens, fortified foods.

Phosphorus: Meat, fish, dairy, nuts, seeds.
Potassium: Bananas, potatoes, oranges, beans.
Sodium: Table salt, processed foods.
Magnesium: Nuts, seeds, whole grains, dark leafy greens.
Iron: Red meat, spinach, lentils, fortified cereals.
Zinc: Meat, shellfish, legumes, nuts.
Iodine: Iodized salt, seafood, dairy.

4. Deficiency and Symptoms

Calcium: Osteoporosis, muscle spasms.

Iron: Anemia, fatigue, weakened immunity.
Potassium: Muscle weakness, irregular heartbeat.
Sodium: Low blood pressure, confusion.
Zinc: Growth retardation, delayed wound healing.
Iodine: Goiter, hypothyroidism.

5. Excess and Toxicity

Excessive intake of minerals can lead to toxicity:

Calcium: Kidney stones, impaired absorption of other minerals.

Iron: Liver damage, oxidative stress.
Sodium: High blood pressure, cardiovascular disease.
Fluoride: Dental and skeletal fluorosis.
Iodine: Thyroid dysfunction.

6. Importance and Recommendations

A well-balanced diet usually meets the body’s mineral needs.

Excessive use of supplements can cause mineral imbalances.
Special attention may be needed for groups at risk, like pregnant women (iron, calcium)
or older adults (calcium, magnesium).

Enzymes

Enzymes are biological catalysts that accelerate chemical reactions in living organisms. They
are proteins (or occasionally RNA) that help speed up metabolic processes and are essential
for numerous physiological functions.

1. Definition and Structure

Enzymes are proteins made up of amino acids, with a specific three-dimensional structure.
They have an active site where substrates bind and undergo a chemical reaction. This
structure allows enzymes to be highly specific for their substrates.

2. Function

Catalysis: Enzymes speed up chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy

required for the reaction to occur.
Specificity: Each enzyme is specific to its substrate due to the unique shape of its active
site.
Regulation: Enzyme activity can be regulated through factors like temperature, pH,
inhibitors, and activators.

3. Classification

Enzymes are classified based on the type of reaction they catalyze:

Hydrolases: Catalyze hydrolysis reactions (e.g., digestive enzymes like amylase).

Oxidoreductases: Involved in oxidation-reduction reactions (e.g., dehydrogenases).
Transferases: Transfer functional groups between molecules (e.g., kinases).
Lyases: Break bonds without using water (e.g., decarboxylases).
Isomerases: Convert molecules into their isomeric forms (e.g., racemases).
Ligases: Join two molecules using energy from ATP (e.g., DNA ligase).

4. Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity

Several factors can influence the rate of enzyme-catalyzed reactions:

Temperature: Increased temperature typically speeds up reactions, but extreme heat can
denature the enzyme.
pH: Each enzyme has an optimal pH range; deviation can affect enzyme shape and
function.
Substrate Concentration: Increasing substrate concentration increases reaction rate up
to a certain point.
Enzyme Inhibitors: Molecules that decrease enzyme activity. They can be competitive
(competing for the active site) or non-competitive (bind elsewhere on the enzyme).
Cofactors and Coenzymes: Non-protein molecules (often vitamins or metal ions) that
assist enzymes in their catalytic function.

5. Sources

Enzymes are found in every living cell:

Digestive Enzymes: Secreted in the digestive system (e.g., amylase in saliva, pepsin in the
stomach).
Cellular Enzymes: Found in mitochondria, nucleus, and other organelles, involved in
cellular metabolism.
Industrial Enzymes: Used in food production, cleaning, and pharmaceuticals (e.g.,
proteases in detergents, lactase in dairy processing).

6. Importance and Applications

Digestion: Enzymes break down food into absorbable nutrients.

Metabolism: They regulate biochemical pathways like glycolysis and the citric acid cycle.
Medical Use: Enzyme-based treatments for diseases (e.g., enzyme replacement therapy
for certain genetic disorders).
Industry: Enzymes are used in food production, biofuels, and detergents.
Antioxidants

Antioxidants are molecules that help protect the body from oxidative stress caused by free
radicals. They neutralize these reactive molecules and prevent them from causing damage to
cells, proteins, and DNA.

1. Definition and Types

Antioxidants: Chemical compounds that inhibit oxidation, a process where molecules

lose electrons, often leading to damage in cells.
Types of Antioxidants:
Enzymatic Antioxidants: These are enzymes that catalyze reactions to neutralize free
radicals. Examples include superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase, and glutathione
peroxidase.
Non-Enzymatic Antioxidants: These are vitamins, minerals, and other compounds that
directly scavenge free radicals. Examples include Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Beta-carotene,
and Selenium.

2. Free Radicals and Oxidative Stress

Free Radicals: These are unstable molecules with unpaired electrons. They are highly
reactive and can damage cells by stealing electrons from other molecules, leading to
chain reactions.
Oxidative Stress: Occurs when there is an imbalance between free radicals and
antioxidants in the body, leading to cellular damage. It has been linked to aging, chronic
diseases, and inflammation.

3. How Antioxidants Work

Neutralizing Free Radicals: Antioxidants donate electrons to free radicals, stabilizing

them and preventing them from causing harm. By doing so, they interrupt the chain
reactions that lead to oxidative damage.
Repairing Damage: Some antioxidants help repair cells or support other cellular defense
mechanisms against oxidative stress.

4. Functions of Antioxidants

Protection from Cellular Damage: Antioxidants protect the body's cells from oxidative
damage that can lead to aging, heart disease, cancer, and other chronic conditions.
Boosting the Immune System: Antioxidants like Vitamin C help enhance immune function
and protect against infections.
Supporting Skin Health: Antioxidants protect the skin from sun damage and
environmental pollutants, helping to reduce wrinkles and signs of aging.
Reducing Inflammation: Antioxidants can reduce the inflammation caused by oxidative
stress, which is involved in many diseases.
5. Sources of Antioxidants

Vitamin C: Found in citrus fruits, berries, bell peppers, and leafy greens.
Vitamin E: Found in nuts, seeds, vegetable oils, and green leafy vegetables.
Beta-Carotene: Found in orange and yellow fruits and vegetables like carrots, sweet
potatoes, and spinach.
Selenium: Found in Brazil nuts, seafood, and whole grains.
Polyphenols: Found in green tea, dark chocolate, and fruits like grapes and berries.

6. Importance and Applications

Disease Prevention: Antioxidants may help reduce the risk of chronic diseases such as
cancer, heart disease, and neurodegenerative conditions like Alzheimer's.
Aging: By neutralizing free radicals, antioxidants may slow down the aging process and
promote longevity.
Cosmetic Use: Antioxidants are commonly used in skincare products to protect the skin
from environmental damage and reduce wrinkles.