Epoch of TWIN KINGDOMS of the

Kedu Plain

Dr Uday Dokras

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MATARAM KINGDOM and
ARCHITECTURE of the THE TWIN PLAINS

Kewu Plain, also known as Prambanan Plain or Opak River valley, is a fertile volcanic
plain that lies between Merapi-Merbabu complex in the north, Bantul lowlands
and Sewu karst limestone range in the south, Bengawan Solo river valley in east, and
the Progo River in the west, and Kedu Plain on northwest. It is located within the Yogyakarta
Special Region, Sleman Regency, Klaten Regency and Solo City (Central Java).

The temple is located on the Prambanan Plain, between the southeastern slopes of the Merapi
volcano and the Sewu mountain range in the south, near the present border
of Yogyakarta province and Klaten Regency in central Java. The plain has many
archaeological sites scattered only a few miles apart, which suggests that this area served as
an important religious, political, and urban center.

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 MATARAM KINGDOM
Historically the area was identified as Mataram. The region was the center of both
the Medang i Bhumi Mataram kingdom in the 8th to 10th centuries, and later the Mataram
Sultanate in the 16th century. It has been an important location in Central Javanese history
and culture for over a millennium since it contains many ancient archaeological remnants of
historic significance. If each temple structure was counted separately, the 9th century Central
Java period could be said to have produced thousands of temples, scattered from Dieng
Plateau, Kedu Plain to Kewu Plain.
Apart from the Prambanan Roro Jonggrang complex, Kewu Plain along with the valley and
hills around it is the location of some of the earliest Hindu-Buddhist temples in Indonesia.
Adjacent to the complex to the north are Bubrah temple, Lumbung temple, and Sewu temple;
to the east are found Plaosan temple. Kalasan temple and Sari temple are to the west, and
further is the Sambisari temple. The Ratu Boko compounds are on higher ground just to the
south. The discoveries of archaeological sites scattered only a few miles away suggested that
this area was once an important religious, political, and urban center of central Java. Despite
the smaller scale of its temples, the diversity and sophistication of the archaeological sites in
this plain are comparable to Angkor archaeological site in Cambodia. Borobudur and
Prambanan in particular, are popularly regarded as the two Indonesian temples to
rival Angkor Wat in Cambodia.
In 2012, the Balai Pelestarian Peninggalan Purbakala Jawa Tengah (BP3, or the Central
Java Heritage Preservation Authority) suggested that the area in and around Prambanan
should be treated as a sanctuary. The proposed area is in the Prambanan Plain measuring
measured 30 square kilometres (12 sq mi) spread across the Sleman and Klaten regencies.
The area includes major temples such as Prambanan, Ratu Boko, Kalasan, Sari and Plaosan
temples. The sanctuary is planned to be treated in a similar fashion to the Angkor
archaeological area in Cambodia, which suggests that the government should prevent or
regulate permits to construct any new buildings, especially the multi-storied buildings, as
well as BTS towers. This was meant to protect this archaeologically-rich area from modern
day visual obstructions and the encroachments of hotels, restaurants and any tourism-related
buildings and businesses. There are a number of temples in this area- both Hindu and
Buddhist:

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Shiva temple, the main temple at Prambanan temple complex rising 47m high (130 feet)and measures 34m x 34m at its
base. The main temple houses the statue of Shiva Mahadewa, Ganesha, Durga Mahisashuramardhini, and Agastya on
each chamber of cardinal points. On the far right is stood Wishnu temple. Around the ballustrade of the Shiva temple
adorned with panels of bas reliefs narating the story from Ramayana. This ninth century temple complex was build by
Hindu Mataram Kingdom.

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 Kalasan. According to Kalasan inscription it is the oldest temple built in the plain. This
early 8th century Buddhist temple built to honor female bodhisattva Tara.
 Sari. Once a sanctuary or monastery for Buddhist priests. 8th century. Nine stupas at the
top with two rooms beneath, each believed to be places for priests to meditate.
 Ratu Boko. Complex of fortified gates, bathing pools, and elevated walled stone
enclosure, all located on top of the hill south of Prambanan.
 Lumbung. Buddhist-style, consisting of one main temple surrounded by 16 smaller ones.
 Bubrah. Buddhist temple related to nearby Sewu temple.
 Sewu. This Buddhist temple complex is older than Prambanan temple. The original name
of this temple is Manjusrigrha and it was a royal buddhist temple of the kingdom. A main

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 sanctuary surrounded by many smaller temples. Well preserved guardian statues, replicas
of which stand in the central courtyard at the Jogja Kraton.
 Prambanan. A large compound of 9th century Shivaic Trimurti Hindu temple. The
construction of grand Hindu temple was probably the sign that Hinduism once again gain
royal patronage of Medang kings.
 Plaosan. Buddhist, probably 9th century. Thought to have been built by a Hindu king for
his Buddhist queen. Two main temples with reliefs of Bodhisattva and Tara. Also rows of
slender stupas.
 Sojiwan. Buddhist temple decorated with reliefs concerning education. The base and
staircase are decorated with animal fables. Sojiwan was probably the mortuary temple for
a buddhist queen, Sang Sanjiwana or Pramodhawardhani.
 Banyunibo. A Buddhist temple with unique design of roof.
 Barong. A Hindu temple complex with large stepped stone courtyard. Located on the
slope of the hill not far from Banyunibo and Ratu Boko.
 Ijo. A cluster of Hindu temple located near the top of Ijo hill. The main temple houses a
large lingam and yoni.
 Arca Bugisan. Seven Buddha and bodhisattva statues, some collapsed, representing
different poses and expressions.
 Gebang. A small Hindu temple discovered in 1937 located near the Yogyakarta northern
ring-road. The temple display the statue of Ganesha and interesting carving of faces on
the roof section.
 Gana. Rich in statues, bas-reliefs and sculpted stones. Frequent representations of
children or dwarfs with raised hands. Located in the middle of housing complex. Under
restoration since 1997.
 Sambisari. Discovered in 1966, this Hindu temple was buried in volcanic lahar 4m deep.
A main temple housen a large linggam and yoni with three smaller temple at the front.
 Kedulan. Discovered in 1994 by sand diggers, 4m deep. Square base of main temple
visible. Secondary temples not yet fully excavated. This temple shared similar design and
style with Sambisari.
 Morangan. Hindu temple complex buried several meters under volcanic ashes, located
northwest from Prambanan.
 Pustakasala. Discovered in 2009 buried in Indonesia Islamic University ground.
Together with Morangan these temple is the northernmost of temples discovered in this
area.

KEDU
The other plain is the Kedu Plain, also known as Progo River valley, is the fertile
volcanic plain that lies between the volcanoes, Mount Sumbing and Mount Sundoro to the
west, and Mount Merbabu and Mount Merapi to the east, roughly corresponds to present-
day Magelang and Temanggung Regency of Central Java, Indonesia.
The Progo River runs through the center of this plain, from its source on the slope of Mount
Sundoro to the southern coast of Java facing the Indian Ocean. It has been a significant
location in Central Javanese history for over a millennium, as it contains traces of
the Sailendra dynasty as well as Borobudur and associated locations. During the
colonial Dutch East Indies period, the Kedu Plain was located in the Kedu Residency, which

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at that time covered what are now the Magelang Regency, Magelang City, and Temanggung
Regency administrative units.
The Kedu Plain hosts a large number of Hindu and Buddhist temples dated, from the 8th to
the 9th century. Because of this, the Kedu Plain is considered the cradle of classic Indonesian
civilization. The temples in the region include:

Stupas overlook the Kedu Plain

 Borobudur: The gigantic 8th century stone mandala Buddhist monument was built by
the Sailendras.
 Mendut: The 8th century Buddhist temple is housing three large stone statues
of Vairocana, Avalokiteshvara, and Vajrapani.
 Pawon: The small 8th century Buddhist temple near the bank of Progo River is located
between Mendut and Borobudur.
 Ngawen: The 8th century Buddhist temple is located about 5 kilometers east of Mendut
temple.
 Banon: The ruins of a Hindu temple; located several hundred meters north of Pawon
temple. However, no significant remains of the temple have survived, thus, its
reconstruction is impossible. Only the statues of Shiva, Vishnu, Agastya,
and Ganesha have been discovered, which are now displayed at the National Museum of
Indonesia, Jakarta.
 Canggal: also known as Candi Gunung Wukir. One of the oldest Hindu temples in the
area. The temple is located in the Muntilan area, near the temple a Canggal
inscription connected with Sri Sanjaya, the king of Mataram Kingdom was discovered.

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 Gunung Sari: The ruins of a Hindu temple on top of a hill, located near Candi Gunung
Wukir, on the outskirts of Muntilan.
 Umbul: in Grabag, Magelang; it served as a bathing and resting place for the kings
of Mataram

The map of Hindu-Buddhist kingdom of Kalingga , circa 6th to 7th century CE. Located
somewhere on the north coast of Central Java, Indonesia.

This plain lay in the Kingdom of the Kalingga which was one of the first Hindu-Buddhist
kingdoms in Central Java, located between present-day Pekalongan and Jepara. That is one
reason why there is a blend of Hindu and Buddhist temples in this area.

The kingdom was described as being surrounded by wooden fortresses, with the King residing
in a multiple storied palace covered with a roof made of the leaves of Arengga pinata trees.
The kingdom exported silver, gold and elephant tusks. The Kalingga kingdom was very
orderly and serene, and led by Queen Sima. It was a center of Buddhist studies and practice,
and the Chinese came to Kalingga to study Buddhism., which around that time became the

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official religion in China. Two temples remain from the Kalingga Kingdom: Candi
Angin and Candi Bubrah in Tempur Village, the present day Jepara.
Kalingga was a 6th-century Indianized kingdom on the north coast of Central
Java, Indonesia. It was the earliest Hindu-Buddhist kingdom in Central Java, and together
with Kutai and Tarumanagara are the oldest kingdoms in Indonesian history.
The archaeological findings and historical records from this period are scarce, and the
exact location of kingdom's capital is unknown. It is thought to be somewhere between
present-day Pekalongan or Jepara. A place named Keling subdistrict is found in northern
coast of Jepara Regency, however some archaeological findings near Pekalongan and Batang
regency shows that Pekalongan was an ancient port, suggests that Pekalongan might be an
altered name of Pe-Kaling-an. Kalingga existed between the 6th and 7th centuries, and it was
one of the earliest Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms established in Java. The historical record of this
kingdom is scarce and vague, and comes mostly from Chinese sources and local traditions.
Kalingga appeared in the 5th century which is thought to be located in the north of Central
Java . Information about the Kalingga Kingdom is obtained from inscriptions and records
from China . In 752, the Kalingga Kingdom became Sriwijaya's conquered territory because
this kingdom was part of a trading network, along with the Dharmasraya and Tarumanagara
Kingdoms which Srivijaya had previously conquered . The three kingdoms became strong
competitors of the Srivijaya - Buddhist trading network .

In the 15th–16th century the small city of Pekalongan emerged as a corridor for
communication between two powerful sultanates centred near Java’s northern coast: Cirebon,
to the west, and Demak, to the east. In the 17th century the regency of Pekalongan came
under control of the Mataram sultanate of south-central Java. When Mataram lost power in
the 18th century, it granted Pekalongan to the Dutch East India Company. In 1753 the Dutch
built a fort in Pekalongan city. The fort became a prison in the 19th century and was used as
an internment centre during the Japanese occupation (1942–45) of Java during World War II.
The structure has continued to function as a penitentiary in the 21st century. Today the
Pekalongan, (city) is the capital of the kabupaten (regency), Central Java (Jawa Tengah)
situated on the northern coastal plain of the island of Java.

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Pekalongan Harbour, which lies within the city limits, is one of the principal fishing ports on
Java, and the city itself is home to one of the island’s largest fresh-fish markets. Pekalongan
city is also recognized as a major centre of batik production. Food (including fish)
processing, textile production, and the manufacture of chemical products are among the
important industries. Exports include batik, tea, rubber, locally refined sugar, and other
goods. Sugarcane, rice, kapok, cinchona, indigo, and corn (maize) are grown in the regency’s
fertile river valleys and coastal plains. Area regency, 323 square miles (837 square km); city,
17 square miles (44 square km). Pop. (2010) regency, 838,621; city, 281,434.
HISTORY

The Tukmas inscription was estimated to be originated from Kalingga period. It was
discovered on the western slope of Mount Merapi, at Dusun Dakawu, Lebak village,
Kecamatan Grabag, Magelang Regency, Central Java, and is written in Pallava
script in Sanskrit tells about a clear spring water that is so sacred that adored as the analogue
of holy Ganges's source in India. The inscription also bears Hindu signs and imageries, such
as trisula, kamandalu (water jar), parashu (axe), kalacengkha (shell), chakra and padma (red
lotus), those are symbols of Hindu gods.[5]
Another inscription dated from around the same period is Sojomerto inscription, discovered
in Sojomerto village, Kecamatan Reban, Batang Regency, Central Java. It is written in Kavi
script in Old Malay language, estimated dated from 7th century. The inscription tell about a
ruler named Dapunta Selendra, son of Santanu and Bhadrawati, and husband of Sampula.
Indonesian historian Prof. Drs. Boechari suggested that Dapunta Selendra was the ancestor
of Sailendras that later rule in Mataram Kingdom.
Both inscriptions suggest that c. 7th century on the northern coast of Central Java, once
flourish a Hindu Shivaist kingdom, today identified as Kalingga kingdom. Some oldest
Javanese candis are also can be found in mountainous surrounding areas on northern Central
Java, such as the Hindu temples of Dieng Plateau, and Gedong Songo temples, but they are
probably built in later period, during the early Mataram Kingdom. Historian suggested that
there was a link between this old kingdom with later kingdom flourish in Southern Central
Java Kedu Plain, the Sailendra of Mataram Kingdom.

The Chinese sources come from China and date back to the Tang Dynasty. According to the
Chinese Buddhist monk Yijing, in 664 a Chinese Buddhist monk named Huining had arrived
in Heling and stayed there for about three years. During his stay, and with the assistance of
Jnanabhadra, a Heling monk, he translated numerous Buddhist Hinayana scriptures.
In 674 the kingdom was ruled by Queen Shima, notorious for her fierce law against thievery,
which encouraged her people to be honest and uphold absolute truth. According to tradition,
one day a foreign king placed a bag filled with gold on the intersection in Kalingga to test the
famed truthful and honesty of Kalingga people. Nobody dared to touch the bag that did not
belong to them, until three years later when Shima's son, the crown prince, accidentally
touched the bag with his foot. The queen issued a death sentence to her own son, but was
over-ruled by a minister that appealed the queen to spare the prince's life. Since it was the
prince's foot that touched the bag of gold, so it was the foot that must be punished through
mutilation.[3] According to Carita Parahyangan, a book composed in later period,
Shima's great-grandson is Sanjaya, who is the king of Sunda Kingdom and Galuh Kingdom,
and also the founder of Mataram Kingdom.

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Between 742 and 755, the kingdom had moved further east from the Dieng Plateau, perhaps
in response to the Buddhist Sailendras

The Buddhist king Panangkaran who ruled the Medang Kingdom started the construction of
the great Manjusrigrha Temple (‘House of Manjushri’, the Bodhisattva of Wisdom), which is
the original name of the Sewu Temple complex, the second largest Buddhist complex in
Indonesia after Borobudur, with 249 buildings. Archaeologists believe the original name for
the temple compound to be Manjusrigrha which is Sewu an eighth
century Mahayana Buddhist temple located 800 metres north of Prambanan in Central
Java, Indonesia. The word for a Hindu or Buddhist temple in Indonesian is "candi," hence the
common name is "Candi Sewu." Candi Sewu is the second largest Buddhist temple complex
in Indonesia; Borobudur is the largest. Sewu predates nearby "Loro Jonggrang" temple at
Prambanan. Although the complex consists of 249 temples, this Javanese name translates to
'a thousand temples,' which originated from popular local folklore (The Legend of Loro
Jonggrang).

Candi Sewu temple layout

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Sewu is an eighth century Mahayana Buddhist temple located 800 metres north
of Prambanan in Central Java, Indonesia. The word for a Hindu or Buddhist
temple in Indonesian is "candi," hence the common name is "Candi Sewu." Candi Sewu is the
second largest Buddhist temple complex in Indonesia; Borobudur is the largest. Sewu
predates nearby "Loro Jonggrang" temple at Prambanan. Although the complex consists of
249 temples, this Javanese name translates to 'a thousand temples,' which originated from
popular local folklore (The Legend of Loro Jonggrang). Archaeologists believe the original
name for the temple compound to be Manjusrigrha.

CONSTRUCTION

Manjusrigrha inscription (792 CE), discovered in 1960 at the outer west perwara temple no. 202 (row 4
no. 37) of Sewu Buddhist temple.

According to the Kelurak inscription (dated from 782 CE) and the Manjusrigrha
inscription (dated from 792 CE), which were discovered in 1960, the original name of the
temple complex was probably "Manjusri grha" (The House of Manjusri). Manjusri is
a Bodhisattva from Mahayana Buddhist teachings that symbolizes the "gentle glory" of
transcendent wisdom (Sanskrit: prajñā). Sewu Temple was built by the end of eighth century
at the end of Rakai Panangkaran's reign and was completed during the reign of his
successor, King Indra. Rakai Panangkaran (746–780 CE) was well known as a devoted
Mahayana Buddhist king who ruled the Medang Mataram Kingdom.
Built 70 years before tge Hindu Shiva temple of Prambhanan, the Manjusrigrha temple was
the largest Buddhist temple in the Prambanan Plain region and the Borobudur was completed
37 years later.
Located in the heart of Mataram, the temple served as the royal Buddhist temple of the
kingdom. Stately religious ceremonies were held here regularly. The Manjusrigrha inscription
(792) praises the perfect beauty of the prasada (tower) of this temple compound.
The Bubrah temple, (read later in this paper ) is located several hundred meters south, and
the Gana temple, located is ob east of the Sewu temple. Both these are supposedlyguardian
temples for the Manjusrigrha complex, guarding the four cardinal directions around the Sewu
temple. Prior to the construction of Borobudur and Prambanan, Sewu likely served as the
kingdom's main temple. The temples are arranged in the mandala layout, which symbolizes
the universe in Buddhist cosmology.

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Sewu temple was probably expanded and completed during the rule of Rakai Pikatan, a
prince who married a Buddhist princess from the Sailendra dynasty, Pramodhawardhani.
Most of his subjects retained their old religions after the court returned to favour Hinduism.
The proximity of the Sewu temple to Prambanan, a Hindu Temple, suggests that the Hindu
and Buddhist communities lived in harmony during the era in which the temples were built.
And the scale of the temple complex suggests that Candi Sewu was a royal Buddhist temple
that served as an important religious site.

Candi Sewu main temple at left and one of apit temple at right BELOW Aerial view of Sewu temple near Prambanan
shows the mandala layout of the main temple surrounds by smaller perwara temples.

1.1.1
1.1.2 Rediscovery

Although buried deep beneath the volcanic debris around Mount Merapi, the temple ruins
were not completely forgotten by the local Javanese inhabitants. However, the origins of the
temple were a mystery. Over the centuries, tales and legends infused with myths of giants and
a cursed princess were recounted by villagers. Prambanan and Sewu were purport to be of
supernatural origin, and in the legend of Loro Jonggrang they were said to have been created
by a multitude of demons under the order of Bandung Bondowoso. Such tales are most likely
the reason the temples were preserved through the centuries prior to the Java War (1825–
1830). The local villagers dared not remove any of the temple stones, believing the ruins to
be haunted by supernatural beings.
1. In 1733, Pakubuwono II granted the Dutch merchant Cornelius Antonie Lons
permission to make a sightseeing tour through the heartland of Mataram. Lons' report
of this trip contains the first known extant description of the Sewu and Prambanan
temples and in the years 1806–07, the Dutch archaeologist Hermann
Cornelius unearthed the Sewu temples.
2. During the Java War (1825–1830) some of the temple stones were carted away and
used in fortifications. In the years that followed the temples suffered from looting.
3. Many of the Buddha statues were decapitated and the heads stolen. Some Dutch
colonists stole sculptures and used them as garden ornaments, and native villagers
used the foundation stones as construction material.
4. Some of the temple's best preserved bas-reliefs, Buddha's head, and some ornaments

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 were carried away from the site and ended up in museums and private collections
abroad.
5. In 1867, Isidore van Kinsbergen photographed the ruins of Candi Sewu after an
earthquake had caused the dome in main temple to collapse.
6. In 1885 Jan Willem IJzerman, revising some plans of the temple complex made
earlier by Cornelius, made notes regarding the temple's condition. He noted that
several Buddha heads were missing.
7. By 1978 none of the Buddha heads had survived, all of them having been looted from
the site completely
8. In 1901 a new set of photographs was taken, sponsored by Leydie Melville.
9. In 1908 Theodoor van Erp [nl] initiated the clearing and reconstruction of the main
temple.
10. In 1915 H. Maclaine Pont drew the reconstruction of a temples of the second row. It
was de Haan who reconstructed the Perwara temples with the aid of Van Kinsbergen's
photographs.
11. Subsequently, the temple became a subject of study among archaeologists
1.1.3 Contemporary events
Since the early 20th century the temple has been slowly and carefully reconstructed, yet it has
not been completely restored. There are hundreds of temple ruins, and many stones are
missing. The main temple reconstruction and two of the apit temples on the east side were
completed in 1993 and inaugurated by President Soeharto on 20 February 1993.
The temple was severely damaged during the 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake. The structural
damage was significant, and the central temple suffered the worst. Large pieces of debris
were scattered about on the grounds, and cracks between stone blocks were detected. To
prevent the central temple from collapsing, metal frame structures were erected on the four
corners and attached to support the main temple. Although some weeks later in 2006 the site
was reopened for visitors, the main temple remained closed for safety reasons. Today the
metal frame has been removed, and visitors may visit and enter the main temple.
The Sewu Temple often hosts the annual Vesak ceremony.

A lithograph of Tjandi Sewoe ruins near Prambanan, circa 1859

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Image extracted from page 281 of volume 1 of Neerlands-Oost-Indie. Reizen over Java, Madura,(1852-1857), by BUDDINGH, Steven Adriaan. Original
held and digitised by the British Library.

Candi Sewu Layout

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An architectural model of Candi Sewu temple compound, reconstruct the complete condition of
the 8th century Sewu temple in Central Java, Indonesia.
The Sewu temple complex is the largest Buddhist compound in the Prambanan area, with
rectangular grounds that measure 185 meters north-south and 165 meters east-west. There is
an entrance on all four cardinal points, but the main entrance is located on the east side. Each
of the entrances is guarded by twin Dvarapala statues. These large guardian statues have been
better preserved, and replicas can be found at Jogja Kraton. There are 249 buildings in the
complex are arranged in a Mandala pattern around the main central hall. This configuration
expresses the Mahayana Buddhist view of the universe. There are 240 smaller temples,
called Perwara (guardian) temples, with similar designs that are arranged in four rectangular
concentric rows. Two outer rows are arranged closer and consist of 168 smaller temples,
while two inner rows, arranged at certain intervals, consist of 72 temples. The 249 temples
located in the second precinct were all made with a square frame but varied by different
statues and orientations. Many of the statues are now gone, and the arrangements on the
current site are not in the original orientations. The statues are comparable to the statues
of Borobudur and were likely made of bronze.

Along the north-south and east-west central axis at a distance of about 200 meters, between
the second and third rows of the smaller temple are located the apit (flank) temples, a couple
on each cardinal point facing each other. The apit temples are the second largest temples after
the main temple, however only eastern twin apit and a northern one still remain today. These
smaller temples encompass a larger sanctuary that has been heavily looted. Behind the fourth
row of smaller temples lies the stone paved courtyard where the main temple stood on the
center.

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The nearby temples, Gana temple in the east and Bubrah temple in the south, are suggested as
the part of greater Manjusrigrha vajradhatu mandala complex. Both temples are located
around 300 metres from the Sewu main temple. There are northern and western ruins
discovered around the same distance from the main temple, however the stones was too
scarce for reconstruction. These temples suggested that indeed the Sewu temple compound
was completed with four additional temples, located 300 metres from the main temple, which
is corresponds with the mandala and the guardians of the directions concept.
The main temple measures 29 meters in diameter and soars up to 30 meters high. The
ground plan of the main temple is a cross-shaped 20-sided polygon. On each of the four
cardinal points of the main temple, there are four structures projected outward, each with its
own stairs, entrances and rooms, crowned with stupas, which form a cross-like layout. All of
the structures are made from andesite stones.
The main temple has five rooms, one large garbhagriha in the center and four smaller rooms
in each cardinal direction. These four rooms are all connected with outer corner galleries with
balustrades bordered by rows of small stupas. From the findings during the reconstruction
process, it was suggested that the original design of central sanctuary only consisted of a
central roomed temple surrounded by four additional structures with open portals. Doorways
were added later. The portals were narrowed to create door frames on which to attach wooden
doors. Some of the holes to attach doors are still visible. The doorways join the temples
together into one main building with five rooms.
The central chamber can be reached from the eastern room. The central chamber is larger
than other rooms with a higher ceiling and a taller roof. Now all the five rooms are
empty. However the lotus carved stone pedestal in the central chamber suggests that the
temple once contained a large bronze Buddhist statue (possible the bronze statue
of Manjusri), probably reaching a height of four meters. The statue is missing, probably
looted for scrap metal over the centuries. However another theory suggested that the main
statue was probably constructed from several stone blocks coated with vajralepa plaster.

The ruin of Bubrah temple in 2006, prior of reconstruction/ The makara stairs adornment of
Bubrah temple in 1900s

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As an architectural masterpiece built in the 8th century and older than Borobudur and
Prambanan Temples, Sewu Temple has an important role in the development of archipelago’s
architecture. The background of the temple building can be known through the ornaments
that decorate parts of the temple. Ornaments contain certain meanings with Hindu-Buddhist
principles, not only as visual ornament elements, so the role of ornaments is important.
Ornaments are an artistic component that is added to decoration in crafts, including
architecture. Ornamentation cannot be separated from the socio-cultural background of the
community and the area of origin of the ornament, because ornamentation is a means of
communication to reduce culture from the previous generation to the next generation.
Therefore, it is necessary to further study the evolution or development of the forms and
meanings of architectural ornaments in the archipelago with a time series of architectural
developments in the Hindu-Buddhist era and traditional architecture, especially Java,
following the location of the temple. The purpose of this study is to examine the evolution of
forms, patterns, and meanings of Hindu-Buddhist architectural ornaments found in Sewu
Temple in their development towards traditional Javanese architecture. This research uses
descriptive qualitative method. This research found that there is a relationship between
1
Javanese architectural ornaments and architectural ornaments
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

1. Evolution of Hindu–Buddhist Architectural Ornaments Into Javanese Traditional Architecture:

Case Study of Sewu Temple Ayu Ratna Pertiwi- Advances in Social Science, Education and
Humanities Research, volume 421 4th International Conference on Arts Language and Culture
(ICALC 2019)

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Once a bustling city, Prambanan is a multi-religious temple-complex at the center of Java.
While the site is best known for its Hindu temples, it is also home to Candi Sewu, the largest
enterable Buddhist temple in all of Indonesia. Composed of hundreds of small stupas
surrounding a cruciform central shrine, the complex covers more than twenty-seven square
kilometers (seventeen square miles) and is replete with finely carved Buddhist deities. In the
spread of Indian religious ideas, Buddhists played an especially active role. Buddhist
communities found great sponsorship in Indonesia’s eighth- and ninth-century rulers. The
plethora of Buddhist figures at Candi Sewu proclaim the establishment’s religious dedication,
and the temple’s massive scale points to elite patronage.

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Candi Sewu; Right: Sundaravarada-Perumal temple; south India, Tamil Nadu, Uttiramerur; Pallava period, 9th century; granite.
(RIGHT) Today, many of Candi Sewu’s freestanding buddhas are missing their heads. Such losses are due
to looting, intentional destruction, and forces of nature over the course of the last millennium.

The eighth and ninth centuries were a period of heightened contact between India and
Southeast Asia. Imagery and texts circulated along with the people who traveled across the
regions. Candi Sewu’s sculptures show close connections with Indian sculpture from this
period. See, for example, the lions that are positioned at corners along the temple’s base.
Much like the lion at a temple in Tamil Nadu, the animal sits back on its haunches, its tail
upturned and mouth open, and its head seems to support the structure above.

21
Relief carvings on surviving and restored buildings have better stood the test of time.
Prominent imagery includes bodhisattvas in palatial settings, gandharvas and devatas (minor
deities), and flying rishis (sages) who shower devotees with blessings as they enter the
temple. Bells and billowing garments evoke sound and movement.RIGHT - A flight of stairs
leads through a vestibule and into the central shrine, which quickly plunges into darkness.

In the middle of the chamber is an altar with an empty throne positioned high on a
semicircular platform.From the top, temple priests could have lustrated an image or a holy
person with sacred fluids and possibly flowers. https://asia.si.edu/collections-area/southeast-
asian/sacred-sites-in-southeast-asia-candi-sewu/

The Buddhist temple of Bubrah or Candhi Bubrah is a 9th-

century Buddhist temple located within the complex of the Prambanan Temple
Archaeological Park, in Central Java, Indonesia. The temple is located within Prambanan

22
or Kewu Plain, an archaeologically rich area dotted with numerous Hindu-Buddhist temples
dated circa 8th to 9th century CE. To visit Bubrah temple, visitors can go through
the Prambanan temple compound entrance.
The temple is located around 300 meters south from Sewu temple. Archaeologists suggest
that the temple is actually a part of the greater Sewu temple compound (Manjusrigrha
complex), as the southern temple marking the southern point of the mandala layout. This
suggestion is based on the fact that there is a similar-sized temple on the eastern side called
Candi Gana that marking the eastern end on Manjusrigrha mandala. On northern and western
sides around 300 metres from Sewu main temple, there were also ruins discovered, however,
the stones are too scarce to reconstruct. In conclusion, Bubrah temple were originally part of
four vanguard temples placed around 300 meters in four cardinal points from the main temple
of Sewu. Bubrah is the guardian temple of southern direction, according to mandala
and guardians of the directions concept.
The original name of this temple is unknown, however the local Javanese named the temple
"candi bubrah", which means "ruins temple" in the Javanese language. The name reflect the
conditions of this temple during its discovery, which was a heap of 2 metres tall stone
ruins. Bubrah means broken, in ruins or disorderly in Javanese, it has been in a state of ruins
for many years, until it was reconstructed between 2011 and 2017. The temple is a part
of Prambanan Temple Compounds, a World Heritage Site since 1991.
It is located between Sewu temple compound in the north and Lumbung temple in the south.
Administratively, this temple is located in Bener Hamlet, Bugisan Village, Prambanan
District, Klaten Regency, Central Java . Unlike the Prambhanan. Bubrah temple is a
Buddhist temple, and was built around the 9th century during the era of the Mataram
kingdom that ruled Central Java and some parts of Eastern Java. The temple is closely related
to Sewu temple which is located around 300 metres to the north. [2] Bubrah temple believed
was constructed around the same period or slightly later after the completion of nearby Sewu
and Lumbung temple, all three being a Buddhist-style mandala. The Sewu complex was built
by Rakai Panangkaran hailed as Shailendra Wamsatilaka, or the ornament of the Shailendra
dynasty. Bubrah temple seems to be added later to complete Manjusrigrha (Sewu) vajradhatu
mandala as the southern shrine dedicated as the guardian of directions. Thus possibly Bubrah
temple was constructed after the reign of Panangkaran, either during the reign
of Dharanindra, or possibly Samaragrawira, which means the temple was constructed in the
early 9th century.
After the move of the capital to eastern Java circa the 11th century, the temple was neglected.
For centuries later, it fell into disrepair, buried under Mount Merapi volcanic debris and
shaken by earthquakes.
The temple was in ruins during its rediscovery back in the early 19th century, along with
nearby Prambanan and Sewu temple compound. During its rediscovery, the temple took form
of a 2 metres tall mounds of stone, thus the gave the name Bubrah which in Javanese means
"ruins". Throughout the 20th century, nothing much had been done to restore and reconstruct
the temple, as the temple stones were left scattered around the area.
In 1992, the temple was included within the area of Prambanan Archaeological Park or
Prambanan Temple Tourism Park, along with nearby Lumbung, Sewu, and Prambanan
temples, registered as Prambanan Temple Compound and recognized as a UNESCO World
Heritage Site.
Between 2011 and 2017 the temple had undergone reconstruction. The project developed in 7
stages, and was completed on 14 December 2017, inaugurated by Muhajir Effendy,

23
Indonesian Minister of Education and Culture. The reconstruction took 7 years and 11 billion
rupiah cost.
The temple plan measures 12 x 12 metres and facing east side, with flight of stairs, portico
and portal facing east. The design of the temple is similar to the Apit temple within the Sewu
temple compound and Sojiwan temple not far south. The roof is lined with rows of smaller
stupas, with larger main stupa as the pinnacle of the structure.

II
The Time of the Twin Kingdoms
The Pekalongan harbor that brought Hinduism & Buddhism to these
plains
24
Sometimes Geography decides the harmony between people andm precipates a peaceful
future in their society and culture. This is a Tale of one such happening in Indonesia in the
Kalingaa Kingdom.

A depiction of the legend on an Indonesian stamp

Statue of Durga Mahisashuramardini or according to local legend known as Loro
Jonggrang, inside northern cella of Shiva temple, Prambanan, Central Java, Indonesia

A local popular folklore it connects and explains the supernatural origin of Central Java's
famous archaeological sites; such as of the Ratu Boko palace, the Durga statue in northern
cella/chamber of the main Prambanan shrine, and the Sewu temple complex nearby.
Although the temples itself dated from circa 9th century, the legend was composed in later
times, probably during Mataram Sultanate era.
According to tradition, this thousandth temple is part of the Sewu temple compound
(sèwu means "thousands" in Javanese), and the Princess is the image of Durga in the north
cell of the Shiva temple at Prambanan, still known as Rara Jonggrang or Slender Virgin.
Another interpretation mentioned that this legend could be a collective but vague local
memory about past historical events that happened in the area, staged around the 9th century
struggle for power between the Sailendra and the Sanjaya dynasty for control of Central Java.
King Boko is probably inspired by the King Samaratungga of Sailendra dynasty, Bandung
Bondowoso is Rakai Pikatan, a prince of Sanjaya dynasty, and Rara Jongrang
is Pramodhawardhani, wife of Rakai Pikatan and the daughter of Sailendran king. The actual
historical event was probably the contest of power between Balaputradewa, the Sailendran

25
heir, against his sister, Pramodhawardhani, aided by her husband, Rakai Pikatan, which led to
Pikatan as the victor, thus ending the Sailendran rule on Central Java.
Port cities are a staple of world history. They are hubs of world commerce and also of
regional trade between coast and hinterland. They are facilitators of both immigration and
emigration. They are transit points for the spread of disease as well as goods and people.
They are also markers of patterns of colonialism and development. The capitals of most
developing countries betray their colonial roots, having ports as their capital and/or largest
cities that today remain the loci of virtually all post-colonial national administrative,
educational, and medical institutions. They are prime drivers of urban sprawl and slums as
well as economic growth. Yet, the tolerant, permissive and multicultural atmosphere of port
cities in developing as well as developed societies also make them rich centers of world
culture,. The relationship between land development and distance from the port shows that
the areas with strong land development intensity gradually moved from coastal to inland
areas over time. Port shipping has a profound influence on port city land use patterns.
Industrial transfer drives the development of surrounding towns during the metaphase. This
trend was used to build a second port to realize the division of transportation capacity, as the
old port’s carrying capacity tended to become saturated.
Twin Kingdoms
This plain lay in the Kingdom of the Kalingga which was one of the first Hindu-Buddhist
kingdoms in Central Java, located between present-day Pekalongan and Jepara. That is one
reason why there is a blend of Hindu and Buddhist temples in this area.

The kingdom was described as being surrounded by wooden fortresses, with the King residing
in a multiple storied palace covered with a roof made of the leaves of Arengga pinata trees.
The kingdom exported silver, gold and elephant tusks. The Kalingga kingdom was very
orderly and serene, and led by Queen Sima. It was a center of Buddhist studies and practice,
and the Chinese came to Kalingga to study Buddhism., which around that time became the
official religion in China. Two temples remain from the Kalingga Kingdom: Candi
Angin and Candi Bubrah in Tempur Village, the present day Jepara.
Kalingga (Javanese: Karajan Kalingga; 訶陵 Hēlíng or 闍婆 Dūpó in Chinese sources[1]) was a
6th-century Indianized kingdom on the north coast of Central Java, Indonesia. It was the
earliest Hindu-Buddhist kingdom in Central Java, and together
with Kutai and Tarumanagara are the oldest kingdoms in Indonesian history.
The archaeological findings and historical records from this period are scarce, and the
exact location of kingdom's capital is unknown. It is thought to be somewhere between
present-day Pekalongan or Jepara. A place named Keling subdistrict is found in northern
coast of Jepara Regency, however some archaeological findings near Pekalongan and Batang
regency shows that Pekalongan was an ancient port, suggests that Pekalongan might be an
altered name of Pe-Kaling-an. Kalingga existed between the 6th and 7th centuries, and it was
one of the earliest Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms established in Java. The historical record of this
kingdom is scarce and vague, and comes mostly from Chinese sources and local traditions.
Kalingga appeared in the 5th century which is thought to be located in the north of Central
Java . Information about the Kalingga Kingdom is obtained from inscriptions and records
from China . In 752, the Kalingga Kingdom became Sriwijaya's conquered territory because
this kingdom was part of a trading network, along with the Dharmasraya and Tarumanagara
Kingdoms which Srivijaya had previously conquered . The three kingdoms became strong
competitors of the Srivijaya - Buddhist trading network .

26
In the 15th–16th century the small city of Pekalongan emerged as a corridor for
communication between two powerful sultanates centred near Java’s northern coast: Cirebon,
to the west, and Demak, to the east. In the 17th century the regency of Pekalongan came
under control of the Mataram sultanate of south-central Java. When Mataram lost power in
the 18th century, it granted Pekalongan to the Dutch East India Company. In 1753 the Dutch
built a fort in Pekalongan city. The fort became a prison in the 19th century and was used as
an internment centre during the Japanese occupation (1942–45) of Java during World War II.
The structure has continued to function as a penitentiary in the 21st century. Today the
Pekalongan, (city) is the capital of the kabupaten (regency), Central Java (Jawa Tengah)
situated on the northern coastal plain of the island of Java.

Pekalongan Harbour, which lies within the city limits, is one of the principal fishing ports on
Java, and the city itself is home to one of the island’s largest fresh-fish markets. Pekalongan
city is also recognized as a major centre of batik production. Food (including fish)
processing, textile production, and the manufacture of chemical products are among the
important industries. Exports include batik, tea, rubber, locally refined sugar, and other
goods. Sugarcane, rice, kapok, cinchona, indigo, and corn (maize) are grown in the regency’s
fertile river valleys and coastal plains. Area regency, 323 square miles (837 square km); city,
17 square miles (44 square km). Pop. (2010) regency, 838,621; city, 281,434.
HISTORY

The Tukmas inscription was estimated to be originated from Kalingga period. It was
discovered on the western slope of Mount Merapi, at Dusun Dakawu, Lebak village,
Kecamatan Grabag, Magelang Regency, Central Java, and is written in Pallava
script in Sanskrit tells about a clear spring water that is so sacred that adored as the analogue
of holy Ganges's source in India. The inscription also bears Hindu signs and imageries, such
as trisula, kamandalu (water jar), parashu (axe), kalacengkha (shell), chakra and padma (red
lotus), those are symbols of Hindu gods.[5]
Another inscription dated from around the same period is Sojomerto inscription, discovered
in Sojomerto village, Kecamatan Reban, Batang Regency, Central Java. It is written in Kavi
script in Old Malay language, estimated dated from 7th century. The inscription tell about a

27
ruler named Dapunta Selendra, son of Santanu and Bhadrawati, and husband of Sampula.
Indonesian historian Prof. Drs. Boechari suggested that Dapunta Selendra was the ancestor
of Sailendras that later rule in Mataram Kingdom.
Both inscriptions suggest that c. 7th century on the northern coast of Central Java, once
flourish a Hindu Shivaist kingdom, today identified as Kalingga kingdom. Some oldest
Javanese candis are also can be found in mountainous surrounding areas on northern Central
Java, such as the Hindu temples of Dieng Plateau, and Gedong Songo temples, but they are
probably built in later period, during the early Mataram Kingdom. Historian suggested that
there was a link between this old kingdom with later kingdom flourish in Southern Central
Java Kedu Plain, the Sailendra of Mataram Kingdom.

The Chinese sources come from China and date back to the Tang Dynasty. According to the
Chinese Buddhist monk Yijing, in 664 a Chinese Buddhist monk named Huining ( 會
寧 Huìníng) had arrived in Heling and stayed there for about three years. During his stay, and
with the assistance of Jnanabhadra, a Heling monk, he translated numerous
Buddhist Hinayana scriptures.
In 674 the kingdom was ruled by Queen Shima, notorious for her fierce law against thievery,
which encouraged her people to be honest and uphold absolute truth. According to tradition,
one day a foreign king placed a bag filled with gold on the intersection in Kalingga to test the
famed truthful and honesty of Kalingga people. Nobody dared to touch the bag that did not
belong to them, until three years later when Shima's son, the crown prince, accidentally
touched the bag with his foot. The queen issued a death sentence to her own son, but was
over-ruled by a minister that appealed the queen to spare the prince's life. Since it was the
prince's foot that touched the bag of gold, so it was the foot that must be punished through
mutilation.[3] According to Carita Parahyangan, a book composed in later period,
Shima's great-grandson is Sanjaya, who is the king of Sunda Kingdom and Galuh Kingdom,
and also the founder of Mataram Kingdom.
Between 742 and 755, the kingdom had moved further east from the Dieng Plateau, perhaps
in response to the Buddhist Sailendras

The Buddhist king Panangkaran who ruled the Medang Kingdom started the construction of
the great Manjusrigrha Temple (‘House of Manjushri’, the Bodhisattva of Wisdom), which is
the original name of the Sewu Temple complex, the second largest Buddhist complex in
Indonesia after Borobudur, with 249 buildings. Archaeologists believe the original name for
the temple compound to be Manjusrigrha which is Sewu an eighth
century Mahayana Buddhist temple located 800 metres north of Prambanan in Central
Java, Indonesia. The word for a Hindu or Buddhist temple in Indonesian is "candi," hence the
common name is "Candi Sewu." Candi Sewu is the second largest Buddhist temple complex
in Indonesia; Borobudur is the largest. Sewu predates nearby "Loro Jonggrang" temple at
Prambanan. Although the complex consists of 249 temples, this Javanese name translates to
'a thousand temples,' which originated from popular local folklore (The Legend of Loro
Jonggrang).

THE TWIN PLAINS

28
Kewu Plain, also known as Prambanan Plain or Opak River valley, is a fertile volcanic
plain that lies between Merapi-Merbabu complex in the north, Bantul lowlands
and Sewu karst limestone range in the south, Bengawan Solo river valley in east, and
the Progo River in the west, and Kedu Plain on northwest. It is located within the Yogyakarta
Special Region, Sleman Regency, Klaten Regency and Solo City (Central Java).
The temple is located on the Prambanan Plain, between the southeastern slopes of the Merapi
volcano and the Sewu mountain range in the south, near the present border
of Yogyakarta province and Klaten Regency in central Java. The plain has many
archaeological sites scattered only a few miles apart, which suggests that this area served as
an important religious, political, and urban center.

MATARAM KINGDOM
Historically the area was identified as Mataram. The region was the center of both
the Medang i Bhumi Mataram kingdom in the 8th to 10th centuries, and later the Mataram

29
Sultanate in the 16th century. It has been an important location in Central Javanese history
and culture for over a millennium since it contains many ancient archaeological remnants of
historic significance. If each temple structure was counted separately, the 9th century Central
Java period could be said to have produced thousands of temples, scattered from Dieng
Plateau, Kedu Plain to Kewu Plain.
Apart from the Prambanan complex, Kewu Plain along with the valley and hills around it is
the location of some of the earliest Hindu-Buddhist temples in Indonesia. Adjacent to the
complex to the north are Bubrah temple, Lumbung temple, and Sewu temple; to the east are
found Plaosan temple. Kalasan temple and Sari temple are to the west, and further is
the Sambisari temple. The Ratu Boko compounds are on higher ground just to the south. The
discoveries of archaeological sites scattered only a few miles away suggested that this area
was once an important religious, political, and urban center of central Java. Despite the
smaller scale of its temples, the diversity and sophistication of the archaeological sites in this
plain are comparable to Angkor archaeological site in Cambodia. Borobudur and Prambanan
in particular, are popularly regarded as the two Indonesian temples to rival Angkor Wat in
Cambodia.
In 2012, the Balai Pelestarian Peninggalan Purbakala Jawa Tengah (BP3, or the Central
Java Heritage Preservation Authority) suggested that the area in and around Prambanan
should be treated as a sanctuary. The proposed area is in the Prambanan Plain measuring
measured 30 square kilometres (12 sq mi) spread across the Sleman and Klaten regencies.
The area includes major temples such as Prambanan, Ratu Boko, Kalasan, Sari and Plaosan
temples. The sanctuary is planned to be treated in a similar fashion to the Angkor
archaeological area in Cambodia, which suggests that the government should prevent or
regulate permits to construct any new buildings, especially the multi-storied buildings, as
well as BTS towers. This was meant to protect this archaeologically-rich area from modern
day visual obstructions and the encroachments of hotels, restaurants and any tourism-related
buildings and businesses. There are a number of temples in this area- both Hindu and
Buddhist:

30
Shiva temple, the main temple at Prambanan temple complex rising 47m high (130 feet)and measures 34m x 34m at its
base. The main temple houses the statue of Shiva Mahadewa, Ganesha, Durga Mahisashuramardhini, and Agastya on
each chamber of cardinal points. On the far right is stood Wishnu temple. Around the ballustrade of the Shiva temple
adorned with panels of bas reliefs narating the story from Ramayana. This ninth century temple complex was build by
Hindu Mataram Kingdom.

31
 Kalasan. According to Kalasan inscription it is the oldest temple built in the plain. This
early 8th century Buddhist temple built to honor female bodhisattva Tara.
 Sari. Once a sanctuary or monastery for Buddhist priests. 8th century. Nine stupas at the
top with two rooms beneath, each believed to be places for priests to meditate.
 Ratu Boko. Complex of fortified gates, bathing pools, and elevated walled stone
enclosure, all located on top of the hill south of Prambanan.
 Lumbung. Buddhist-style, consisting of one main temple surrounded by 16 smaller ones.
 Bubrah. Buddhist temple related to nearby Sewu temple.
 Sewu. This Buddhist temple complex is older than Prambanan temple. The original name
of this temple is Manjusrigrha and it was a royal buddhist temple of the kingdom. A main

32
 sanctuary surrounded by many smaller temples. Well preserved guardian statues, replicas
of which stand in the central courtyard at the Jogja Kraton.
 Prambanan. A large compound of 9th century Shivaic Trimurti Hindu temple. The
construction of grand Hindu temple was probably the sign that Hinduism once again gain
royal patronage of Medang kings.
 Plaosan. Buddhist, probably 9th century. Thought to have been built by a Hindu king for
his Buddhist queen. Two main temples with reliefs of Bodhisattva and Tara. Also rows of
slender stupas.
 Sojiwan. Buddhist temple decorated with reliefs concerning education. The base and
staircase are decorated with animal fables. Sojiwan was probably the mortuary temple for
a buddhist queen, Sang Sanjiwana or Pramodhawardhani.
 Banyunibo. A Buddhist temple with unique design of roof.
 Barong. A Hindu temple complex with large stepped stone courtyard. Located on the
slope of the hill not far from Banyunibo and Ratu Boko.
 Ijo. A cluster of Hindu temple located near the top of Ijo hill. The main temple houses a
large lingam and yoni.
 Arca Bugisan. Seven Buddha and bodhisattva statues, some collapsed, representing
different poses and expressions.
 Gebang. A small Hindu temple discovered in 1937 located near the Yogyakarta northern
ring-road. The temple display the statue of Ganesha and interesting carving of faces on
the roof section.
 Gana. Rich in statues, bas-reliefs and sculpted stones. Frequent representations of
children or dwarfs with raised hands. Located in the middle of housing complex. Under
restoration since 1997.
 Sambisari. Discovered in 1966, this Hindu temple was buried in volcanic lahar 4m deep.
A main temple housen a large linggam and yoni with three smaller temple at the front.
 Kedulan. Discovered in 1994 by sand diggers, 4m deep. Square base of main temple
visible. Secondary temples not yet fully excavated. This temple shared similar design and
style with Sambisari.
 Morangan. Hindu temple complex buried several meters under volcanic ashes, located
northwest from Prambanan.
 Pustakasala. Discovered in 2009 buried in Indonesia Islamic University ground.
Together with Morangan these temple is the northernmost of temples discovered in this
area.

KEDU
The other plain is the Kedu Plain, also known as Progo River valley, is the fertile
volcanic plain that lies between the volcanoes, Mount Sumbing and Mount Sundoro to the
west, and Mount Merbabu and Mount Merapi to the east, roughly corresponds to present-
day Magelang and Temanggung Regency of Central Java, Indonesia.
The Progo River runs through the center of this plain, from its source on the slope of Mount
Sundoro to the southern coast of Java facing the Indian Ocean. It has been a significant
location in Central Javanese history for over a millennium, as it contains traces of
the Sailendra dynasty as well as Borobudur and associated locations. During the
colonial Dutch East Indies period, the Kedu Plain was located in the Kedu Residency, which
at that time covered what are now the Magelang Regency, Magelang City, and Temanggung
Regency administrative units.

33
The Kedu Plain hosts a large number of Hindu and Buddhist temples dated, from the 8th to
the 9th century. Because of this, the Kedu Plain is considered the cradle of classic Indonesian
civilization. The temples in the region include:

Stupas overlook the Kedu Plain

 Borobudur: The gigantic 8th century stone mandala Buddhist monument was built by
the Sailendras.
 Mendut: The 8th century Buddhist temple is housing three large stone statues
of Vairocana, Avalokiteshvara, and Vajrapani.
 Pawon: The small 8th century Buddhist temple near the bank of Progo River is located
between Mendut and Borobudur.
 Ngawen: The 8th century Buddhist temple is located about 5 kilometers east of Mendut
temple.
 Banon: The ruins of a Hindu temple; located several hundred meters north of Pawon
temple. However, no significant remains of the temple have survived, thus, its
reconstruction is impossible. Only the statues of Shiva, Vishnu, Agastya,
and Ganesha have been discovered, which are now displayed at the National Museum of
Indonesia, Jakarta.
 Canggal: also known as Candi Gunung Wukir. One of the oldest Hindu temples in the
area. The temple is located in the Muntilan area, near the temple a Canggal
inscription connected with Sri Sanjaya, the king of Mataram Kingdom was discovered.
 Gunung Sari: The ruins of a Hindu temple on top of a hill, located near Candi Gunung
Wukir, on the outskirts of Muntilan.
 Umbul: in Grabag, Magelang; it served as a bathing and resting place for the kings
of Mataram

34
 The map of Hindu-Buddhist kingdom of Kalingga , circa 6th to 7th century CE. Located
somewhere on the north coast of Central Java, Indonesia.

35
Candi Sewu temple layout

Sewu is an eighth century Mahayana Buddhist temple located 800 metres north
of Prambanan in Central Java, Indonesia. The word for a Hindu or Buddhist
temple in Indonesian is "candi," hence the common name is "Candi Sewu." Candi Sewu is the
second largest Buddhist temple complex in Indonesia; Borobudur is the largest. Sewu
predates nearby "Loro Jonggrang" temple at Prambanan. Although the complex consists of
249 temples, this Javanese name translates to 'a thousand temples,' which originated from
popular local folklore (The Legend of Loro Jonggrang). Archaeologists believe the original
name for the temple compound to be Manjusrigrha.

36
 CONSTRUCTION

Manjusrigrha inscription (792 CE), discovered in 1960 at the outer west perwara temple no. 202 (row 4
no. 37) of Sewu Buddhist temple.

According to the Kelurak inscription (dated from 782 CE) and the Manjusrigrha
inscription (dated from 792 CE), which were discovered in 1960, the original name of the
temple complex was probably "Manjusri grha" (The House of Manjusri). Manjusri is
a Bodhisattva from Mahayana Buddhist teachings that symbolizes the "gentle glory" of
transcendent wisdom (Sanskrit: prajñā). Sewu Temple was built by the end of eighth century
at the end of Rakai Panangkaran's reign and was completed during the reign of his
successor, King Indra. Rakai Panangkaran (746–780 CE) was well known as a devoted
Mahayana Buddhist king who ruled the Medang Mataram Kingdom.
Built 70 years before tge Hindu Shiva temple og Prambhanan, the Manjusrigrha temple
was the largest Buddhist temple in the Prambanan Plain region and the Borobudur was
completed 37 years later.
Located in the heart of Mataram, the temple served as the royal Buddhist temple of the
kingdom. Stately religious ceremonies were held here regularly. The Manjusrigrha inscription
(792) praises the perfect beauty of the prasada (tower) of this temple compound.
The Bubrah temple, (read later in this paper ) is located several hundred meters south, and
the Gana temple, located is ob east of the Sewu temple. Both these are supposedlyguardian
temples for the Manjusrigrha complex, guarding the four cardinal directions around the Sewu
temple. Prior to the construction of Borobudur and Prambanan, Sewu likely served as the
kingdom's main temple. The temples are arranged in the mandala layout, which symbolizes
the universe in Buddhist cosmology.
Sewu temple was probably expanded and completed during the rule of Rakai Pikatan, a
prince who married a Buddhist princess from the Sailendra dynasty, Pramodhawardhani.
Most of his subjects retained their old religions after the court returned to favour Hinduism.
The proximity of the Sewu temple to Prambanan, a Hindu Temple, suggests that the Hindu
and Buddhist communities lived in harmony during the era in which the temples were built.
And the scale of the temple complex suggests that Candi Sewu was a royal Buddhist temple
that served as an important religious site.
1.1.4 Rediscovery

37
Although buried deep beneath the volcanic debris around Mount Merapi, the temple ruins
were not completely forgotten by the local Javanese inhabitants. However, the origins of the
temple were a mystery. Over the centuries, tales and legends infused with myths of giants and
a cursed princess were recounted by villagers. Prambanan and Sewu were purport to be of
supernatural origin, and in the legend of Loro Jonggrang they were said to have been created
by a multitude of demons under the order of Bandung Bondowoso. Such tales are most likely
the reason the temples were preserved through the centuries prior to the Java War (1825–
1830). The local villagers dared not remove any of the temple stones, believing the ruins to
be haunted by supernatural beings.
12. In 1733, Pakubuwono II granted the Dutch merchant Cornelius Antonie Lons
permission to make a sightseeing tour through the heartland of Mataram. Lons' report
of this trip contains the first known extant description of the Sewu and Prambanan
temples and in the years 1806–07, the Dutch archaeologist Hermann
Cornelius unearthed the Sewu temples.
13. During the Java War (1825–1830) some of the temple stones were carted away and
used in fortifications. In the years that followed the temples suffered from looting.
14. Many of the Buddha statues were decapitated and the heads stolen. Some Dutch
colonists stole sculptures and used them as garden ornaments, and native villagers
used the foundation stones as construction material.
15. Some of the temple's best preserved bas-reliefs, Buddha's head, and some ornaments
were carried away from the site and ended up in museums and private collections
abroad.
16. In 1867, Isidore van Kinsbergen photographed the ruins of Candi Sewu after an
earthquake had caused the dome in main temple to collapse.
17. In 1885 Jan Willem IJzerman, revising some plans of the temple complex made
earlier by Cornelius, made notes regarding the temple's condition. He noted that
several Buddha heads were missing.
18. By 1978 none of the Buddha heads had survived, all of them having been looted from
the site completely
19. In 1901 a new set of photographs was taken, sponsored by Leydie Melville.
20. In 1908 Theodoor van Erp [nl] initiated the clearing and reconstruction of the main
temple.
21. In 1915 H. Maclaine Pont drew the reconstruction of a temples of the second row. It
was de Haan who reconstructed the Perwara temples with the aid of Van Kinsbergen's
photographs.
22. Subsequently, the temple became a subject of study among archaeologists
1.1.5 Contemporary events
Since the early 20th century the temple has been slowly and carefully reconstructed, yet it has
not been completely restored. There are hundreds of temple ruins, and many stones are
missing. The main temple reconstruction and two of the apit temples on the east side were
completed in 1993 and inaugurated by President Soeharto on 20 February 1993.
The temple was severely damaged during the 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake. The structural
damage was significant, and the central temple suffered the worst. Large pieces of debris
were scattered about on the grounds, and cracks between stone blocks were detected. To
prevent the central temple from collapsing, metal frame structures were erected on the four
corners and attached to support the main temple. Although some weeks later in 2006 the site
was reopened for visitors, the main temple remained closed for safety reasons. Today the
metal frame has been removed, and visitors may visit and enter the main temple.

38
The Sewu Temple often hosts the annual Vesak ceremony.

A lithograph of Tjandi Sewoe ruins near Prambanan, circa 1859

Image extracted from page 281 of volume 1 of Neerlands-Oost-Indie. Reizen over Java, Madura,(1852-
1857), by BUDDINGH, Steven Adriaan. Original held and digitised by the British Library.

39
 Candi Sewu
main temple at left and one of apit temple at right BELOW Aerial view of Sewu temple
near Prambanan shows the mandala layout of the main temple surrounds by smaller perwara
temples.

Candi Sewu Layout

40
An architectural model of Candi Sewu temple compound, reconstruct the complete condition of
the 8th century Sewu temple in Central Java, Indonesia.
The Sewu temple complex is the largest Buddhist compound in the Prambanan area,
with rectangular grounds that measure 185 meters north-south and 165 meters east-west.
There is an entrance on all four cardinal points, but the main entrance is located on the east
side. Each of the entrances is guarded by twin Dvarapala statues. These large guardian statues
have been better preserved, and replicas can be found at Jogja Kraton. There are 249
buildings in the complex are arranged in a Mandala pattern around the main central hall. This
configuration expresses the Mahayana Buddhist view of the universe. There are 240 smaller
temples, called Perwara (guardian) temples, with similar designs that are arranged in four
rectangular concentric rows. Two outer rows are arranged closer and consist of 168 smaller
temples, while two inner rows, arranged at certain intervals, consist of 72 temples. The 249
temples located in the second precinct were all made with a square frame but varied by
different statues and orientations. Many of the statues are now gone, and the arrangements on
the current site are not in the original orientations. The statues are comparable to the statues
of Borobudur and were likely made of bronze.

Along the north-south and east-west central axis at a distance of about 200 meters, between
the second and third rows of the smaller temple are located the apit (flank) temples, a couple
on each cardinal point facing each other. The apit temples are the second largest temples after
the main temple, however only eastern twin apit and a northern one still remain today. These
smaller temples encompass a larger sanctuary that has been heavily looted. Behind the fourth
row of smaller temples lies the stone paved courtyard where the main temple stood on the
center.

41
The nearby temples, Gana temple in the east and Bubrah temple in the south, are suggested as
the part of greater Manjusrigrha vajradhatu mandala complex. Both temples are located
around 300 metres from the Sewu main temple. There are northern and western ruins
discovered around the same distance from the main temple, however the stones was too
scarce for reconstruction. These temples suggested that indeed the Sewu temple compound
was completed with four additional temples, located 300 metres from the main temple, which
is corresponds with the mandala and the guardians of the directions concept.
The main temple measures 29 meters in diameter and soars up to 30 meters high. The
ground plan of the main temple is a cross-shaped 20-sided polygon. On each of the four
cardinal points of the main temple, there are four structures projected outward, each with its
own stairs, entrances and rooms, crowned with stupas, which form a cross-like layout. All of
the structures are made from andesite stones.
The main temple has five rooms, one large garbhagriha in the center and four smaller rooms
in each cardinal direction. These four rooms are all connected with outer corner galleries with
balustrades bordered by rows of small stupas. From the findings during the reconstruction
process, it was suggested that the original design of central sanctuary only consisted of a
central roomed temple surrounded by four additional structures with open portals. Doorways
were added later. The portals were narrowed to create door frames on which to attach wooden
doors. Some of the holes to attach doors are still visible. The doorways join the temples
together into one main building with five rooms.
The central chamber can be reached from the eastern room. The central chamber is larger
than other rooms with a higher ceiling and a taller roof. Now all the five rooms are
empty. However the lotus carved stone pedestal in the central chamber suggests that the
temple once contained a large bronze Buddhist statue (possible the bronze statue
of Manjusri), probably reaching a height of four meters. The statue is missing, probably
looted for scrap metal over the centuries. However another theory suggested that the main
statue was probably constructed from several stone blocks coated with vajralepa plaster.

The ruin of Bubrah temple in 2006, prior of reconstruction/ The makara stairs adornment of
Bubrah temple in 1900s

42
As an architectural masterpiece built in the 8th century and older than Borobudur and
Prambanan Temples, Sewu Temple has an important role in the development of archipelago’s
architecture. The background of the temple building can be known through the ornaments
that decorate parts of the temple. Ornaments contain certain meanings with Hindu-Buddhist
principles, not only as visual ornament elements, so the role of ornaments is important.
Ornaments are an artistic component that is added to decoration in crafts, including
architecture. Ornamentation cannot be separated from the socio-cultural background of the
community and the area of origin of the ornament, because ornamentation is a means of
communication to reduce culture from the previous generation to the next generation.
Therefore, it is necessary to further study the evolution or development of the forms and
meanings of architectural ornaments in the archipelago with a time series of architectural
developments in the Hindu-Buddhist era and traditional architecture, especially Java,
following the location of the temple. The purpose of this study is to examine the evolution of
forms, patterns, and meanings of Hindu-Buddhist architectural ornaments found in Sewu
Temple in their development towards traditional Javanese architecture. This research uses
descriptive qualitative method. This research found that there is a relationship between
1
Javanese architectural ornaments and architectural ornaments
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

2. Evolution of Hindu–Buddhist Architectural Ornaments Into Javanese Traditional Architecture:

Case Study of Sewu Temple Ayu Ratna Pertiwi- Advances in Social Science, Education and
Humanities Research, volume 421 4th International Conference on Arts Language and Culture
(ICALC 2019)

43
Once a bustling city, Prambanan is a multi-religious temple-complex at the center of Java.
While the site is best known for its Hindu temples, it is also home to Candi Sewu, the largest
enterable Buddhist temple in all of Indonesia. Composed of hundreds of small stupas
surrounding a cruciform central shrine, the complex covers more than twenty-seven square
kilometers (seventeen square miles) and is replete with finely carved Buddhist deities. In the
spread of Indian religious ideas, Buddhists played an especially active role. Buddhist
communities found great sponsorship in Indonesia’s eighth- and ninth-century rulers. The
plethora of Buddhist figures at Candi Sewu proclaim the establishment’s religious dedication,
and the temple’s massive scale points to elite patronage.

44
Candi Sewu; Right: Sundaravarada-Perumal temple; south India, Tamil Nadu, Uttiramerur; Pallava period, 9th century; granite.
(RIGHT) Today, many of Candi Sewu’s freestanding buddhas are missing their heads. Such losses are due
to looting, intentional destruction, and forces of nature over the course of the last millennium.

The eighth and ninth centuries were a period of heightened contact between India and
Southeast Asia. Imagery and texts circulated along with the people who traveled across the
regions. Candi Sewu’s sculptures show close connections with Indian sculpture from this
period. See, for example, the lions that are positioned at corners along the temple’s base.
Much like the lion at a temple in Tamil Nadu, the animal sits back on its haunches, its tail
upturned and mouth open, and its head seems to support the structure above.

45
Relief carvings on surviving and restored buildings have better stood the test of time.
Prominent imagery includes bodhisattvas in palatial settings, gandharvas and devatas (minor
deities), and flying rishis (sages) who shower devotees with blessings as they enter the
temple. Bells and billowing garments evoke sound and movement.RIGHT - A flight of stairs
leads through a vestibule and into the central shrine, which quickly plunges into darkness.

In the middle of the chamber is an altar with an empty throne positioned high on a
semicircular platform.From the top, temple priests could have lustrated an image or a holy
person with sacred fluids and possibly flowers. https://asia.si.edu/collections-area/southeast-
asian/sacred-sites-in-southeast-asia-candi-sewu/

The Buddhist temple of Bubrah or Candhi Bubrah is a 9th-

century Buddhist temple located within the complex of the Prambanan Temple
Archaeological Park, in Central Java, Indonesia. The temple is located within Prambanan

46
or Kewu Plain, an archaeologically rich area dotted with numerous Hindu-Buddhist temples
dated circa 8th to 9th century CE. To visit Bubrah temple, visitors can go through
the Prambanan temple compound entrance.
The temple is located around 300 meters south from Sewu temple. Archaeologists suggest
that the temple is actually a part of the greater Sewu temple compound (Manjusrigrha
complex), as the southern temple marking the southern point of the mandala layout. This
suggestion is based on the fact that there is a similar-sized temple on the eastern side called
Candi Gana that marking the eastern end on Manjusrigrha mandala. On northern and western
sides around 300 metres from Sewu main temple, there were also ruins discovered, however,
the stones are too scarce to reconstruct. In conclusion, Bubrah temple were originally part of
four vanguard temples placed around 300 meters in four cardinal points from the main temple
of Sewu. Bubrah is the guardian temple of southern direction, according to mandala
and guardians of the directions concept.
The original name of this temple is unknown, however the local Javanese named the temple
"candi bubrah", which means "ruins temple" in the Javanese language. The name reflect the
conditions of this temple during its discovery, which was a heap of 2 metres tall stone
ruins. Bubrah means broken, in ruins or disorderly in Javanese, it has been in a state of ruins
for many years, until it was reconstructed between 2011 and 2017. The temple is a part
of Prambanan Temple Compounds, a World Heritage Site since 1991.
It is located between Sewu temple compound in the north and Lumbung temple in the south.
Administratively, this temple is located in Bener Hamlet, Bugisan Village, Prambanan
District, Klaten Regency, Central Java . Unlike the Prambhanan. Bubrah temple is a
Buddhist temple, and was built around the 9th century during the era of the Mataram
kingdom that ruled Central Java and some parts of Eastern Java. The temple is closely related
to Sewu temple which is located around 300 metres to the north. [2] Bubrah temple believed
was constructed around the same period or slightly later after the completion of nearby Sewu
and Lumbung temple, all three being a Buddhist-style mandala. The Sewu complex was built
by Rakai Panangkaran hailed as Shailendra Wamsatilaka, or the ornament of the Shailendra
dynasty. Bubrah temple seems to be added later to complete Manjusrigrha (Sewu) vajradhatu
mandala as the southern shrine dedicated as the guardian of directions. Thus possibly Bubrah
temple was constructed after the reign of Panangkaran, either during the reign
of Dharanindra, or possibly Samaragrawira, which means the temple was constructed in the
early 9th century.
After the move of the capital to eastern Java circa the 11th century, the temple was neglected.
For centuries later, it fell into disrepair, buried under Mount Merapi volcanic debris and
shaken by earthquakes.
The temple was in ruins during its rediscovery back in the early 19th century, along with
nearby Prambanan and Sewu temple compound. During its rediscovery, the temple took form
of a 2 metres tall mounds of stone, thus the gave the name Bubrah which in Javanese means
"ruins". Throughout the 20th century, nothing much had been done to restore and reconstruct
the temple, as the temple stones were left scattered around the area.
In 1992, the temple was included within the area of Prambanan Archaeological Park or
Prambanan Temple Tourism Park, along with nearby Lumbung, Sewu, and Prambanan
temples, registered as Prambanan Temple Compound and recognized as a UNESCO World
Heritage Site.
Between 2011 and 2017 the temple had undergone reconstruction. The project developed in 7
stages, and was completed on 14 December 2017, inaugurated by Muhajir Effendy,

47
Indonesian Minister of Education and Culture. The reconstruction took 7 years and 11 billion
rupiah cost.
The temple plan measures 12 x 12 metres and facing east side, with flight of stairs, portico
and portal facing east. The design of the temple is similar to the Apit temple within the Sewu
temple compound and Sojiwan temple not far south. The roof is lined with rows of smaller
stupas, with larger main stupa as the pinnacle of the structure.

PRAMBHANAN COMPLEX

48
 III
Sanjay and Shailedra Dynasties

The historical context surrounding the Mataram culture and civilization of the Mataram
Kingdom is not only interesting but a little confusing.
The Trimurthi temple of Prambanan or Rara Jonggrang is the largest Hindu temple of ancient
Java, 9th from century. Built by Rakai Pikatan to establish power of Sanjay dynasty and
dedicated to Trimūrti-Brahma Vishnu Mahesh, it is an UNESCO World Heritage Site; 2nd
largest Hindu temple in Southeast Asia.

Prambanan temple complex at night

Sanjaya (732-760) and Panangkaran (760-780)-shailendra dynasty confusion is still there?

both r related? few say Sanjay as Shaiv & Shailendra kings as Buddhist? both faiths
interlinked and overlapping too, in my opinion

Religion in the Mataram Kingdom

It played much the same role throughout much of recorded history, giving rise to early
kingdoms such as Mataram. As the population of Java continues to increase and becomes
more modern and urban, the Indonesia of today still holds strong to its cultural and historical
roots.The Mataram society was polytheistic and combined the religious beliefs of Hinduism
and Buddhism, along with native shamanism and pre-Dharmic beliefs. Under the rule of King
Sanjaya, the Mataram Kingdom favored and worshipped Lord Shiva and gave much
importance to his symbol, the Linga. The Mataram Kingdom flourished between 712 and 938
in Central Java, an island of Indonesia and lies southeast of Malaysia and west of Bali. It is
also noted to be the world’s most populous island in the world today.

49
 1.2 VANDE MATARAM
1.3 THE MATARAM KINGDOM, ALSO CALLED THE MEDANG KINGDOM, WAS A
JAVANESE HINDU-BUDDHIST KINGDOM. IT WAS BASED IN CENTRAL AND
EAST JAVA AND FLOURISHED BETWEEN THE 8TH AND 11TH CENTURIES. IT
WAS RULED BY THE SHAILENDRA DYNASTY AND WAS ESTABLISHED BY
KING SANJAYA.

Vajrasattva. Eastern Java, Kediri period, 10th–11th century CE, bronze, 19.5 x 11.5 cm

1.4 ORIGINS OF THE MATARAM KINGDOM

Mataram means mother in Sanskrit and this mother Kingdom named itself so to give an ode
to the motherland. The first major kingdom of central Java was the Medang or Mataram
Kingdom, founded at the beginning of the 8th century. The earliest accounts of the Mataram
Kingdom are in the Canggal inscription, which dates back to 732.
The inscription gives an account of the erection of “Linga” (symbol of Lord Shiva) in the
Kunjarakunja area, which is located on the island of Yawadwipa (Java). This Linga was
raised under the rule of King Sanjaya, the lord of Mataram.
According to the inscription, the kingdom was first ruled by King Sanna, who was known for
his wisdom and knowledge. After his demise, there was a period of disunity, until Sanjaya,
the nephew of king Sanna, ascended the throne. During his reign, there was peace and
prosperity for all his subjects.
However, a Sundanese book called Carita Parahyangan gives a slightly different account of
the same story. In this book, Sanjaya is the son of Sanna. It also states that Sanna was
overthrown by the king of Galuh and was forced to retreat to Mount Merapi. His son,

50
Sanjaya, later avenged his father and defeated the King of Galuh. The kingdom was finally
restored to the rightful heir, and Sanjaya ruled West Java, East Java, Central Java, and Bali.
It is believed that King Sanjaya was the one who left the written records of these events on
the Canggal inscription, though it’s impossible to know for sure.

Mataram Kingdom Name Origins

Initially, the kingdom was called “Yawadvipa,” another name for the island of Java.
Indonesian archaeologists such as Prof.Soekmono of Indonesia identify the kingdom as
Mataram, based on a geographical location called Mataram in central Java. Additionally, king
Sanjaya’s full name was “Rakai Mataram Sang Ratu Sanjaya,” which may have been another
reason for the name of the kingdom. The etymology of the name “Mataram” is derived from
the Sanskrit term for “mother.”

The name Medang was found in East Javanese inscriptions. Some historians believe that the
Central Java period (732-929) was referred to as Mataram, and the later Eastern Java period
(929-1006) was identified as Medang.
However, it is also believed that the kingdom was called Medang, and the capital was
Mataram, based on some phrases found in the inscriptions. Etymologically, the name Medang
is an ancient Javanese term that means “to gracefully appear.”

Culture and Beliefs of the Mataram Kingdom and Mataram Social Structure
The Javanese had a complex social structure and also recognized the Hindu caste system. The
ancient Javanese society was divided into four classes:
 The royal family
 The religious authorities
 The commoners
Historians have discovered that the different classes had a dress code that they strictly
adhered to. The royal family and their servants could be identified by their luxurious clothing
and intricate golden jewelry. All the priests wore robes or cloaks called “sinhels.” The
commoners, who were also described as villagers, wore very simple clothing and rarely
adorned any jewelry or ornaments.

Religion in the Mataram Kingdom

The society was polytheistic and combined the religious beliefs of Hinduism and Buddhism,
along with native shamanism and pre-Dharmic beliefs. Under the rule of King Sanjaya, the
Mataram Kingdom favored and worshipped Lord Shiva and gave much importance to his
symbol, the Linga.
However, during the reign of Panangkaran, Mahayana Buddhism gained popularity. Many
temples were built to pay homage to Buddhist beliefs.

51
The kingdom gave importance to the priest class in both religions. The Brahmins and the
Sangha Buddhists represented their respective religions and conducted the state’s religious
ceremonies together in the temples.
There were many ardent temple construction projects in the kingdom which were possibly
motivated by the combined religious zeal of both religions.
In the 16th century, Islam became a major religion as the island of Java became a Muslim
sultanate.

Art in the Mataram Kingdom

The importance of art in the kingdom depicted through the various carvings found on the
temple walls during this era. These carvings gave rich portrayals of life during the ninth
century.
The architecture was another form of art that flourished during this period, and can still be
seen in their magnificent temples that exist even today.
There was a cultural mingling in the south-western part of Java, where the Javanese and
Sundanese cultures combined to create the Banyusaman culture. In addition to this, the most
famous Javanese arts were gamelan music and wayang puppet shows, which became
traditional arts.

History of the Mataram Kingdom and flip flop betweem the Hindus and the

Buyddhists:
Historians believe that there were two prevailing dynasties that ruled Central Java together;
the Buddhist Sailendra and Shivanist Sanjaya dynasties. This period of the dual dynasty
was characterized by peaceful co-operation. However, in the middle of the ninth century, the
relationship between the dynasties deteriorated. The Sailendra managed to gain full control of
Central Java and became the overlords of the Sanjayas.

There is not much information regarding the Sailendra rule, but it signified a cultural
renaissance in the region. The kingdom saw rapid growth during the 9th century.
However, the Sailendra rule was short-lived. In 852, the Sanjaya ruler, Pikatan, defeated the
Sailendra ruler’s offspring and ended their rule in Java. The Sanjaya rule lasted until the end
of the Medang Kingdom. During his reign, King Pikatan built the royal Hindu Trimurti
temple known today as Candi Prambanan.
Mataram emerged in the highlands and fertile plains of Central Java, where productivity in
rice cultivation was aided by the advent of the island’s iconic rice terraces. These high yields

52
created the stable food source necessary for high population growth and an organized state
society, led by those who were in control of the upland water sources.
This societal organization would later go on to become proficient builders on not only the
public infrastructure needed for water management, but the monumental Hindu-Buddhist
religious architecture that still dots much of Java, including the renowned Borobudur and
Prambanan temples.

Mataram in Eastern Java

Central Java was always the center of the Mataram Kingdom. But in 929, the center was
shifted to East Java. Historians are uncertain about the exact cause for this sudden shift, but
believe it may have been because of a natural calamity or epidemic outbreak.
They also believe that the Merapi volcano may have erupted and destroyed the Kingdom’s
capital in Mataram. This expansion took place under the rule of the last king of the Sanjaya
dynasty, Mpu Sindok.

What Happened to the Mataram Kingdom?

Mataram flouruished between the Era: 712 – 938 CE and was located in Central Java,
Indonesia. Its Capital was Yogyakarta. However there was an ongoing rivalry between the
Sumatran Srivijaya and Javanese Medang kingdoms, which became more hostile.
This rivalry may have been caused by the Srivijayan attempt to seize the Sailendra lands in
Java. This is because the Srivijaya maharajas, Balaputra and his son, belonged to the
Sailendra dynasty. The collapse of the kingdom occurred in the tenth century.

In 1006, Srivijaya attacked and destroyed the Medang palace, killing most of the royal
family. With the death of king Dharmawangsa and the fall of the capital, the kingdom finally
collapsed.
However, a nephew of king Dharmawangsa had escaped capture and had remained in exile.
Later on, he reunited the fallen kingdom and re-established the kingdom (including Bali)
under the name of the kingdom of Kahuripan. After many years, the kingdom was renamed
as Kediri.
Mataram Kingdom was an early Indianized kingdom emerging from native Javanese
population. Its languages wer: Old Javanese, Sanskrit; religion: Buddhism (Mahayana),
Hinduism

Decline: Fell to Srivijaya, later reemerging as the Kediri Kingdom.

Today Indonesia is administered so that at first level subdivisions of Indonesia is Province. A
province is headed by a governor (Gubernur). Each province has its own regional assembly,
called Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah (DPRD, literally "Regional People's Representative
53
Council"). Governors and representative members are elected by popular vote for five-year
terms. Provinces was formerly also known as Daerah Tingkat I (Level I Region).
State emblem of Indonesia is called Garuda
Pancasila. The main part of the coat of arms is the
golden mythical bird Garuda with a shield on its
chest and a scroll gripped by its leg bears the
national motto: "Bhinneka Tunggal Ika", roughly
means "Unity in Diversity".

The shield's five emblems represent Pancasila, the

five principles of Indonesia's national philosophy.
The numbers of feathers was meant to symbolize the
date of Indonesian Proclamation of Independence;
17 feathers on each wings, 8 tail feathers, 19 upper
tail feathers (under the shield, above the tail), and 45
neck feathers; all symbolize 17-8-1945; 17th August
1945. Adopted as national coat of arms on February
11, 1950.

The Bi-Polar Kingdom of Kediri

By the beginning of the 13 th Century, according to a Chinese source in the book of Chu-fan-
chi written around 1225, the Southeast Asian archipelago had two powerful and rich
kingdoms: Srivijaya and Java (Kediri). In Java he found that people adhere two
religions: Buddhism and the religion of Brahmin (Hinduism). The book of Chu-fan-
chi mentioned that Java (Kediri) was ruled by a maharaja, who ruled several colonies.
Regarding Srivijaya, Chou-Ju-Kua reported that Kien-pi (Kampe, in northern Sumatra) with
armed forced rebellion had liberated themselves from Srivijaya, and crowned their own king.
The same fate befell some of Srivijaya's colonies on the Malay Peninsula that liberated
themselves from Srivijaya domination. However Srivijaya was still the mightiest and
wealthiest state in the western part of the archipelago. According to this source, in the early
13th century Srivijaya still ruled Sumatra, the Malay peninsula, and western Java (Sunda).

Regarding Sunda, the book details that the port of Sunda (Sunda Kelapa) was excellent and
strategically located, and that the pepper from Sunda was among the best quality. The people
worked in agriculture; their houses were built on wooden piles (rumah panggung). However
the country was infested with robbers and thieves.

The Kingdom of Kediri is the successor of Airlangga's Kahuripan kingdom, and thought as
the continuation of Isyana Dynasty in Java. In 1042, Airlangga divided his kingdom of
Kahuripan into two, Janggala and Panjalu (Kadiri), and abdicated in favour of his sons to live
as an ascetic. He died seven years later.It existed alongside the Srivijaya empire based in
Sumatra throughout 11th to 12th-century, and seems to have maintained trade relations with
China and to some extent India. Chinese account identify this kingdom as Tsao-wa or Chao-
wa (Java), numbers of Chinese records signify that Chinese explorers and traders frequented
this kingdom. Relations with India were cultural one, as numbers of Javanese rakawi (poet or
scholar) wrote literatures that been inspired by Hindu mythology, beliefs and epics such as
Mahabharata and Ramayana.

54
In 11th-century, Srivijayan hegemony in Indonesian archipelago began to decline, marked
by Rajendra Chola invasion to Malay Peninsula and Sumatra. The Chola king
of Coromandel conquered Kedah from Srivijaya. The weakening of Srivijayan hegemony has
enabled the formation of regional kingdoms, like Kediri, based on agriculture rather than
trade. Later Kediri managed to control the spice trade routes to Maluku.

Airlangga's embodiment statue as Lord Vishnu riding Garuda, found in Belahan, collection of Trowulan
Museum, East Java.//// Statue of Vishnu. Kediri, East Java, circa 12th–13th century

Era of twin kingdoms

Period
of King/Maharaja Inscriptions and events
reign

Mentioned in inscription
Çri Samaravijaya of Pucangan (1041). Is the king
1042- Dharmasuparnawahana of the Kediri kingdom after the
1051 Teguh Uttunggadewa event of the division of the
(Çri Samaravijaya) kingdom by king Airlangga to his
two sons.

Çri Jitendrakara
1051- Wuryyawïryya Parakrama Mentioned in inscription of Mataji
1112 Bhakta inscription (1051).
(Çri Jitendrakara)

55
Period
of King/Maharaja Inscriptions and events
reign

Çri Maharaja Rake sirikan Mentioned in inscription of

çri Paramecwara Padlegan I, Panumbangan
Sakalabhuwana inscription, Tangkilan inscription,
1112-
Tustikaranani waryyawïryya Besole inscription, Bameswara
1135
Parakrama inscription, Karanggayam
Digjayottunggadewa inscription, Geneng inscription,
(Çri Bamesvara) Pagiliran inscription.

Çri Maharaja Sang Mapanji

Jayabhaya çri
Mentioned in inscription
Dharmmeçwara
1135- of Hantang (1135), Jepun
Madhusudanawataranindita
1159 inscription (1144) and Talan
Suhrtsingha Parakrama
inscription (1058).
Digjayottunggadewa
(Jayabaya)

Çri Maharaja Rakai Sirikan

çri Sarwweçwara
Janardanawatara Wijaya Mentioned in inscription of
1159-
Agrajasama Singhadani Kahyunan and Padlegan II
1171
Waryawirya Parakrama inscription (1159).
Digjayottunggadewa
(Çri Sarvesvara)

Çri maharaja rakai hino çri

Aryyeçwara Madhusudand
1171- watdrdrijalyamukha Mentioned in inscription of Waleri
1181 Sakalabhuwana ritiniwiryya and Angin inscription (1171).
Parakramottunggadewa
(Çri Aryesvara)

Çri maharaja çri

Kroncarryadipa
Handabhuwanapalaka
1181- Mentioned in inscription of Jaring
Parakramanindita
1182 inscription.
Digjayottunggadewanama
çri Gandra
(Çri Gandra)

1182- Çri Maharaja Rake Sirikan Mentioned in inscription of

56
 Period
of King/Maharaja Inscriptions and events
reign

çri Kameçvara
Sakalabhuvanatustikarana
Sarvanivaryyaviryya Semanding (1182) and Ceker
1194
Parakrama inscription (1185).
Digjayottunggadeva
(Kameçvara)

Çri maharaja çri Mentioned in inscription of Sapu

Sarwweçwara Angin inscription, Galunggung
Triwikramawataranindita inscription, Kamulan inscription,
1194-
Çrngga lancana Palah inscription, Biri inscription,
1222
Digwijayottunggadewa Lawadan
inscription, Nagarakretagama),
(Kertajaya) fall in 1144 Shaka (1222).

Jayakatwang's rebellion from Gelang-gelang or Gegelang which revived

the short-lived second dynasty of Kadiri.

1292- Çri Jayakatwang Mentioned in inscription

1293 (Jayakatwang) of Nagarakretagama (1365).[2]: 168

See also
The first king of Kediri to leave historical records was Maharaja Çri Samaravijaya. His
royal seal was Garudmukhalancana or Garudmukha, the same as Airlangga's. he reigned
from 1042-1051 and succeeded by Çri Jitendrakara Parakrama Bakta in 1051-1112.
It is not known exactly when Çri Bamesvara ascended the throne of the Kediri Kingdom.
The Lanchana (royal seal) of his reign was a skull with a crescent moon
called chandrakapala, the symbol of Shiva. During the reign of Maharaja Çri
Bamesvara himself, there were at least ten inscriptions containing the development of Java
in the eastern part around 1112-1135.
Jayabhaya (reigned 1135-1157) succeeded Bamesvara. His formal stylised name was Çri
Maharaja çri Dharmmeçwara Madhusudanawataranindita Suhrtsingha Parakrama
Digjayottunggadewa. The Lanchana (royal seal) of his reign was Narasinghavatara depicts
one of the avatars of Lord Vishnu, namely Narasinghavatara. His form is described as a
human with a lion's head tearing the stomach of Hiranyakasipu (King of the Giants). The
name Jayabhaya was immortalised in Sedah's Kakawin Bharatayuddha, a Javanese version
of the Mahabharata, written in 1135. This Kakawin was perfected by his brother, Mpu

57
Panuluh. Mpu Panuluh wrote Hariwangsa and Gatotkacasraya. Jayabhaya's reign was
considered the golden age of Old Javanese literature. The Prelambang Joyoboyo, a prophetic
book ascribed to Jayabhaya, is well known among Javanese. It predicted that the archipelago
would be ruled by a white race for a long time, then a yellow race for a short time, then be
glorious again. The Jayabhaya prophecies mention Ratu Adil, the Just Prince, a recurring
popular figure in Javanese folklore. During the reign, Ternate was a vassal state of Kediri.
Jayabhaya's successor was Sarwweçwara/Sarvesvara (reigned from 1159 to 1171) the royal
symbol is named Sarwwecwaralancana, wing-shaped numbering nine and at the end there is
a crested circle. Where everything is surrounded by three striped circles.
followed by Aryyeçwara/Aryesvara (reigned 1171-1181), who uses Ganesha the elephant-
headed god as Lanchana of his kingdom. and became the (royal seal) of his reign and the
Kingdom of Kadiri as stated in the inscription.
The next monarch was king Gandra his formal stylised name was Çri maharaja çri
Kroncarryadipa Handabhuwanapalaka Parakramanindita Digjayottunggadewanama çri
Gandra. An inscription (dated 1181) from his reign documents the beginning of the adoption
of animal names for important officials, such as Kbo Salawah, Menjangan Puguh, Lembu
Agra, Gajah Kuning, and Macan Putih. Among these highly ranked officials mentioned in
the inscription, there is a title Senapati Sarwwajala, or laksmana, a title reserved for navy
generals, which means that Kediri had a navy during his reign.
The eighth king was Kameçvara. His formal stylised name was Çri Maharaja Rake Sirikan
çri Kameçvara Sakalabhuwanatustikarana Sarwaniwaryyawiryya Parakrama
Digjayottunggadewa. He uses the (winged shell) as his royal seal under the
name Kamecwaralancana. During his reign, Mpu Dharmaja wrote Smaradhana, in which the
king was adored as the incarnation of Kamajaya, the god of love, and his capital city Dahana
was admired throughout the known world. Kameçvara's wife, Çri Kirana, was celebrated as
the incarnation of Kamaratih, goddess of love and passion. The tales of this story, known
as Panji cycle, spread throughout Southeast Asia as far as Siam.
The last king of Kediri was Kritajaya/Kertajaya (1194–1222), King Çrngga or Kritajaya
ruled Kediri, with the official name Çri maharaja çri Sarwweçwara
Triwikramawataranindita Çrngga lancana Digwijayottunggadewa. He used a Crnggalancana
picture of (Cangkha) flanked by two horns and continued with the words "Krtajaya" above.
The presence of a dominant horns makes this badge called Crnggalancana or horned badge.
In 1222 he was forced to surrender his throne to Ken Arok and so lost the sovereignty of his
kingdom to the new kingdom of Singhasari. This was the result of his defeat at the battle of
Ganter. This event marked the end of Kediri era, and the beginning of the Singhasari era.

58
Srivijaya and Kediri around 12th to early 13th century AD
According to a Chinese source in the book of Chu-f
Agastya
The Canggal inscription is a Sanskrit inscription dated to 732, discovered in the Gunung
Wukir temple complex in Kadiluwih village, Salam, Magelang Regency, Central
Java, Indonesia. The inscription is written in the Pallava alphabet. The inscription documents
an edict of Sanjaya, in which he declared himself the universal ruler of Mataram Kingdom.

The inscription describes the erection of a lingam (the symbol of Shiva) on the country of
Kunjarakunja, by Sanjaya's order. The lingam is sited on the noble island of Yava (Java),
which the inscription describes as "rich in grain and gold mines".Yawadwipa ("Java island"),
and had long been under the rule of the wise and virtuous king Sanna, but fell into disunity
after his death. Amid a period of confusion Sanjaya, son of Sannaha (the sister of Sanna)

59
ascended to the throne. Sanjaya mastered holy scriptures, martial arts, and displayed military
prowess. After the conquest of neighboring areas his reign was peaceful and prosperous.
The inscription makes reference to Kunjarakunja-desa, perhaps meaning "the hermitage land
of Kunjara", which has been identified as the hermitage of Rishi Agastya, a Hindu Maharishi
revered in Southern India. The Ramayana contains a reference to a visit to Agastya hermitage
on Kunjara by Rama, Sita, and Lakshmana.
The name Sanjaya, Sanna and Sannaha curiously was also mentioned in Carita Parahyangan,
a book from later period composed around 16th century which suggested refer to same
historical person.

The main temple of the Penataran complex took the form of a stepped pyramid.
Penataran or Panataran (Indonesian: Candi Penataran) is one of the largest Hindu
temple ruins complex in East Java, Indonesia. It is located in Penataran, Blitar Regency,
roughly 12 km northeast of Blitar, with the closest airport being farther away at Malang.
Believed to have been constructed between the 12th century to the 15th century, the temple
played a significant role in the Majapahit Kingdom, especially under King Hayam Wuruk. He
considered his favorite sanctuary. Penataran dates from the Kediri era. This temple was
identified in Nagarakretagama as Palah temple and reported being visited by King Hayam
Wuruk during his royal tour across East Java. The site is being considered to be put on
the World Heritage list of sites that have "outstanding universal value" to the world.
However, on 2015, the site was pulled out from the tentative list along with 11 other sites.
Candi Panataran is a Shiva (Siwa) temple. It is notable for including one of the largest
Indonesian collection of reliefs showing life stories of Hindu god Vishnu in different avatar.
In particular, the temple site include the Rama story in the Javanese version of the
epic Ramayana, as well Krishna story as depicted Triguna's Krishnayana epic poem.
Comparative studies of reliefs related to Hindu epics at Penataran and Prambanan temple
(Yogyakarta) complexes have attracted the attention of archaeologists.[

60
The dated temple in the Penataran complex. The Penataran Temple is a temple that is four centuries old
because it was built and developed by several kingdoms at once, from the Kingdom of Kediri to Majapahit.

Candi Penataran, the Largest Ancient Hindu Temple Compound in East Java
Swirling tongues of fire welcomed erstwhile royal families and priests who ascended the
stairs of Palah, a late 12th-century Hindu temple located on the southwestern slopes of Mount
Kelud. The volcano was so active and unpredictable that a temple was deemed necessary to
appease Acalapati, the mountain god, so he would spare the surrounding settlements from his
erratic wrath. Inspired by Krishnayana (Krishna’s life told in an epic poem), the upper walls
of the temple were encrusted with bas-reliefs depicting scenes from the epic. One panel
portrayed Krishna’s escape from Kalayawana (Kalayavana), a ruthless king who was killed
by Muchukunda through his burning gaze (another version of the story refers to

61
Wiswamitra/Vishvamitra as the killer of Kalayavana). The flames were indeed a metaphor
for Kelud’s volcanic eruptions.

More than eight centuries later, I find myself looking at the same weathered relief, carved on
andesite rock on the second level of the stone platform. The motif itself is not instantly
recognizable, but on a closer inspection the outline of the flames is clearly the centerpiece of
the ornately-carved panel. Penataran, as Palah is known today, was commissioned by the king
of Kediri, a kingdom that emerged as a prominent power in eastern Java during the mid-11th
century.

Two centuries before the construction of Penataran, Java was already home to great Hindu
and Buddhist temples, including Borobudur and Prambanan, both built by the Central
Javanese rulers of the Medang kingdom. As the center of power on the island gradually
shifted to the east in the decades that followed, new temples were commissioned around the
new capital. However, unlike most Central Javanese temples which followed a concentric
layout (also known as mandala, representing the Hindu-Buddhist universe) with the most
important structure located at the center of the temple compound, Penataran – the largest
Hindu temple in East Java – was constructed in a linear layout where the sanctum is situated
at the back of the compound. This centuries-old layout is in fact still used in Bali to build
Balinese Hindu temples known as pura.
For three centuries since its completion, new structures were added to Penataran temple
complex by different rulers of East Java. Candi Naga, ‘dragon temple’, was commissioned in
the 13th century when this part of Java was controlled by the kingdom of Singhasari. Named
after its distinctive serpentine carvings, held by nine figures clad in opulent costumes, the
temple is believed to have functioned as a reliquary for sacred weapons. In front of Candi
Naga lies Candi Candra Sengkala, a 14th-century tall and slender addition to the temple
compound. Constructed in a typical East Javanese architectural style, the temple was built
under the rule of Hayam Wuruk, the greatest of all Majapahit kings. Majapahit itself was the
last great Hindu kingdom to ever rule much of Java.

Candi Naga, Named after the Mythical Serpent Carved around the Structure’s Walls//
The Story of Sri Tanjung, Popular in the 13th-Century East Java

62
The Slender and Distinctively East Javanese Candi Candra Sengkala

63
Ever-Menacing Kala above Candi Candra Sengkala’s Doorway

Candi Naga, South Side

64
Candi Naga, North Side

Candi Penataran, the Main Structure in the Compound

Following the decline of Majapahit as more and more people on the island converted to
Islam, Penataran’s importance gradually diminished until it was completely abandoned. In
the span of centuries, neglect and natural disasters caused heavy damage to the formerly
imposing temple. The rediscovery of Penataran is credited to Thomas Stamford Raffles, a
British colonial governor at a time when Java was briefly occupied by the British. The ruins
of the temple were first mentioned in a 1815 account, although reconstruction work did not
begin in earnest until many years later.
Further studies revealed that the lower walls of the three-tiered main temple were adorned
with stories from the Ramayana, one of the greatest and most well-known Hindu epics
alongside the Mahabharata. The Ramayana had inspired ancient Javanese sculptors to
immortalize figures, animals, plants and other motifs from the epic on andesite rock – widely
available in volcanic Java – which were then used to decorate a plethora of Hindu temples on
the island. However, Penataran’s medallions – depicting real and mythical animals – are
unique to the temple as they aren’t found on any Central Javanese temple.
65
In front of Candi Candra Sengkala is Batur Pendapa, where it is believed that devotees once
placed offerings in religious ceremonies. Modern-day visitors would likely notice the strange
look of the main sanctum, Batur Pendapa, as well as Bale Agung – also located at the front
part of the compound – for they all seem to have lost their upper structures. Believed to be
made from perishable materials – possibly wood and ijuk (palm fiber) – these structures have
long succumbed to the power of nature. Fortunately some relief panels at the lower part of the
main temple suggest how the whole structure used to look, which unsurprisingly reminds me
of some Hindu temples in Bali given the fact that many Javanese royals fled to the
neighboring island following the decline of Hinduism in Java.

Candi Penataran’s Unique Medallions and Relief Panels

A Scene from the Ramayana

66
Each Panel Has Its Own Style

A Centuries-Old Masterpiece

Straight Lines and Curves

67
Ancient Javanese Architecture
Apart from the architecture, what stays the same is the activity of Mount Kelud itself. Unlike
most accounts about volcanic eruptions across the archipelago which were exclusively
written by the Europeans during the colonial period, Kelud’s eruption was mentioned in a
14th-century epic Javanese poem. The volcano erupted in the same year when Hayam Wuruk
was born, perceived by the locals as a divine sign of great things the baby would accomplish
in his life – Majapahit was in fact at its peak during Hayam Wuruk’s rule. Interestingly,
centuries after the island’s conversion to Islam and the arrival of Christianity from Europe,
the Javanese reverence toward volcanoes has barely changed.

In 1901, Kelud erupted again with a mighty explosion (heard hundreds of kilometers away)
and an ash cloud that reached as far as West Java. Two weeks later, a baby boy was born, and
as goes with tradition, the locals saw this as an omen of something great about to happen to
him. Less than five decades later, the same boy had grown up to become none other than the
first president of Indonesia. Even in the 21st century, volcanic eruptions are often interpreted
as a prelude to major political events. But when no such thing occurs following an eruption,
the locals will still tell you stories about Mount Kelud with a sense of veneration, pride and
astonishment.

“When Kelud erupted in 2014, Yogyakarta was covered in thick ash,” a local tells me in
reference to Kelud’s latest major eruption which paralyzed the city, more than 200 km away
to the west of the volcano. The ash forced the closure of major airports across Java, causing
weeks-long travel disruptions. “But strangely, Blitar was safe,” he adds, referring to the
nearest city to the volcano. As tempting it is to explain the phenomenon from a scientific
perspective, to him and many other people Penataran seems to serve its purpose after all. It
has been protecting the surrounding areas from the wrath of the mountain god, more than
eight centuries since its completion.

68
A Metaphorical Depiction of Mount Kelud///A Small Asian Elephant along with Foreign-
Looking Soldiers

Winged Lions and Serpents//An Artistic Creation during the Peak of Hinduism in East Java

A Fierce-Looking Winged Snake//A Guardian of Batur Pendapa

69
An Intricately-Decorated Pond at the Back of the Main Temple

Penataran is still not very well known among Indonesians – when we returned to Jakarta and
I told my coworkers about it, none of them had ever heard of the temple.
As for the why Penataran is not that well-known even among Indonesians, I think
it’s because of its location which is not as easily accessible from big cities as
Borobudur or Prambanan.https://harindabama.com/2017/07/30/penataran-appeasing-
the-mountain-god/

70
 II
Essence of the Dharmadhātu
Dr Uday Dokras
Featuring Dharmadhatu on Borobudur Reliefs
Commentary on the Noble Essence of Dharmadhātu composed by Ācārya Nāgārjuna.

The Wheel of Existence

Courtesy of Himalayan Art Resources

71
Commentary on the Noble Essence of the Dharmadhātu
by Nāgārjuna

In the language of India: Ārya-dharmadhātu-garbha-vivaraṇa

In the language of Tibet: 'phags pa chos kyi dbyings kyi snying po'i rnam par 'grel pa
In the English language: Commentary on the Noble Essence of the Dharmadhātu

Homage to the Three Jewels!

It is said:

Those phenomena that originate from causes,

The Tathāgata has proclaimed these causes,
And also that which puts a stop to these causes,
This too has been taught by the Great Śramaṇa.
Here, "those phenomena" should be understood as sevenfold: 1) consciousness, 2) name and
form, 3) the six sensory sources, 4) contact, 5) sensation, 6) birth, and 7) old age and death.

These phenomena are said to "originate from causes", since they arise due to five factors.
What are these five causes? They are 1) ignorance, 2) craving, 3) clinging, 4) formations, and
5) becoming.

The cessation of these seven and their five causes is what is meant by "these causes and also
that which puts a stop to these causes." This is also referred to as pacification, liberation and
nirvāṇa.

Who has explained this? The Tathāgata has proclaimed this, which is to say that he has
explained it. He is the Tathāgata (Thus-gone), since he has realized reality just as it is. He is
also the Tathāgata since he unerringly teaches others how things are. One who teaches in
such a manner is one who possesses such learning, one who reveals this path having realized
it for himself. He is great, which means foremost, excellent, sublime and supreme. Great also
describes someone who is wise, valiant, ascetic, enthusiastic, intensely diligent, and engaged
in wondrous activity. In this case, since he knows all that is to be known, he is wise; since he
has vanquished all afflictions, he is valiant; since he has perfectly cultivated ethical
discipline, he is ascetic; since he does not tire of qualities and so on, he is enthusiastic; he has
the intense diligence of one whose hair or head is aflame; and he has made manifest
wondrous qualities and thus carries out wondrous activity. Such a one is great.

He is called a śramaṇa because he has pacified misdeeds and afflictions. He is a brahmin

because he has abandoned all misdeeds; he is a śramaṇa because he has eliminated the fatigue
(śrama; ngal ba) brought on by afflictions; and he is a renunciant since he has removed the
impurities of selfhood. It is the Blessed One who has such qualities who taught this. The
same applies for the truths of suffering, origination, cessation and the path.

Here, it is from the cause, ignorance, that formations and the rest, up to old age and death,
arise without an agent. This is the progressive sequence. Knowledge that the causes,
ignorance and the rest, have ceased is known as the sequence of reversal. Countering
ignorance prevents the formations and the rest from arising. It is the Great Śramaṇa who
teaches this.

72
In Mahayana Buddhism, dharmadhātu means "realm of phenomena", "realm of eternal
truth". It is referred to by several analogous terms from Mahayana Buddhist philosophy, such
as Tathata (Reality "as-it-is"), emptiness, dependent co-arising and eternal Buddha. It is
associated with supreme cosmic buddha Vairocana and is the "deepest nature, or essence".
[
Dharmadhātu is the purified mind in its natural state, free of obscurations. It is the essence-
quality or nature ofmind, the fundamental ground of consciousness of the trikaya, which is
accessed via the mindstream. When the buddha-nature has been realised, dharmadhātu is also
referred to as the Dharmakāya, the Body of Dharma Truth.
Kang-nam Oh traces the origin of dharmadhatu to the Avatamsaka Sutra. It has been further
developed by the Hua-yen school:
This idea of dharmadhātu-pratītyasamutpāda which was originally found in the Avataṁsaka-
sūtra or Hua-yen ching, was fully developed by the Hua-yen school into a systematic doctrine
palatable to the Chinese intellectual taste. The dharmadhātu doctrinecan be said to have been,
by and large, set forth by Tu-shun (557~640 C.E.), formulated by Chih-yen (602~668),
systematized by Fa-tsang (643~712), and elucidated by Ch’eng-kuan (ca. 737~838)
and Tsung-mi (780~841)
Indian Buddhism-Śrīmālādevī Sūtra
The Śrīmālādevī Sūtra (3rd century CE[), also named The Lion's Roar of Queen Srimala,
centers on the teaching of the tathagatagarbha as "ultimate soteriological principle".[4] It states
that the tathagata-garbha is the "embryo" of the Dharmadhatu and the Dharmakaya:
Lord, the Tathagatagarbha is neither self nor sentient being, nor soul, nor personality. The
Tathagatagarbha is not the domain of beings who fall into the belief in a real personality, who
adhere to wayward views, whose thoughts are distracted by voidness. Lord, this
Tathagatagarbha is the embryo of the Illustrious Dharmadhatu, the embryo of
the Dharmakaya, the embryo of the supramundane dharma, the embryo of the intrinsically
pure dharma.
In the Śrīmālādevī Sūtra, there are two possible states for the Tathagatagarbha:
[E]ither covered by defilements, when it is called only "embryo of the Tathagata"; or free
from defilements, when the "embryo of the Tathagata" is no more the "embryo" (potentiality)
but the Tathāgata (=the Dharmakaya)(actuality).
The sutra itself states it this way:
This Dharmakaya of the Tathagata when not free from the store of defilement is referred to as
the Tathagatagarbha.
Dharmadhātustava[
The Dharmadhātustava ("In praise of the Dharmadhatu"), attributed to Nāgārjuna though
questioned, is a treatise on the dharmadhatu. According to the Dharmadhātustava, the
dharmadhatu is the ground which makes liberation possible:
The dharmadhatu is the ground
For buddhahood, nirvana, purity, and permanence.
According to the Dharmadhātustava, the dharmadhatu is seen when the afflictions are
purified:
As butter, though inherent in the milk,

73
 Is mixed with it and hence does not appear,
Just so the dharmadhatu is not seen
As long as it is mixed together with afflictions.

And just as the inherent butter essence

When the milk is purified is no more disguised,
When afflictions have been completely purified,
The dharmadhatu will be without any stain at all
Chinese Buddhism-Mahaparinirvana Sutra
In the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra, the Buddha states of himself that he is the
"boundless Dharmadhatu" - the totality itself.
Tibetan Buddhism
Five Wisdoms
The Dharmadhatu is comprehended by one of the Five Wisdoms:

1. Dharmadhātu wisdom,
2. Mirror-like wisdom,
3. Equality wisdom,
4. Discriminating wisdom,
5. All-accomplishing wisdom
What is the difference between Dharmakaya and Dharmadhatu?
Dharmadhatu is the cosmos. It comprises all phenomena. And sometimes it is considered to
be a “body”. Dharmakaya means the body of the Dharma.

Borobudur, Java, illustrating the Gandavyuha Sutra, which tells about the Bodhisattva
Sudhana and his search for Awakening by questioning 53 Masters, together with further
information.

Level 2, Level 4,
Level 3,
Inner Wall, Level 3, Inner Wall, Balustrade, Level 4, Inner Wall,
Balustrade,
Meetings Maitreya reveals Maitreya, The Aspiration to the Good
Maitreya’s
with Spiritual the Dharmadhātu Mañjuśrī and Life
Good Deeds
Friends Samantabhadra
Reliefs on this Level:
East Wall South Wall West Wall North Wall East Wall

Level 3, Inner Wall-Maitreya reveals the Dharmadhātu-East Wall (Center to South)

1. Sudhana respectfully salutes Maitreya
In the first relief on the inner wall of Level 3 we see Sudhana raising his hands in respectful
salutation to Maitreya, who will be his most important spiritual friend. His meeting with
Maitreya is depicted on three walls, and 260 reliefs at Borobudur.
It is a simple relief, with Sudhana standing, holding his hands in añjali, and around him are
some of his companions. Maitreya sits inside a pavilion, and has his hand raised in blessing,
or it may be he is praising Sudhana.

74
 01 Sudhana respectfully salutes Maitreya

2. Maitreya praises Sudhana

At this point in the text Sudhana speaks fifty-five verses in praise of Maitreya and the Great
Tower containing the Chamber of the Adornments of Vairocana, and Maitreya repsonds with
a hundred and twenty-two verses in praise of Sudhana and his dedication to Awakening.
Maitreya is sitting with his hands holding the teaching posture, and Sudhana is listening
respectfully, with a lotus held between his hands. Behind his companions stands an elephant
who will reappear in many of the scenes.

02 Maitreya praises Sudhana

3. Sudhana requests entry to the Tower

Sudhana requests Maitreya to let him enter the Tower, which is where he will finally be able
to find answers to his questions about the right path for a Bodhisattva, and will also discover
the nature of reality.
Maitreya sits in the pavilion with his hands held in blessing while Sudhana respectfully
makes his request. The elephant is again seen in this relief. On the far left of the relief the
Tower is pictured.

75
 03 Sudhana requests entry to the Tower

4. Maitreya opens the Tower

Maitreya now decides to grant Sudhana his wish, approaches the tower and with a snap of his
fingers the doors open.
The expression on Maitreya’s face in this panel is sublime. Behind him Sudhana sits with his
legs crossed, and his companions line up behind him. Again we see the elephant amongst the
companions.

04 Maitreya opens the Tower

5. Maitreya invites into the Tower

In this panel we again see Maitreya sitting in a decorated pavilion, from where he is inviting
Sudhana, who stands next to him, into the Tower, which is pictured on the far left.
Sudhana appears to be approaching the building, and turning back to look at Maitreya one
last time.

76
 05 Maitreya invites into the Tower

6. Sudhana climbs the Tower Stairs

In this rather cramped panel Sudhana accepts Maitreya’s invitation, walks up to the Tower
and begins his entrance into the building.
This whole sequence of panels from 1-6 is illustrating just one sentence in the text, with each
action illustrated: respect, request, approach, finger-snapping, invitation and entrance.

06 Sudhana climbs the Tower Stairs

7. Sudhana pays Respect to the Tower

We now have a series of reliefs (7-19) that are hard to account for and seem to be out of
sequence. As they contain characters that only reappear much later in the story they may be a

77
prefiguration of things to come, though why they are placed here is unclear.In the previous
panel we saw Sudhana entering the Tower, but here he is outside again, and paying his
respects to the Tower, as he did at the end of the inner wall on level 2.

07 Sudhana pays Respect to the Tower

8. Maitreya instructs Sudhana

Maitreya, recognisable by the stūpa in his crown, is once again sat in a pavilion, and is
holding the Dharma-cakra-mudrā, which is a sign of teaching.
Sudhana is seen on his knees and slightly bending in towards the teacher, holding his hands
in reverential salutation, with his companions behind him. On the upper left of the panel we
also see the gods looking on.

08 Maitreya instructs Sudhana

9. Maitreya teaches Sudhana

78
Again we see Maitreya in a decorated pavilion. The relief is rather worn, but he appears to be
teaching. Sudhana is sitting outside and listening, as are his companions.
We see the elephant behind the companions, which may be signifying they are about to go on
a journey, although in other reliefs it is hard to give it this meaning.

09 Maitreya teaches Sudhana

10. Sudhana travels in a Palanquin

The sculptors at Borobudur were very good at illustrating procession scenes, and they are
always very dynamic.
Here we see Sudhana being carried on a palanquin, and looking back as he processes
forward. Behind is an elephant once more, and in front people go before.

010 Sudhana travels in a Palanquin

11. Sudhana meets again with Mañjuśrī

In this panel it is Mañjuśrī who is sat in the pavilion, although his normal attributes are not
illustrated. Someone leans in towards him as though listening to his teaching.

79
Behind, it seems someone is picking nuts from the coconut tree, and on the far left is a very
elaborate building. Because we do not know what text is illustrated we cannot completely
understand the scene.

011 Sudhana meets again with Mañjuśrī

South Wall

12. Sudhana meets again with Mañjuśrī

Again this is Mañjuśrī in the pavilion, but this time he has the crescent behind his head which
helps identify him. The seat is a siṁhāsana, a lion throne. There are devotees sat on either
side on him.
Sudhana is seen holding the lotus flower as an offering for his teacher, and in the sky we see
the devas who have gathered round to witness the events taking place below.

012 Sudhana meets again with Mañjuśrī

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 13. Sudhana pays Homage to a Building
In the centre of this relief is seen a very elaborate building, or palace. I am unsure what the
building is, Fontein thinks is a Bodhimaṇḍa, or site of Awakening.
On the right of the relief sits Samantabhadra in a pavilion, with his devotees about. Sudhana
is seen worshipping the building respectfully on the left.

013 Sudhana pays Homage to a Building

14. Sudhana pay Homage to a Buddha

In the centre of the relief is a Buddha sitting inside a pavilion in meditation posture. It is
Sudhana on the right, with his hands folded in respectful salutation, and his companions
behind him, and it seems we might have Samantabhadra on the left with his companions. We
see kinnaras and a peacock above the tree on the right.

014 Sudhana pay Homage to a Buddha

15. A Brahmin visits a Royal Couple

81
A royal couple sit in a palace in the centre of the relief: notice the pots beneath them
indicating their wealth. On the right sits a brahmin with a few others. Under the tree on the
left are womenfolk holding gifts. We do not know what story this relief is associated with.

015 A Brahmin visits a Royal Couple

16. Sudhana respectfully salutes Samantabhadra

This is the first of three panels dedicated to meetings with Samantabhadra, who here sits in
princely fashion with a belt supporting his knee inside the pavilion on the right of the panel.
Sudhana, with bowed head, holds his hands in respectful salutation on the left.
One of his companions holds a parasol above him. There is also a giant leaf behind one of the
companions, which may also have been used as a parasol.

016 Sudhana respectfully salutes Samantabhadra

82
 17. Sudhana comes to Samantabhadra
Samantabhadra is again sitting in princely fashion inside a pavilion, somewhat right of centre
in the panel.
Sudhana is left of the parasol and appears to be moving forward. Around are some of his
companions.

017 Sudhana comes to Samantabhadra

18. Sudhana meets Samantabhadra

Both Sudhana and Samantabhadra are seen inside pavilions in this relief, with the latter’s
being raised higher. Samantabhadra is sitting on an inverted lotus, as we often see with
Buddhas and Bodhisattvas at Borobudur.
To left and right are various other folk, many carrying offerings, and above left we see
the devas who are watching from above the clouds.

018 Sudhana meets Samantabhadra

19. A Visit to a Bodhisattva

83
In all probability this is again Samantabhadra sitting in the pavilion, though he lacks his
normal attributes.
Sudhana is also sitting in a pavilion, and has his arms folded. Many devotees are behind him,
some of whom are bringing gifts. Devas abound in the sky.

019 A Visit to a Bodhisattva

The next sequence (20-39) illustrate a group of compounds from the text, describing the
inside of the Great Tower containing the Chamber of the Adornments of Vairocana.
In each of the following 20 panels a different tower is shown, this is because they are
replicated by the thousands throughout the universe, and each panel is showing one of these
towers and one of the decorations.It has been suggested that these panels form an aid to
meditation in that they can be used to build up a picture of the Tower in much the same way
that a dieity’s maṇḍala can be constructed during meditation.
20. Parasols, Flags and Banners in the Tower
So ’drākṣīt taṁ Kūṭāgāraṁ vipula-vistīrṇaṁ bahu-yojana-śata-sahasra-vistīrṇaṁ
gagana-talāpramāṇaṁ samantād-ākāśa-dhātu-vipulam asaṁkhyeya-cchatra-dhvaja-
patākālaṁkāram; He saw the Tower, wide and spacious, many hundreds of thousands of
leagues wide, as immeasurable as the sky, as wide as the space element on all sides,
decorated with an uncountable number of parasols, flags and banners.
Parts of the relief are unclear, Sudhana appears in all of them looking on at the Tower. In this
one he is sitting to the right of the Tower with the parasol above him, and his companions –
and the elephant – behind him.

84
 020 Parasols, Flags and Banners in the Tower

21. Tinkling Bells in the Tower

Asaṁkhyeya-ratna-kiṅkiṇī-jāla-samīrita-manojña-śabdālaṁkāram; Decorated with an
uncountable number of the best tinkling bells which sounded in the breeze delighting the
mind.
Here Sudhana is seen standing, while his companions, including a brahmin, are sitting behind
him. Bells are seen hanging from the Tower. Notice the slats that hang from them causing the
bells to tinkle in the wind like wind-chimes.

021 Tinkling Bells in the Tower

22. A Soundless Bell in the Tower

85
Asaṁkhyeya-ghaṇṭā-madhura-nirghoṣālaṁkāram; Decorated with an uncountable
number of bells which made no sound.
In this rather cramped relief we see Sudhana kneeling under what is evidently a Bodhi tree
(ficus religiosa). The Tower contains one large bell and a couple of small ones.

022 A Soundless Bell in the Tower

23. Divine Garlands

Asaṁkhyeya-divya-mālya-dāmābhipralambitālaṁkāram; Decorated with an uncountable
number of divine garlands and chaplets hanging down.
Sudhana is seen centre frame with a brahmin in front of him, and companions around. Above
him are elaborate garlands, but oddly no Tower is illustrated in this relief.

023 Divine Garlands

24. Flowers Raining Down in the Tower

86
Asaṁkhyeya-divya-puṣpaughābhipravarṣaṇālaṁkāram; Decorated with an uncountable
number of divine flowers raining down like a flood.
Sudhana is standing on the right of the relief, before a very large and magnificent Tower. The
companions are spread around him and there are devas looking on from the skies. There are
garlands and flowers all round.

024 Flowers Raining Down in the Tower

25. Incense Bowls in the Tower

Asaṁkhyeya-gandha-ghaṭikānirdhūpitopacārālaṁkāram; Decorated with an
uncountable number of ceremonial bowls of incense and fragrances.
Sudhana is kneeling on the right under the parasol, with some companions behind him,
including one holding a giant leaf. More companions are on the left, which also includes the
elephant. The devas carry incense burners in the sky.

025 Incense Bowls in the Tower

26. Arches and Turrets in the Tower

87
Asaṁkhyeya-toraṇālaṁkāram, asaṁkhyeya-niryūhālaṁkāram; Decorated with an
uncountable number of arches and an uncountable number of turrets.
Sudhana is seen standing, while his companions are sitting behind him, and on the left of the
panel. In the skies the gods look on.

026 Arches and Turrets in the Tower

27. Circular Mirrors in the Tower

Asaṁkhyeyādarśa-maṇḍalālaṁkāram; Decorated with an uncountable number of circular
mirrors.
Sudhana is sat to the right of the Tower looking back at his companions, circular mirrors are
seen hanging in many places, and, as is usual in this sequence, the devas look on from above.

027 Circular Mirrors in the Tower

28. A Bejewelled Altar in the Tower

88
Asaṁkhyeya-ratna-cchadana-sarva-vyūhālaṁkāram; Decorated with an uncountable
array of the best awnings.
A smaller end panel shows Sudhana standing under a parasol, with his companions at his
feet. In the centre is a bejewelled altar.

028 A Bejewelled Altar in the Tower

29. Cloud-like Vestments

Asaṁkhyeya-ratna-vastra-meghālaṁkāram; Decorated with an uncountable number of
the best cloud-like vestments.
Again the sculptors did not include the Tower, but the cloths falling down from the clouds are
in abundance. Sudhana sits on a raised seat and seems to be in conversation with the brahmin
at his feet.

89
 029 Cloud-like Vestments

30. Bejewelled Trees in the Tower

Asaṁkhyeya-ratna-vṛkṣālaṁkāram; Decorated with an uncountable number of bejewelled
trees. A large bejewelled tree is seen in the middle of the relief, with strings of pearls and
other jewels hanging from it. Sudhana is sat on the right, and a number of his companions
hold their hands in añjali.

030 Bejewelled Trees in the Tower

31. Cloths in the Tower

Asaṁkhyeya-ratna-paṭṭālaṁkāram; Decorated with an uncountable number of the best
cloths.
In the sky and around the Tower we see a large collection of cloths again. Fontein identifies
these as banners. Sudhana is to the right of the Tower, while his companions are on all sides.

90
 031 Cloths in the Tower

32. Lion Standards in the Tower

Asaṁkhyeya-siṁha-dhvajālaṁkāram; Decorated with an uncountable number of lion
standards.
Sudhana sits on the right of the relief and looks back at his companions, one of whom holds
the parasol over him.

032 Lion Standards in the Tower

33. Banana Trees in the Tower

Asaṁkhyeya-jāmbūnada-suvarṇa-varṇa-kadalī-stambha-suvibhaktālaṁkāram; Decorat
ed with an uncountable number of golden coloured and well-proportioned banana trees.

91
Banana trees seem to be planted around and inside the Tower, and a bunch of bananas hang
down on the left of the panel. Sudhana is standing, as are many of his companions.

033 Banana Trees in the Tower- West Wall

34. Mind-produced Bodhisattvas in the Tower

Asaṁkhyeya-Bodhisattvātma-bhāvālaṁkāram; Decorated with an uncountable number of
mind-produced Bodhisattvas.The Bodhisattvas sitting inside the Tower here are probably
meant to illustrate the mind-made Bodhisattvas of the text. Sudhana, whose head is now
missing, sits on a lower seat with the parasol over him.

034 Mind-produced Bodhisattvas in the Tower

35. Singing Birds in the Tower

Asaṁkhyeya-pakṣi-gaṇa-vicitra-manojña-rutānuravitālaṁkāram; Decorated with an
uncountable number of flocks of beautiful birds, that delighted the mind with their singing.

92
The whole of the top of the relief is filled with flocks of birds, sitting on the clouds,
like devas. Sudhana is stood to the right of the building, as are many of his companions.

035 Singing Birds in the Tower

36. Lotuses in the Tower

Asaṁkhyeya-ratna-padmālaṁkāram; Decorated with an uncountable number of the best
lotuses.
Sudhana is sat on the right of the pavilion, and is holding lotuses for offering. All around we
see other lotuses offered by other devotees, hanging from the trees, in the skies, etc. In the
centre is what appears to be an altar.

036 Lotuses in the Tower

37. Pearl Necklaces in the Tower

Asaṁkhyeya-ratna-yaṣṭi-saṁdhāraṇālaṁkāram; Decorated with an uncountable number
of pearl necklaces.
As in the previous relief we see pearls, both large and small, being offered and hanging from
the trees, etc. Sudhana stands on the right, and at his feet a devotee holds a parasol over him.

93
 037 Pearl Necklaces in the Tower

38. Lotus Ponds in the Tower

Asaṁkhyeya-puṣkariṇyalaṁkāram; Decorated with an uncountable number of lotus
ponds.
A very elaborate building decorated with lotus ponds stands in the middle of the relief.
Sudhana sits on the right, with his companions behind him. Gods are seen in the sky.

038 Lotus Ponds in the Tower

39. Gems and Jewels in the Tower

Asaṁkhyeya-mahā-maṇi-ratna-prabhā-pramuktālaṁkāram; Decorated with an
uncountable number of great gems and radiant jewels.

94
A large array of gems and jewels are seen hanging on a building which covers much of the
relief. Sudhana is sat on the lower right in an antechamber.

039 Gems and Jewels in the Tower

We now have a long series of panels (40-75) in which Sudhana’s visions of Maitreya, his
history and works are illustrated. Unfortunately it is not always possible to identify what we
are looking at on each panel, but there are sufficiently clear identifications to be sure of the
general outline. Sudhana is first given a vision of hundreds of thousands of other Towers,
within the one he has entered. We should remember that after Sudhana entered the Tower the
doors closed after him and Maitreya was left outside. It is Sudhana’s visions that are now
being illustrated.
40. Maitreya’s Aspiration in the Tower
Kvacit-kūṭāgāre yatra Maitreyeṇa Bodhisattvena prathamaṁ praṇidhāna-cittam-
utpāditam-anuttarāyāṁ Samyak-Saṁbodhau; In one tower the first aspiration arose in the
mind of the Bodhisattva Maitreya for the unsurpassed Complete Awakening.
This first relief we can probably take as Maitreya making his initial aspiration to become a
Buddha. Maitreya is sat on a raised throne, and Sudhana sits listening intently.

95
 040 Maitreya’s Aspiration in the Tower

41. Maitreya radiates Loving-Kindness

Kvacit-kūṭāgāre yatra Maitreyeṇa Bodhisattvena prathamo maitra-samādhiḥ
pratilabdhaḥ; In one tower the Bodhisattva Maitreya first attained the concentration of
loving-kindness.Maitreya sits in meditation within a large pavilion, and is evidently in
absorption. Sudhana is seen sitting under the parasol on the right, with his companions behind
him.

041 Maitreya radiates Loving-Kindness

42. Maitreya Teaching

Despite a lack of the normal attributes seen in this relief I believe it must be Maitreya
teaching in the pavilion, and Sudhana looking on with his hands held in reverence on the
right.
Note the devotee on the left of the pavilion with a large fan, and the devas on either side of
the pavilion.

96
 042 Maitreya Teaching

43. Maitreya Meditating

Again Maitreya is seen sitting in meditation posture (dhyāna-mudrā). Sudhana sits cross
legged on the right, holding a lotus, with his companions behind him.
On both left and right are seen very finely drawn stylised trees, with garlands hanging from
them, and above them are devas on either side of the pavilion holding plates of
offerings. Kinnaras sit in the tree on the left.

043 Maitreya Meditating

44. Maitreya distributing Gifts

97
In this narrow panel we see Maitreya distributing gifts to people who have lined up with their
hands extended in supplication. Behind him are his helpers who carry the gifts he will hand
out.Sudhana is standing on the right, as he watches the scene unfold. As mentioned, this is
part of the visions that Sudhana is having inside the Tower.

044 Maitreya distributing Gifts

45. Maitreya pays Homage to a Buddha

In this scene we see Sudhana looking on from the far right as Maitreya pays homage to the
Buddha, who is holding his hands in a blessing gesture (vara-mudrā). Maitreya is
accompanied by other Bodhisattvas in this act of worship.

045 Maitreya pays Homage to a Buddha

46. Maitreya in Meditation

98
Maitreya is again pictured sitting in meditation (dhyāna), in a classical posture. Sudhana sits
on the right of the pavilion, holding a lotus, and with a parasol over him.
Many others, both on the right and on the left, are gathered around witnessing the scene,
including the devas in the sky.

046 Maitreya in Meditation

47. Maitreya carries out Austerities

Standing on one leg only in the middle of the panel is Maitreya who is carrying out austere
practices such as are still seen amongst yogis in India to this day. Below him two fires are
depicted, perhaps a further austerity.
Sudhana kneels before him on the right, and other companions and devotees gather round,
some holding flowers as offerings.

047 Maitreya carries out Austerities

48. Maitreya in Meditation

99
This is another relief showing Maitreya meditating, there was presumably some reason for
showing the same scene time and again, but we have lost to key to explain it.
Sudhana holds a flower he is offering to the Bodhisattva, and others also have floral
offerings, including the gods in the sky.

048 Maitreya in Meditation

49. Maitreya Teaching

Maitreya sits in teaching posture (vitarka-mudrā) and is evidently expounding the Dharma,
while the others listen.
Interestingly one character behind Sudhana is holding a book, and another character on the
left has leaves of a palm-leaf book in his hand, emphasising the teaching theme of this relief.

049 Maitreya Teaching

50. Maitreya with a Procession

100
Sudhana is sat on the floor on the right and is looking on as Maitreya walks along with a
religious procession.People are holding banners and playing musical instruments, and the
whole procession is being led by an elephant.

050 Maitreya with a Procession

51. Maitreya worships a Buddha

Maitreya is depicted as respectfully worshipping a Buddha, who is sat in blessing posture. On
the left are seen various monastics. I do not see Sudhana in this scene and I do not know why
he is absent.

051 Maitreya worships a Buddha

52. Maitreya in Meditation

Maitreya, who is sat absorbed in meditation in this relief, has a particularly sublime look on
his face.

101
Sudhana is on his knees, with his hands pressing on the floor in front of him, his companions
are behind him, sat under a large leaf parasol.

052 Maitreya in Meditation

53. Maitreya Teaching

Maitreya sits on an upturned lotus seat inside a beautiful pavilion, and is holding the teaching
position.
Sudhana and his companions are on the right, and one holds a plate of lotuses in offering.
Others around are also offering lotuses, a symbol of purity.

053 Maitreya Teaching

54. Maitreya Blessing

Fontein identifies this as a preaching scene, but it seems that Maitreya is in fact giving a
blessing to Sudhana who is on his knees in front of him. Unfortunately Sudhana’s face has
been lost from the relief.
Again devotees on the left of the panel holds plates of flowers in offering to the Bodhisattva.

102
 054 Maitreya Blessing

55. Maitreya respects a Buddha

A Buddha sits in the pavilion and is engaged in teaching the Dharma. Maitreya is kneeling on
the right, with his hands held in añjali.
On the left we also see some monastics (bhikṣus), as well as some rich devotees. I do not see
Sudhana amongst the figures in this relief.

055 Maitreya respects a Buddha

North Wall

56. Maitreya Teaching

Maitreya is sat cross legged and is holding a palm leaf book in his two hands, though he is
apparently not reading from it, as we see the covers, not the pages.
Sudhana is sat on the right with his companions behind him. On the left a devotee holds
flowers for an offering, and in the sky the devas look on at the scene below.

103
 056 Maitreya Teaching

57. Maitreya Teaching

Fontein suggest this is a preaching scene, and it may well be so, though the gesture Maitreya
is making is not clearly one of teaching. Notice the pillars of the pavilion are marked with
lions, and further up they are supported by human-like figures.
Sudhana is seen standing in this scene, and there is the usual gathering of devotees and gods
spread around.

057 Maitreya Teaching

58. Maitreya respects a Buddha

A Buddha is seen sitting is teaching position in the middle and on the left Maitreya is
witnessing the scene. Sudhana looks on from the right, and the usual congregation gathers
round, one of whom is wafting incense around the Buddha.
We now come to sure ground again as we can match the reliefs to the words in the text for
the reliefs more or less till the end of the wall. In the first part of the text Sudhana sees

104
Maitreya take on various forms in order to teach the people Dharma. The list ascends from
gods on earth through to gods in the highest heavens.

058 Maitreya respects a Buddha

59. Maitreya as a Universal Monarch

Sa kvacit-kūṭāgāre Maitreyaṁ Bodhisattvaṁ Cakra-varti-rāja-bhūtaṁ sattvān daśasu
kuśaleṣu karma-patheṣu pratiṣṭhāpayamānam-apaśyat; (Sudhana) saw in one tower the
Bodhisattva Maitreya in the form of a Universal Monarch establish beings in the ten paths of
wholesome deeds.
In the first of this series Maitreya appears as a Universal Monarch. An elephant, a horse, and
two standards above them, one with a Wheel, and the other with a jewel make this
idenitification certain.

059 Maitreya as a Universal Monarch

60. Maitreya as a Guardian of the World

Kvacil-Lokapāla-bhūtaṁ sarva-loka-hita-sukhaṁ sattvānām-upasaṁharamāṇam; In
another (he saw Maitreya) in the form of a Guardian of the World providing beings in the
whole world with happiness and benefit.

105
Maitreya sits holding the blessing gesture in the pavilion, while Sudhana looks on from
outside, and his companions appear to discuss the events. Unfortunately Sudhana’s face has
again broken off in this relief.

060 Maitreya as a Guardian of the World

61. Maitreya appears as Śakra

Kvacic-Chakra-bhūtaṁ kāma-guṇa-ratiṁ sattvānāṁ vinivartayamānam; In another (he
saw Maitreya) in the form of Śakra turning beings away from delight in the strands of sense
pleasure.
Maitreya has here taken the form of a Śakra god who rules over the Heaven of the Thirty-
Three. Sudhana and his companions sit outside on the right.

106
 061 Maitreya appears as Śakra

62. Maitreya appears as Suyāma

Kvacit-Suyāma-devādhipati-bhūtam-apramāṇa-guṇān sattvānāṁ
saṁvarṇayamānam; In another (he saw Maitreya) in the form of Suyāma, the Lord of the
(Yāma) Gods, praising the virtue of the immeasureable (meditations: friendliness, kindness,
gladness and equanimity) to (all) beings. Maitreya is seen inside the pavilion in teaching
posture, while Sudhana is kneeling under the parasol on the right.

062 Maitreya appears as Suyāma

63. Maitreya appears as Saṁtusita

Kvacit Saṁtuṣita-deveśvara-bhūtam-eka-jāti-pratibaddha-Bodhisattva-
guṇānudbhāvayamānam; In another (he saw Maitreya) in the form of Saṁtusita, the Master
of the (Tusita) Gods, developing the virtues of the Bodhisattvas bound to (attain in) one

107
lifetime.An elaborate scene, with Saṁtusita at the centre, Sudhana and his companions on the
right, and other devotees on the left.

063 Maitreya appears as Saṁtuṣita

64. Maitreya appears as Sunirmita

Kvacit-Sunirmita-deva-rāja-bhūtaṁ sarva-Bodhisattva-nirmāṇa-vyūhaṁ deva-parṣadi
saṁdarśayamānam; In another (he saw Maitreya) in the form of Sunirmita, the King of the
Gods (who Delight in Creation), showing a company of the gods the whole array of creative
Bodhisattvas.
Here Maitreya takes on the form of Sunirmita, and sits in the pavilion, while Sudhana holds a
lotus flower in offering on the right.

064 Maitreya appears as Sunirmita

65. Maitreya as the King of the Vaśavarti Gods

Kvacid-Vaśavarti-deva-rāja-bhūtaṁ sarva-dharma-vaśavartitāṁ devānāṁ
saṁprakāśayamānam; In another (he saw Maitreya) in the form of the King of the
Vaśavarti Gods, explaining to the gods the whole idea of wielding power over others’
creations.

108
The King of the Vaśavarti Gods is also called Māra. Here he sits in the pavilion with Sudhana
listening careful on his right. It may be the dancing girls on the left of the panel are meant to
represent Māra’s daughters, but why only two are portrayed, and not three, would then be
unclear.

065 Maitreya as the King of the Vaśavarti Gods

66. Maitreya as Māra

Kvacin-Māratvaṁ kārayamāṇam sarva-saṁpatty-anityatāṁ devānāṁ
deśayamānam; In another (he saw Maitreya), having become Māra, teaching the gods the
impermanence of all states.
Māra sits in an ornate pavilion and is evidently teaching. His listeners are confined to two
personages on the left. Sudhana and his companions look on from the right of the panel.

066 Maitreya as Māra

67. Maitreya teaches in the Brahmaloka

Kvacid-Brahma-bhūtaṁ dhyānāpramāṇa-ratiṁ sattvānāṁ saṁvarṇayamānam; In
another (he saw Maitreya) in the form of Brahmā praising delight in meditation on the
immeasureable (meditations: friendliness, kindness, gladness and equanimity) to (all) beings.

109
Maitreya is again evidently teaching, with other gods looking on from above. Sudhana is sat
– unusually – on the left. In the relief Maitreya appears not as a god, but as himself.
In the next sequence Maitreya teaches Dharma in his own personage to various classes of
beings from the lowest to the highest levels of existence.

067 Maitreya teaches in the Brahmaloka

68. Maitreya teaches the Asuras
Kvacid-Asurendra-bhavanopapannaṁ sarva-māna-mada-darpa-prahāṇāya mahā-
jñāna-sāgara-vigāhanāya… Asura-parṣadi Dharmaṁ deśayamānam-apaśyat; In another
he saw (Maitreya) in the form of the Ruler of the Asuras teaching Dharma to the assembly of
Asuras so they might abandon conceit, pride and arrogance, and enter into the ocean of great
knowledge… etc. It is interesting that the representation of the Asuras on the left of the panel
makes them similar to the way brahmins are portrayed elsewhere! Maitreya, in his own guise,
is teaching in the pavilion. Three Bodhisattvas sit in their own pavilion, while Sudhana and
his companions look on from the right.

068 Maitreya teaches the Asuras

69. Maitreya relieves those in Hell

Kvacit-kūṭāgāre Yama-lokam-adrākṣīt, tatra Maitreyaṁ Bodhisattvaṁ prabhayā Mahā-
narakānavabhāsya Narakopapannānāṁ sattvānāṁ sarva-niraya-duḥkhaṁ praśamayamānam-
adrākṣīt; In another Tower he saw the world of the dead, and there he saw the Bodhisattva Maitreya

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relieving all the suffering of the downfall for beings who had been reborn in hellish torment by
shining forth over the great hell.
Maitreya appears on the far left, and is curiously looking straight out and not at the beings requesting
help in the middle. In the second pavilion sits Yāma, who rules the lower worlds. Note that the leaves
of the tree are in the shape of swords.

069 Maitreya relieves those in Hell

70. Maitreya gives Food and Drink to the Departed

Kvacit-kūṭāgāre preta-bhavanam-adrākṣīt, tatra Maitreyaṁ Bodhisattvaṁ preta-
bhavanopapannānāṁ sattvānāṁ vipulam-anna-pānam-upasaṁhṛtya kṣut-pipāsāṁ
praśamayamānam-adrākṣīt; In another Tower he saw the world of the departed, and there
he saw the Bodhisattva Maitreya relieving hunger and thirst by distributing large quantities of
food and drink to the beings in the realm of the departed. Maitreya is seen handing a pot to
the hungry pretas who beseech him for help, some of whom appear to be little more than
skeletons. A locked pavilion is seen on the left, which has stūpas atop it. Sudhana sits
watching the scene from the right.

070 Maitreya gives Food and Drink to the Departed

71. Maitreya teaches the Animal World

Kvacit-kūṭāgāre tiryagyonau vividhopapatyāyatana-vimātratayā tiryagyoni-gatān sattvān
vinayantam-adrākṣīt; In another Tower he saw (Maitreya) guiding an unequalled and manifold
number of beings reborn in the animal world.

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This is probably one of the most successful illustrations on the wall. Sudhana stands on the right.
Maitreya sits in a pavilion and pairs of animals of all kinds, including elephants, lions, deer, buffalo
and others, gather round to hear his teaching.

071 Maitreya teaches the Animal World

72. Maitreya teaches the Guardians of the World

Kvacit-kūṭāgāre Mahā-Rājika-deva-parṣadi Lokapālānāṁ Dharmaṁ deśayamānam-
apaśyat; In another Tower he saw (Maitreya) teaching the Dharma to the Guardians of the World in
the assembly of the (Four) Great Kings.
Obviously there is little space on this relief and only two of the Four Great Kings are represented, they
sit in the upper part of the register on the left. Sudhana looks on from the right. Below are devotees
and guardians.

072 Maitreya teaches the Guardians of the World

73. Maitreya teaches Śakra and other Gods

Kacic-Chakra-deva-rāja-parṣadi … kvacit-kūṭāgāre Brahmendra-parṣadi Maitreyaṁ
Bodhisattva Mahā-brahma-bhūtaṁ Dharmaṁ deśayamān-apaśyat; In another Tower he saw the

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Bodhisattva Maitreya teaching the Dharma in the assembly of Śakra, the King of the Gods … up to
the assembly of Brahmās.
Maitreya is sat in the pavilion, and before him sit the gods who are meant to represent all the gods
from the various levels of existence. Sudhana holds a lotus flower and looks on from the right.

073 Maitreya teaches Śakra and other Gods

74. Maitreya teaches the Nāgas

Kvacin-Nāga-mahoraga-parṣadi … Maitreyaṁ Bodhisattvaṁ Dharmaṁ deśayamānam-
apaśyat; In another (Tower) he saw the Bodhisattva Maitreya teaching the Dharma in the assembly of
the Nāgas, the Great Snakes.
The Nāgas are sat under the tree on the left and are recognisable by the snakes in their crowns.
Maitreya is sitting in teaching posture, and Sudhana looks on from the right.

074 Maitreya teaches the Nāgas

75. Maitreya teaches the Earth-Bound Gods

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Kvacit … Gandharva-Kinnara-parṣadi kvacid-Asura-Dānavendra-parṣadi …
Maitreyaṁ Bodhisattvaṁ Dharmaṁ deśayamānam-apaśyat; In another (Tower) he saw
the Bodhisattva Maitreya teaching the Dharma to
the Gandharvas, Kinnaras, Asuras and Dānava Lords.
All sorts of earth-bound gods are seen in this relief listening to Maitreya teach the Dharma.
Note the kinnara, a bird with a human head, above the tree on the right. On the left are a row
of earth-blound devas, including nāgas.

075 Maitreya teaches the Earth-Bound Gods

76. Maitreya teaches Humans and Non-Humans

Kvacin … manuṣyāmanuṣya-parṣadi Maitreyaṁ Bodhisattvaṁ Dharmaṁ
deśayamānam-apaśyat; In another (Tower) he saw the Bodhisattva Maitreya teaching the
Dharma to humans and non-humans.
Maitreya sits in the pavilion holding a Dharma-wheel posture (Dharma-cakra-mudrā). On the
left six humans sit under the trees and four non-humans fly above them. Sudhana stands on
the right, and one of his companions holds a shield.

076 Maitreya teaches Humans and Non-Humans

77. Maitreya praises the Bodhisattva Path

Kvacid-yāvad-daśa-bhūmi-sthitair-Bodhisattvaiḥ saha Maitreyaṁ Bodhisattvaṁ sarva-
bhūmi-vaiśeṣikatāṁ saṁgāyantam-apaśyat; In another (Tower) he saw the Bodhisattva

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Maitreya together with (other) Bodhisattvas up to the tenth stage praising all the specific
stages (of the Bodhisattva Path). Maitreya sits in the pavilion on the left, outside under the
tree sit some of the Bodhisattvas, and standing on the far right under the parasol is Sudhana,
with his companions around him.

077 Maitreya praises the Bodhisattva Path

East Wall (North to Center)

78. Maitreya praises the Perfections

Kvacit-sarva-pāramitā-paripūraye ’pramāṇatāṁ; In another (Tower he saw Maitreya
praising) the measureless fulfilment of all perfections.
Maitreya is sat in the pavilion, with Sudhana and his companions on the right. Above
Sudhana are the gods. On the left are four standing and four sitting Bodhisattvas.

078 Maitreya praises the Perfections

79. Maitreya praises the Entrance to the Teachings

Kvacit-sarva-śikṣābhimukhāvatāra-samatāṁ; In another (Tower he saw Maitreya
praising) evenly the entrance into all the trainings.
Maitreya sits in teaching posture (vitarka-mudrā), while Sudhana stands watching from the
right of the panel. On the left sit six Bodhisattvas, with one standing.

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 079 Maitreya praises the Entrance to the Teachings

80. Maitreya praises Concentration

Kvacit-samādhi-mukha-praveśa-vistīrṇatāṁ; In another (Tower he saw Maitreya praising)
the numerous entrances into concentration.
Sudhana is stood under the parasol on the far right, with three companions sitting under a tree
in front of him. Maitreya sits in teaching posture, five Bodhisattvas and the gods above the
trees listen to him.

080 Maitreya praises Concentration

81. Maitreya praises the Liberations

Kvacid-vimokṣa-naya-gambhīratāṁ; In another (Tower he saw Maitreya praising) the
deep liberations that lead on (to Awakening). Maitreya, whose face has broken off, sits in the

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pavilion on the left of centre, while Bodhisattvas sit in front of him. Sudhana holds his hands
in añjali.

081 Maitreya praises the Liberations

82. Maitreya praises Good States

Kvacic-chānta-dhyāna-samādhi-samāpatty-abhijñā-viṣaya-spharaṇatāṁ; In another
(Tower he saw Maitreya praising) the penetration of the sphere of peace, meditation,
concentration, attainments and deep knowledges. Maitreya is sat in teaching posture, with
three Bodhisattvas on the right, one of whom proffers a lotus flower. Sudhana looks on from
the far right.

082 Maitreya praises Good States

83. Maitreya praises Skilful Means

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Kvacid-Bodhisattva-caryā-vinayopāya-mukha-praveśatāṁ; In another (Tower he saw
Maitreya praising) the entrance into skilful means leading to the Bodhisattva life.
Maitreya is sat on a lotus throne and is teaching once again. In front of him some
Bodhisattvas listen to his instruction, and Sudhana stands behind them looking on.

083 Maitreya praises Skilful Means

84. Maitreya praises the Aspirations

Kvacit-praṇidhānābhinirhāra-vistīrṇatāṁ; In another (Tower he saw Maitreya praising)
the numerous accomplishments in aspirations.
Maitreya sits in teaching posture, while Sudhana sits listening. On the left of the panel we see
Bodhisattvas ready to accomplish all kinds of good works.

084 Maitreya praises the Aspirations

85. Maitreya teaches Bodhisattvas

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We can be sure of what the next panel illustrates, so it may be that the text available to the
sculptors had an extra sentence which is missing to us, as there is no gap between the last and
the following sentence.
Maitreya is once again in teaching posture and seems to be addressing the seven Bodhisattvas
on the left of the panel. Sudhana and his companions are on the right. As also is the elephant,
which reappears again.

085 Maitreya teaches Bodhisattvas

86. Maitreya and other Bodhisattvas Teaching

Kvacit-kūṭāgāre Maitreyaṁ Bodhisattvaṁ caṁkramābhiyuktaṁ sabhāga-caritair-
Bodhisattvaiḥ sārdhaṁ loka-hita-kriyārthaṁ vividha-śilpa-śāna-śāstra-viśeṣāṁ sarva-
sattva-hita-sukhādhānopasaṁhitatāṁ saṁgāyamānam-apaśyat; In another Tower he saw
the Bodhisattva Maitreya going round with other Bodhisattvas of an equal level praising
working for the benefit of the world, the various special arts and sciences, and being devoted
to the happiness and welfare of all beings.
Maitreya and four Bodhisattvas of the same accomplishments are seen sat at the same level.
Sudhana and his companions look on as the Bodhisattvas teach.

086 Maitreya and other Bodhisattvas Teaching

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 87. Maitreya sits in Dharma-cakra Posture
In this elaborate scene Maitreya sits in Dharma-cakra posture on the far left, just slightly
lower than him on the right are various Bodhisattvas.
Sudhana sits and unusually faces the viewer. His companions sit behind him. Above them is
seen the elephant again together with two mahouts.

087 Maitreya sits in Dharma-cakra Posture

88. Sudhana worships Maitreya
The final panel on this wall is striking in its simplicity: Maitreya, having accomplished his
teaching is seen walking away, while Sudhana with one knee on the floor is worshipping him.
Indeed it is Maitreya who has uncovered for Sudhana the true nature of reality.
The original sequence probably continued on the next level, but later the balustrades, which
illustrate more of Maitreya’s deeds were added.

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 II
Duel /Sanjaya- Srivijay dynasty
Dr Uday Dokras

Plaosan twin temples

Bosch in his book "Srivijaya, de Sailendravamsa en de Sanjayavamsa" (1952) suggested that
king Sanjaya was the progenitor of the Sanjaya dynasty, and there were two dynasties that
ruled Central Java; the Buddhist Shailendra and the Shaivist Sanjaya dynasty. The
inscription also states that Sanjaya was an ardent follower of Shaivism. From its founding in
the early 8th century until 928, the kingdom was ruled by the Sanjaya dynasty. The first king
was Sanjaya, who ruled in the Mataram region in the vicinity of modern Yogyakarta and
Prambanan, and left the written records on the Canggal inscription. However, around the mid
8th century, the Shailendra dynasty emerged in Central Java and challenged Sanjaya
domination in the region.
The prevailing historical interpretation holds that the Shailendra dynasty co-existed next to
the Sanjaya dynasty in Central Java, and much of the period was characterised by peaceful
co-operation. The Shailendra, with their strong connections to Srivijaya, managed to gain
control of Central Java and become overlords of the Rakai (local Javanese lords), including
the Sanjayas, thus making the Sanjaya kings of Mataram their vassals. Little is known about
the kingdom due to the dominance of the Shailendra, who during this period
constructed Borobudur, a Buddhist monument. Samaratungga, the monarch of the Shailendra,
tried to secure the Shailendra position in Java, cementing an alliance with the Sanjayas by
arranging the marriage of his daughter Pramodhawardhani with Pikatan.
Around the middle of the 9th century, relations between the Sanjaya and the Shailendra
deteriorated. In 852, the Sanjaya ruler, Pikatan, defeated Balaputra, the offspring of the
Shailendra monarch Samaratunga and the princess Tara. This ended the Shailendra presence
in Java; Balaputra retreated to the Srivijayan capital in Sumatra, where he became the
paramount ruler. The victory of Pikatan was recorded in Shivagrha inscription dated 856,
created by Rakai Kayuwangi, Pikatan's successor.

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The single dynasty theory

The scene of the Javanese court depicted in Borobudur bas relief

However, this dual Shailendra—Sanjaya dynasties theory proposed by Bosch and De
Casparis was opposed by some Indonesian historians in later period. An alternate theory,
proposed by Poerbatjaraka, suggests there was only one kingdom and one dynasty, the
kingdom called Mataram, and the ruling dynasty being the Shailendra dynasty.
This theory is supported with Boechari interpretation on Sojomerto inscription and
Poerbatjaraka study on Carita Parahyangan manuscript, Poerbatjaraka holds that Sanjaya and
all of his offspring belongs to the Sailendra family, which initially was Shavite Hindu.
However, according to Raja Sankhara inscription (now missing); Sanjaya's son, Panangkaran,
converted to Mahāyāna Buddhism. And because of that conversion, the later series of
Sailendra kings who ruled Mataram become Mahāyāna Buddhists also and gave Buddhism
royal patronage in Java until the end of Samaratungga's reign. The Shaivite Hindus regained
royal patronage with the reign of Pikatan, which lasted until the end of the Mataram
Kingdom. During the reign of Kings Pikatan and Balitung, the royal Hindu Trimurti temple
of Prambanan was built and expanded in the vicinity of Yogyakarta.
The complex stratified ancient Javan society, with its refined aesthetic taste in art and culture,
is evidenced through the various scenes in narrative bas-reliefs carved on various temples
dated from the Mataram era.
Capital
The common concept of city, as it known in Europe, Middle East or China, as the urban
concentration centre of politics, administration, religious and economic activities, was not
quite established yet in ancient Java. The proper urban development as a city took place later
in 13th-century Majapahit's Trowulan.
The capital itself is more likely refer to the palace, a walled compound called pura in
Sanskrit, or in local Javanese as karaton or kadatwan, this is where the king and his family
reside and rule his court. The palace itself is more of a collection of pendopo style pavilions
surrounded by walls. These pavilions and halls are made from organic wooden and thatched
materials, so they had decayed over centuries leaving only stone walls, gates, terraces and
bases. The example of this type of secular buildings can be found in Ratu Boko compound.
The Javanese urban centre in this period did not recognise walled-city as it found in Chinese
or Indian counterparts, the only walled, well-guarded and protected compound was the king's
palace and temple compound. The nagara or capital itself was more of a collection of densely
populated villages surrounding the pura (king's palace).
The religious activity centres, which refer to the location of where the temples stood, did not
necessarily signify the administrative or economic centre as well. As according to

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inscriptions, numbers of lands has been awarded a Sima status with portion or the whole of its
rice tax revenue was allocated to funding the construction and maintaining the temple.
Nevertheless, it is quite possible that the Prambanan Plain with high concentration of temples
located just few hundred metres away from each other—
Sambisari, Kalasan, Sari, Sewu, Lumbung, Prambanan, Plaosan, Sajiwan, Banyunibo, Ratubo
ko, Barong and Ijo temples—might be the location of the capital of Mataram. Other experts
argued that the Prambanan area was indeed the religious centre of the kingdom, but was not
the administrative centre, while suggesting other locations in Muntilan as the possible
political centre of the kingdom.
Most of the time, the court of the Mataram Kingdom was located in Mataram, possibly
located somewhere in Muntilan or the Prambanan Plain near modern Yogyakarta. However,
during the reign of Rakai Pikatan, the court was moved to Mamrati. Later, in the reign of
Balitung, the court moved again, this time to Poh Pitu. Unlike Mataram, historians have been
unable to pinpoint the possible locations of Mamrati and Poh Pitu, although most historians
agree that both were located in the Kedu Plain, somewhere around the
modern Magelang or Temanggung regencies. Later expert suggests that the area in Secang,
on the upper Progo river valley in northern Magelang Regency—with relatively high temple
density—was possibly the secondary political centre of the kingdom. [90] In later Eastern Java
period, other centres were mentioned; such as Tamwlang and Watugaluh (near Jombang),
also Wwatan (near Madiun).
Administration

Image of Boddhisattva on Plaosan temple\The bas relief of 8th century Borobudur depicts the
scene in royal court.
During this period the administration level of Javanese polity was only consists of two levels;
the central government level centred in king's court, and the wanua or village level took form
of settlements scattered around within kingdom's realm. The palace where the King resided
was mentioned as kadatwan or karaton, the court was the centre of kingdom's administration.
The wanua or village is more likely took shape of an "island" filled with housings and
orchards in the middle of vast rice paddies, this village layout still can be found in modern
Javanese desa.
The King was regarded as the paramount ruler or chakravartin, where the highest power and
authority lies. He ruled the nagara or kadatwan which means the kingdom, from
his puri (palace or walled compound). Under the king, there are state officials that serve to
forward the king's laws and orders. They are using the title of Rakai or Samget.

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The Rakais ruled an administrative unit called watak that formed from the collection of
several villages or wanua. Rakai can be considered as regional landlord or the landed gentry,
that rule a large collection of villages. The Rakais transmit the king's order to the Rama or
village leaders that rules their own domain called karaman or watak. As the kingdom grew
larger and complex, entering the 10th century during the reign of Balitung, series of state
officials are added to add hierarchy levels.
Most of the inscriptions dated from Mataram period are related to the establishment
of sima lands. This signify the formation and expansion of Javanese agricultural villages in
the region during this period. Either by opening a forest or converting a ladang (dry rice
cultivation) to sawah (wet rice cultivation). A sima is an arable wet rice agricultural land with
rice surpluses available for taxation, and officially recognised through royal edict. Most of
these sima lands are ruled by regional rakai or samget (landed gentry) in their realm. By
acquiring prestigious sima status from the king, a watak regional unit held a higher prestige
compared to non-sima settlements, yet this also means acknowledging the kingdom's
overlordship over their land and swore their allegiance to the king. The Rakais that rule the
land are granted a royal permission to collect tax, yet some parts of these tax should be
regularly paid to the king's court (central government in the capital). In some instance, some
of these sima inscription stated that this sima land has become a tax-free land, in exchange
that the rice harvest surpluses collected from this land are used to construct or maintain a
religious building. This means the rakai that traditionally ruled this lands no longer has the
right to collect the tax, or at least reducing their tax earnings.
Other than their administrative and military-defense function, the king and the royal family is
also known as the patron of arts and also religious piousness. The king, the royal family and
the kingdom's officials had the authority to launch public projects, such as irrigation works or
temple construction. The royal art and religious patronage can be seen in sponsoring temples
constructions. The kingdom left behind several temples and monuments. The most notable
ones are Borobudur, Prambanan, Sewu, and the Plaosan temple compound.
Economy

Earliest evidence of a currency system in Java — Javanese gold mas or tahil ingots, circa the 9th
century/The bas-relief in 8th century Borobudur depicting rice agriculture in ancient Java
The common people of mostly made a living in agriculture, especially as rice farmers, however,
some may have pursued other careers, such as hunter, trader, artisan, weaponsmith, sailor,
soldier, dancer, musician, food or drink vendor, etc. Rich portrayals of daily life in 9th
century Java can be seen in many temple bas-reliefs. Rice cultivation had become the base for
the kingdom's economy where the villages throughout the realm relied on their annual rice
yield to pay taxes to the court. Exploiting the fertile volcanic soil of Central Java and the
intensive wet rice cultivation (sawah) enabled the population to grow significantly, which
contributed to the availability of labour and workforce for the state's public projects. Certain
villages and lands were given the status as sima lands awarded through royal edict written in

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inscriptions. The rice yields from sima lands usually were allocated for the maintenance of
certain religious buildings.
The economic activity was also not solely centred in a single marketplace in the capital city.
It is most likely that the marketplace was rotated in daily basis within a week among
participating villages, in a Javanese system called pasaran. This system still can be found in
rural Javanese villages, before most are turned into a permanent marketplace as it is
commonly found today. The economic trading practice in these marketplace are most likely
done in barter as well as using money, as during this period, Javanese economy has been
partly monetised.
The bas-reliefs from temples of this period, especially
from Borobudur and Prambanan describe occupations and careers other than agricultural
pursuit; such as soldiers, government officials, court servants, massage therapists, travelling
musicians and dancing troupe, food and drink sellers, logistics courier, sailors, merchants,
even thugs and robbers are depicted in everyday life of 9th century Java. These occupations
requires economic system that employs currency. The Wonoboyo hoard, golden artefacts
discovered in 1990, revealed gold coins in shape similar to corn seeds, which suggests that
9th century Javan economy is partly monetised. On the surface of the gold coins engraved
with a script "ta", a short form of "tail" or "tahil" a unit of currency in ancient Java.
Theodoor Gautier Thomas Pigeaud an expert in Javanese literature from the Netherlands
divides ancient Javanese society into four classes: the ruling class, religious authority,
commoners, and slaves.[93] While de Casparis suggest; although the ancient Javanese society
recognise caste differences, their rules and implementations was less rigid compared to those
caste system in India. De Casparis divides them into three groups:

1. The commoners that formed the majority of kingdom's population.

2. The king with his royal family, including those nobles, landlords and the member of
elite ruling class that depends on the king's court and his dynasty. Can be commonly
called "the palace/court people".
3. The religious figures and religious authorities. The priests class; brahmins and monks,
includes the lower rank servants employed in temple compounds and monasteries.[94]
Based on the study of the styles and types of clothing and jewelries worn by people depicted
in bas-reliefs from the temple—especially Borobudur reliefs—the ancient Javanese society
roughly can be divided into:[95]

1. The nobles, the king and the royal families, landlords, nobles and those that related to
ruling elites. They wore luxurious clothing of kain long clothes wrapped around their
hips to the ankle, waistband, and sash either wore around their hips as sampur, or
wore around their body hanging from left shoulder to the hip. Adorned with intricate
golden jewelries such as jamang (forehead ornaments), makuta (crown),
earrings, kelat bahu (armlet), necklace, upavita (body ornament of golden chains
wore across the chest), bracelets, rings, ankle bracelet. The gods and divinities also
portrayed in similar fashion as nobles, although they are described as
having prabhamandala (divine halo) around their head.
2. The royal servants or lower-ranked nobles, they are king's servants, entourages or
royal attendants. They occupied positions as dayang-dayang (female royal
attendants), guard or state officials. They wore long cloth around their hips to the
ankle, and wore jewelries and ornaments too, such as earrings, necklace and

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 bracelets, although not as complete and luxurious as those worn by the king and the
nobles.
3. The priests, the brahmins, Buddhist monks, or those religious figures employed in
temples or monasteries. They usually wore robes or cloaks called sinhel. Buddhist
monks were usually portrayed as bald men wore robe with open right shoulder, while
brahmins were usually depicted as bearded men wearing turbans.
4. The commoners, the majority of the people, mostly described as villagers. They wore
simple clothing of around their hips, the lower end sometimes being tied upward to
create a short loincloth. Usually they wore no jewellery or ornaments, but some wore
a few simple ornaments, including necklaces or bracelets, or a rope worn as a
waistband.
Religion

The statue of Dhyani Buddha Vairocana, Avalokitesvara, and Vajrapani inside

the Mendut temple//Shiva statue in main chamber of Prambanan
Hinduism and Buddhism are the two religions adhered by the rulers and people of the
kingdom. Nevertheless, the commoners' religious practices were probably still mixed with
native shamanism and indigenous pre-Dharmic beliefs. Since the beginning of its formation,
the Mataram kings seemed to favour Shaivite Hinduism, such as the construction of linga in
Gunung Wukir Hindu temple as mentioned in Canggal inscription by king Sanjaya. However,
during the reign of Panangkaran, Mahayana Buddhism began to blossomed and gain court
favour. The Kalasan, Sari, Sewu, Mendut, Pawon and the magnificent Borobudur temples
testify the Buddhist renaissance in Central Java. The court patronage on Buddhism spanned
from the reign of Panangkaran to Samaratungga. During the reign of Pikatan, Shivaite
Hinduism began to regain court's favour, signified by the construction of grand Shivagrha
(Prambanan).
The kingdom recognised the religious authority of priest class, the brahmins. Buddhism was
also well represented through the sangha Buddhist monastic community, consists of Buddhist
monks living in viharas such as Sari and Plaosan and gaining court patronage. These Hindu
and Buddhist religious authorities conducted state's and regional religious rituals and
ceremonies in the temples. The ruling class of kshatriya royal family also indulged in
spiritualism. Some monarch seems to immerse themselves in spiritualism and religion. For
example, King Panangkaran seems to be deeply influenced by Mahayana Buddhism, and
even strive to become a hermit during his later days. Numbers of other kings such as

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Samaragrawira and Samaratungga was also deeply influenced by Buddhism and strive to
become a benevolent leaders. Rakai Pikatan also abdicated and renounced worldly affairs
during his old days and become a rishi hermit named Sang Prabhu Jatiningrat.
The period between the reign of King Panangkaran to the reign of King Balitung (late 8th
century to the early 10th century) saw a fervent temple construction in the kingdom. This was
probably motivated either by religious zeal, kingdom's immense wealth and resources or
social-political reasons. Some historians such as Munoz suggest, that this ardent temple
construction projects was actually a religious-political tool to control the
regional Rakai landlords, to prevent them from rebelling against the king. [96] During this time,
each of regional watak are ruled by Rakai landlords that nurturing their own dynasty. By
appointing the Rakais' sima land to fund the construction and maintenance of
a candi religious building, the Maharaja depriving the Rakais' ability to collect large sum of
tax, that can be potentially misused to fund some army that might rose to challenge the
Maharaja's authority. The Rakais might be willingly or reluctantly compliant to the king's
will, for refusing to construct religious building might harm their reputation, and cast them
not only as the enemy of the king, but also as the enemy of gods or Buddha.
Art and Architecture

The Wonoboyo hoard displays the immense wealth and artistic achievement of the Mataram
kingdom.
Other than examining bas-reliefs carved on the temple's walls, the study of ancient Javanese
society is also conducted through archaeological relics. The Wonoboyo hoard golden
artefacts attest to the wealth, art, and culture as well as the aesthetic achievement of the
Mataram Kingdom. The artefacts show the intricate artwork and technical mastery of the
ancient Javanese goldsmith. The hoard was estimated to date from the reign of King Balitung.
The treasure has been identified as belonging to a noble or a member of the royal family.
The earliest temple in the Southern Central Java Mataram region was the Hindu
Shivaist Gunung Wukir temple, linked to Canggal inscription (732 CE) built by King
Sanjaya. Almost 50 years later the oldest Buddhist temple was built in Prambanan region, the
Buddhist Kalasan temple, linked to Kalasan inscription (778 CE) and King Panangkaran.
From this time, the kingdom saw exuberant temple construction projects, such
as Sari, Manjusrigrha, Lumbung, Ngawen, Mendut, Pawon and peaked in the construction
of Borobudur, the massive stone mandala, that took shape of a mountain temple pinnacled
with stupas that completed c. 825 CE.

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The magnificent 9th-century Hindu temple of Prambanan, Yogyakarta, was a major Hindu
monument in the kingdom of Mataram.
The monumental Hindu temple of Prambanan in the vicinity of Yogyakarta—initially built
during the reign of King Pikatan (838–850), and expanded continuously through the reign of
Lokapala (850–890) to Balitung (899–911)—is a fine example of ancient Mataram art and
architecture. The description of a grand temple compound dedicated for lord Shiva, and the
public project to shift the course of the river near the temple (Opak river) to run straight along
western wall of temple compound was also mentioned in Shivagrha inscription. The grand
temple complex was dedicated to the Trimurti, the three highest gods in the
Hindu pantheon (Shiva, Brahma,Vishnu). It was the largest Hindu temple ever built
in Indonesia, evidence of the immense wealth and cultural achievement of the kingdom.
Other Hindu temples dated from Mataram Kingdom era are: Sambisari, Gebang, Barong, Ijo,
and Morangan. Although the Shaivites regain the favour, Buddhist remain under royal
patronage. The Sewu temple dedicated for Manjusri according to Kelurak inscription was
probably initially built by Panangkaran, but later expanded and completed during Rakai
Pikatan's rule, whom married to a Buddhist princess Pramodhawardhani, daughter of
Samaratungga. Most of their subjects retained their old religion; Shaivites and Buddhists
seemed to co-exist in harmony. The Buddhist temple
of Plaosan, Banyunibo and Sajiwan were built during the reign of King Pikatan and Queen
Pramodhawardhani, probably in the spirit of religious reconciliation after the succession
disputes between Pikatan-Pramodhawardhani against Balaputra.
From the 9th to mid 10th centuries, the Mataram Kingdom witnessed the blossoming of art,
culture and literature, mainly through the translation of Hindu-Buddhist sacred texts and the
transmission and adaptation of Hindu-Buddhist ideas into Old Javanese text and visual bas-
reliefs rendering. The bas-relief carved on each sides of Mendut temple stairs and also on the
base of Sojiwan temple for example, narrating the popular Jataka Buddhist tales, the stories

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that tell about the previous lives of the Buddha, in both human and animal form.
The Borobudur bas-relief particularly, contains the most complete rendering of Buddhist
sacred texts. Ranged from Karmavibhanga (the law of karma), Lalitavistara (the story of the
Buddha), the tale of Manohara, Jataka and Jatakamala, Avadana (collection of virtuous
deeds) and Gandavyuha (Sudhana's quest for the ultimate truth).
The bas-relief narration of the Hindu epic Ramayana and also was carved on the wall of
Prambanan temple's Shiva and Brahma temples, while the stories of Krishna taken
from Bhagavata Purana was carved on Vishnu temple. During this period,
the Kakawin Ramayana, an old Javanese rendering was written. This Kakawin Ramayana,
also called the Yogesvara Ramayana, is attributed to the scribe Yogesvara c. the 9th century
CE, who was employed in the court of the Mataram in Central Java. It has 2774 stanzas in
the manipravala style, a mixture of Sanskrit and archaic Javanese prose. The most influential
version of the Ramayana is the Ravanavadham of Bhatti, popularly known as Bhattikavya.
The Javanese Ramayana differs markedly from the original Hindu.
Mataram kingdom had an exceptionally intense relations with the regional
hegemon Srivijaya of Sumatra. In earlier period, the relations was close and intimate, as
Shailendran kings of Java has formed an alliance with Maharaja of Srivijaya and the two
royal houses seems to be merged. In later period however, the relations was deteriorated to
warfare, as Dharmawangsa launched failed attempt to capture Palembang, and Srivijaya well-
crafted retaliation ensued. In its eastern boundary, the Mataram kingdom seems to subjugate
the neighbouring Bali, and pulled the island into its sphere of influence.

Comparison between left: Borobudur of Java (825) and right: Bakong of Cambodia (881),
both temples had similar basic design of stepped pyramid and similar corbelling method,
which suggest there was a connection of technical and cultural influence between ancient
Java and Cambodia.
The Khmer art and architecture during the formative early Angkor era also believed to being
influenced by Javanese art and architecture; the striking similarity of the Bakong temple
in Cambodia to Borobudur, strongly suggests that Bakong was inspired by Borobudur's
design. There must had been exchanges of travellers, if not mission, between Kambuja and
Java. Transmitting to Cambodia not only ideas, but also technical and architectural details,
including arched gateways in corbelling method.
The Kaladi inscription (c. 909 CE), mentioned Kmir (Khmer people of the Khmer Empire)
together with Campa (Champa) and Rman (Mon) as foreigners from mainland Southeast Asia
that frequently came to Java to trade. The inscription suggests a maritime trade network has
been established between kingdoms in mainland Southeast Asia and Java.
The name of the Medang Kingdom was mentioned in the Laguna Copperplate Inscription of
the Philippines' Tondo, dated 822 saka (c. 900 CE), discovered in Lumban,
Laguna, Philippines. The discovery of the inscriptions, written in the Kawi script in a variety
of Old Malay containing numerous loanwords from Sanskrit and a few non-Malay
vocabulary elements whose origin is ambiguous between Old Javanese and Old Tagalog,
suggests that the people or officials of the Mataram Kingdom had embarked on inter-insular

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trade and foreign relations in regions as far away as the Philippines, and that connections
between ancient kingdoms in Indonesia and the Philippines existed.

National Vesak ceremony in Borobudur, the Hindu-Buddhist temples dated from Mataram
Kingdom are especially important for pilgrimage and ceremony for Indonesian
Buddhist and Hindus.
The ruler of Mataram Kingdom.

Peri
od of
King/Queen Inscriptions and events
reig
n
Mentioned in inscription
Rakai Matarām Saŋ of Canggal (732), Mantyasih (907)
Ratu Sañjaya and Taji Gunung (910)
716–
Narapati Raja Śrī Declaring himself
746
Sañjaya as chakravartin and continuing from
(Sanjaya) the previous government ruled
by Sanna.
Mentioned in inscription
of Kalasan (778), Kelurak (782),
Śrī Mahārāja Dyaḥ Abhayagiri (792), Mantyasih (907),
Pañcapaṇa Kariyāna and Wanua Tengah (908)
746–
Paṇaṃkaraṇa Śrī
784 Constructed Mahayana
Saṅgrāmadhanañjaya
Buddhist temple in Prambanan Plain;
(Dyah Pancapana)
including Tarabhawanam, Abhayagiri
wihara, and Manjusrigrha.

784– Śrī Mahārāja Rakai Mentioned in inscription of Wanua

803 Panaraban Tengah (908)
Śrī Mahārāja Rakai
803– Mentioned in inscription of Wanua
Warak Dyaḥ Manara
827 Tengah (908)
(Dyah Manara)

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Peri
od of
King/Queen Inscriptions and events
reig
n
827– Dyaḥ Gula Mentioned in inscription of Wanua
829 (Dyah Gula) Tengah (908)
829– Śrī Mahārāja Rakai Mentioned in inscription of Wanua
847 Garuŋ Tengah (908)
Mentioned in inscription
of Shivagrha (856), Mantyasih (907),
Śrī Mahārāja Rakai and Wanua Tengah (908)
847– Pikatan Dyaḥ Saladu
Build a palace in Mamratipura and
855 Saŋ Prabhu Jātiniṅrat
build Shiva and Mahayana Buddhist
(Dyah Saladu)
temples;
namely Shivagrha and Plaosan.

Śrī Mahārāja Rake Mentioned in inscription

Kayuwaṅi Dyaḥ of Shivagrha (856), Salingsingan
855–
Lokapāla Śrī (880), Wuatan Tija (880), Ngabean
885
Sajjanotsawatuṅga (882), Mantyasih (907), and Wanua
(Dyah Lokapala) Tengah (908)
Mentioned in inscription of Er Hangat
Śrī Mahārāja Dyaḥ (888), and Wanua Tengah (908)
885– Tagwas Śrī
The period of his reign stated that the
885 Jayakirtiwarddhana
Wanua Tengah inscription was quite
(Dyah Tagwas)
short, only about eight months.

Mentioned in inscription of Wanua

Śrī Mahārāja Rake Tengah (908)
885– Panumwaṅan Dyaḥ
Ascended the throne August 25, 885
887 Dewendra
AD, then was expelled from the
(Dyah Dewendra)
palace.

Mentioned in inscription of Wanua

Śrī Mahārāja Rake Tengah (908)
887– Gurunwaṅi Dyaḥ
Ascended the throne January 18, 887,
887 Bhadra
but on February 14, 887 AD he fled
(Dyah Bhadra)
from the palace.

Śrī Mahārāja Rake

894– Wuṅkalhumalaŋ Dyaḥ Mentioned in inscription of Wanua
898 Jbaŋ Tengah (908)
(Dyah Jbang)
898– Śrī Mahārāja Rake Mentioned in inscription of Ayam
908 Watukura Dyaḥ Teas (900), Taji (901), Watukura
Balituŋ Śrī (902), Telang (904), Kubu (905), Poh
Dharmmodaya (905), Rukam

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Peri
od of
King/Queen Inscriptions and events
reig
n
Mahāsambhu (907), Mantyasih (907), Wanua
(Dyah Balitung) Tengah (908), and Kaladi (909)
Śrī Mahārāja Rake
Hino Dyaḥ
Mentioned in inscription of
Daksottama
908– Pangumulan (902), Rumwiga (905),
Bāhubajrapratipakṣakṣ
919 Palepangan (906), Tulangan (910),
aya Śrī
and Tihang (914)
Mahottuṅgawijaya
(Dyah Daksottama)
Śrī Mahārāja Rakai
Layaŋ Dyaḥ Tlodhong
919– Śrī Sajjana Mentioned in inscription of Sukabumi
924 Sannatanuraga (804) and Lintakan (919)
Uttuṅgadewa
(Dyah Tlodhong)
Śrī Mahārāja Rakai
Paṅkaja Dyaḥ Wawa
Mentioned in inscription of Sukabumi
924– Śrī
(927), Sangguran (928) and Wulakan
929 Wijayalokanāmottuṅg
(928)
a
(Dyah Wawa)
Transfer of power to the east, led by the Ishana dynasty
Mentioned in inscription of Lintakan
(919), Turyan (929), Linggasutan
Śrī Mahārāja Rake (929), Gulung (929), Jru Jru (930),
Hino Dyaḥ Siṇḍok Śrī Anjukladang (937) and Wurandungan
929– Īśānawikrama (944)
947 Dharmottuṅgadewawij
Moved the center of the kingdom to
aya
the east Java. Continuing from the
(Dyah Sindok)
previous government and establishing
the Ishana dynasty.

947– Śrī Īśānatuṅgawijaya Mentioned in inscription of Gedangan

985 (Ishanatunga) (950) and Pucangan (1041)
Śrī
985– Makuṭawaṅśāwarddha Mentioned in inscription of Pucangan
990 na (1041)
(Makutawangsa)
990– Śrī Mentioned in inscription of Pucangan
1016 Īśānadharmmawaṅśātg (1041)
uh The revolt of Haji Wurawari of
Anantawikramottuṅga

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 Peri
od of
King/Queen Inscriptions and events
reig
n
dewa
Lwaram
(Dharmawangsa)

+++
III
Hindu Buddhist Temples of Mataram
Dr Uday Dokras
MATARAM AND SAILENDRA KINGDOMS
The most notable of the temples constructed in Mataram are Kalasan, Sewu, Borobudur and
Prambanan, all quite close to present-day city of Yogyakarta.But there are many more.

A lithograph of Tjandi Sewoe ruins near Prambanan, circa 1859/Borobudur, the largest single
Buddhist structure in the world, one of the monuments constructed by the Shailendra dynasty of the
Mataram Kingdom

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The Prambanan temple compound originally consisted of hundreds of temples, built and expanded in
the period between the reign of Saladu and Balitung.\The Plaosan temple with Mount Merapi in the
background

The construction of Kalasan temple was mentioned in Kalasan inscription, under the auspices of
King Panangkaran.\ construction of Manjusrigrha temple was mentioned in Manjusrigrha inscription,
under the auspices of King Panangkaran and completed during Dharanindra reign.

The construction of Mendut temple was initiated and completed during the reign of King Indra (r.
780–800), a valiant king of Shailendra dynasty\The massive stone stupa-mandala of Borobudur was
completed in 825 during the reign of King Samaratungga.

Ratu Boko, a fortified hill, probably referred in Shivagrha inscription as the location of a battle\
Bubrah temple

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Sajiwan Buddhist temple, linked to Nini Haji Rakryan Sanjiwana or Sri Kahulunnan/
Towering Merapi volcano overlooking Prambanan prasad tower. It was suggested that Merapi
volcanic eruption had devastated Mataram capital, forcing them to relocate in the east.

Sambisari temple buried five metres under volcanic debris of Mount Merapi. /Barong Hindu temple,
constructed on large terraces

Badut temple near Malang, East Java circa 8th century/Plaosan twin temples

The bas relief of 8th century Borobudur depicts the scene in royal court./ Shiva statue in main
chamber of Prambanan/ statue of Dhyani Buddha Vairocana, Avalokitesvara, and Vajrapani inside
the Mendut temple

135
Comparison between left: Borobudur of Java (825) and right: Bakong of Cambodia (881), both
temples had similar basic design of stepped pyramid and similar corbelling method, which suggest
there was a connection of technical and cultural influence between ancient Java and Cambodia./
Pagoda in Javanese or Sailendran stynasty

++

IV
Interpreting the Shivagriha Concept of PRAMBANAN
Dr. Uday Dokras

Prambanan (Indonesian: Candi Prambanan, Rara Jonggrang) is a 9th-century Hindu

temple compound in Special Region of Yogyakarta, Indonesia, dedicated to God SHIVA
though the presence of the Trimūrti, the expression of God as the Creator (Brahma), the
Preserver (Vishnu) and the Destroyer (Shiva) are found there. The temple compound is
located approximately 17 kilometres (11 mi) northeast of the city of Yogyakarta on the
boundary between Central Java and Yogyakarta provinces. The temple compound,
a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is the largest Hindu temple site in Indonesia and the second-
largest in Southeast Asia after Angkor Wat It is characterized by its tall and pointed
architecture, typical of Hindu architecture, and by the towering 47-metre-high (154 ft) central
building inside a large complex of individual temples.

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 The statue of Shiva Mahadeva inside the garbagriha of the main temple.

Prambanan temple compounds originally consists of 240 temple structures; which represents
the grandeur of ancient Java's Hindu art and architecture, also considered as a masterpiece of
the classical period in Indonesia. Prambanan attracts many visitors from around the
world.The earliest mention of this Shaivite sanctuary was in the Shivagriha( House of Shiva)
inscription which in fact is an inscription from the Mataram Kingdom of Central Java, dated
in chandrasengkala (chronogram) ”Wwalung Gunung sang wiku”, that is, the year 856 CE
(or 778 in the native Saka Calendar). The inscription was inscribed by order of Dyah
Lokapala (Rakai Kayuwangi) right after the end of Rakai Pikatan's reign, and gave a detailed
description of a grand temple compound dedicated to Shiva called Shivagrha ("the House of
Shiva"), corresponding to the Prambanan temple compound.
From the structure of the building and the text search, this temple has a Śivaistic concept.
Namely, Śiva is worshiped as the highest Devata. However, it also attracts other devotees
and unites them by constructing a place of worship for other deities. Thus inscription dated
778 Saka (856 AD). The original name of the Prambanan temple is Śivagrha which means
House of Śiva or Śivalaya-Alam Śiva is also the seat of Lord Śiva on earth. Śivagrha is a
temple complex worshiping the Tri Murti, Brahma, Visnu, and Śiva, as the Creator, Sustainer,
and demoliser.Thus Prambanan became a center of worship, a center for study, a center for
Brahmin activities, and a spiritual center or a yatra destination for the wider community.
Based on the the utilitarian value and divine footprint of a Śivagrha or Shivalaya.

So that’s a brief explanation of the history of the Prambanan temple and the origin of the
Prambanan temple in full.
Though the Temple is a Hindu-style temple it is also (nowadays) known as Roro
Jonggrang Temple. Prambanan Temple is the largest Hindu temple complex in
Indonesia. According to the Siwagrha inscription, detailed above, the original name of
this temple is Siwagrha Temple, which in Sanskrit means Shiva’s House. This temple was
built as an offering to the Trimurti, namely the 3 main Hindu gods, namely Brahma,
Vishnu, and Shiva. But indeed Lord Shiva is preferred in this temple. Prambanan Temple
is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. This temple is claimed to be the largest Hindu temple
in Indonesia and one of the most beautiful temples in Southeast Asia. As a cultural

137
heritage, this temple is one of the tourist attractions visited by local and foreign tourists
every year.

1.5 HISTORY OF PRAMBANAN TEMPLE

The following will explain in detail the history of Prambanan Temple, starting from the
origin and background of the temple, the development process, the legend that developed
in the community as well as the rediscovery and restoration of the damaged temple
building.

1.5.1 The Origin of Prambanan Temple

The history of this Prambanan temple began when the archipelago was still in the era of
the Hindu-Buddhist Kingdom. The construction of this temple was initiated by Rakai
Pikatan. He tried to build a magnificent Hindu-style temple to match the Buddhist-style
Borobudur Temple that had been built previously.The construction of the Prambanan
temple is also thought to be aimed at marking the return of the Sanjaya family to power in
Java. Indeed, there was a rivalry between the Sanjaya dynasty who were Hindus and the
Buddhist Sailenda dynasty regarding their power in Java.The construction of the temple
became a transition from a Buddhist to a Hindu style in the Mataram or Medang
Kingdom. Prambanan Temple was also built to glorify Lord Shiva. The original name of
this building in Sanskrit is Siwagrha temple or Siwalaya temple.

1.5.2 Prambanan Temple Construction Process

The temple building was first built around 850 AD by Rakai Pikatan. Then the
development process was continued by the next kings such as King Lokapala and King
Balitung Mah Sambu. The process of building the temple is also accompanied by changes
in the water system and the areas around the temple so that the temple is more awake.The
temple complex was built periodically and continued by other kings such as King Daksa
and King Tulodong. Hundreds of additional temples were also built around the main
temple building as a companion temple.

138
Gradually a very magnificent temple building and complex took shape. The splendor of
the Prambanan temple also received wide acceptance from the people of that era. Inside
the Shiva temple as the main temple, there is a Shiva statue in the garbhagriha or main
room. Archaeologists believe that the statue is a statue of the embodiment of King
Balitung.

The splendor of this temple makes Prambanan the great temple of the Mataram Kingdom.
Prambanan Temple served as a meeting place, rituals, and important royal ceremonies.

1.5.3 The Legend of Prambanan Temple

Prambanan Temple was abandoned around 930 AD. This is most likely caused by the
violent eruption of Mount Merapi in the north of the Prambanan temple. The capital of
the Mataram kingdom was moved to East Java by Mpu Sindok, who later founded the
Isyana dynasty.Another possible cause for the transfer of the capital is a war or power
struggle. As a result, the Prambanan temple became neglected and neglected. The temple
building began to crumble and collapse. After an earthquake in the 16th century, the
Prambanan temple became increasingly damaged.

After the split of the Mataram Sultanate in 1755 AD, the ruins of this temple became the
boundary between the Yogyakarta Sultanate and the Surakarta Sunanate. At that time,
many local residents knew the existence of this temple, but did not know its history and
origin.At that time, probably the Islamic conversionalists floated myths and fairy tales
about the origin of the existence of the temple thus robbing the Hindu stance from it. The
fairy tale tells the story of thousands of temples that were built in one night with the help
of spirits at the request of Rara Jonggrang’s daughter, but then the princess was cursed to
become a statue for cheating.The story became so famous that the temple is also known
as Roro Jonggrang Temple. Even today, the story of the construction of the temple in 1
night is still widely told as part of the legend of the community

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1.5.4
1.5.5
1.5.6 Discovery and Restoration of Prambanan Temple
Prambanan Temple was later discovered by CA. Lons from the Netherlands in 1733. This
temple also attracted the attention of many circles during the British occupation of
Java. Governor General Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles then ordered further investigation
of the ruins of this temple.Then around 1855, a massive demolition was carried out to
restore the temple building. Even so, many statues and temple stones were taken
carelessly by local residents. The serious restoration of the Prambanan temple only began
in the 1930s.The renovation of the temple was carried out by Dutch archaeologists and
then continued by native Indonesians. Restoration efforts continue to be carried out even
today. The restoration of the Shiva temple, the main temple of the complex, was
completed in 1953 and inaugurated by President Sukarno. In 1991, Prambanan Temple
was officially included in the World Heritage Site protected by UNESCO. Some parts of
the temple also continue to be maintained and restored, especially after the Yogyakarta
earthquake in 2006 which had damaged several statues and temple buildings.

Inscription about PRAMBANAN

The Shivagrha inscription is an inscription from the Mataram Kingdom of Central Java,
dated in chandrasengkala (chronogram) ”Wwalung Gunung sang wiku”, that is, the year 856
CE (or 778 in the native Saka Calendar). The inscription was inscribed by order of Dyah
Lokapala (Rakai Kayuwangi) right after the end of Rakai Pikatan's reign and gave a detailed
description of a grand temple compound dedicated to Shiva called Shivagrha ("the House of
Shiva"), corresponding to the Prambanan temple compound.
A public water project to change the course of a river near Shivagrha Temple is also
mentioned in this inscription. The river, identified as the Opak River, now runs north to south
on the western side of the Prambanan temple compound. Historians suggest that originally
the river was curved further to the east and was deemed too near to the main temple. The
project was done by cutting the river along a north-to-south axis along the outer wall of the
Shivagrha Temple compound. The former river course was filled in and made level to create
a wider space for the temple expansion, the space for rows of pervara (complementary)
temples.

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Shivagrha inscription is an inscription originated from Medang Kingdom, Central Java, dated in
chandrasengkala (chronogram) ”Wwalung gunung sang wiku” corresponds to 778 Saka (856 CE). The
inscription was edicted by Dyah Lokapala (Rakai Kayuwangi) right after the end of Rakai Pikatan reign,
and mentioned some detail description of a grand temple compound dedicated to Shiva called Shivagrha
(the house of Shiva) which match the Prambanan temple compound, Yogyakarta.

Also mentioned is that the King (Pikatan) was a Shivaist, in contrast to his queen
consort Pramodhawardhani, who was a Buddhist. The inscription mentions a battle for royal
succession against Jatiningrat (Rakai Pikatan), the rebel having made a fortress of hundreds
of stones for refuge. This fortress are connected to the site of Ratu Boko.
Traditionally Balaputradewa was thought as the person that led the war against Pikatan.
However, this theory was revisited as it was more likely that it was Rakai Walaing pu
Kumbayoni that challenged Pikatan authority as the new monarch of Mataram kingdom.
Rakai Walaing was a powerful landlord that claimed to be the descendants of king that once
ruled Java.
Today the inscription is displayed in the National Museum of Indonesia, Jakarta, under the
inventory number No. D.28.
These are the words INSCRIBED
The words/sentences highlighted by me underline the Shaivite stance of the
House(temple)

1. // Swasti ………………………
2. nyalaka …………………………
3. .. // saçri ……………………….
4. nang jetrakula ………………
5. nyāpita // ……………………..
6. The young prince ………, in possession of royal majesty (?), protected the country of
Java, righteous and with …., majestic in battles and in feasts (?), full of fervour and
perfect, victorious but free from passion, a Great King of excellent devotion.
7. He was Çaiwa [Shaivist] in contrast to the queen, the spouse of the hero; exactly a
year was the time of the …..; ….. stones heaped up by the hundreds for his refuge, a
killer as fast as the wind ….. Bālaputra.
8. A king, perfect in (this) world, ……….., a protection for his comrades, indeed a hero
who knew the duties of his rank; he adopted a name proper to a family of honourable

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 Brahmanas (rich in) arts and virtues, and established his kĕraton mĕdang situated in
the country (?) of Mamratipura.
9. After these (deeds), the king Jatiningrat (“Birth of the World”) resigned; the kingship
and the keraton were handed over to his successor; Dyah Lokapala, who was equal to
a younger brother of the (divine) Lokapalas; free were the subjects, divided into the
four āçramas [castes] with the Brāhmanas ahead.
10.A royal order went out to the Patih that he should prepare immaculate funeral
ceremonies; without hesitation, Rakaki Mamrati gave (grounds) to Wantil; he was
ashamed for the past, especially for the fact that the village Iwung had been the
battlefield (?), (and) took the utmost care not to be equalled by him (?).
11.All his actions during the time he was here were inspired by a divine majesty; there
were no enemies anymore; love for his (subjects) was what he always strove after.
When he could at last dispose of power and riches, etc., it was only natural that
sanctuaries were built by him, the Able One.
12.In addition, he possessed the knowledge, difficult to acquire, of Dharma and
Adharma, but he was unable to conceal the lies of ….. The wicked ones ceased to act
against him, ….. )?); this was the reason why the Halu, which you see now, was
erected.
13.…. he, with his servants, all simple people, low-born men positions (?); excellent ….
made them beautiful; who would have been unwilling to consent (?) in bringing their
gift (?); (everybody) worked cheerfully.
14.……, the heart (of the complex) with its own wall and bricks to construct the dam (?),
for thus it was desired. Fierce doorkeepers ….., so that thieves would become afraid
to …… being caught in taking away.
15.A beautiful dwelling of god ….; at the gateway, two small buildings were erected,
different in construction; there also was a Taŋjung tree … together (?); beautiful were
the number of small buildings to be used as hermitages, which might, in their turn, be
an example (?).
16.Of the tree Ki Muhūr (?), the stem was only one year old; the neighborhood of the
Lord was the reason of its matchless growth at the Eastern side; its beauty was
extraordinary, equal to the (divine) Pārijātaka tree; it was the place where the god
would descend and (its branches) would be a parasol (for the god); was not it a god
for the god?.
17.(The smaller buildings) were equal, of equal height, (served) the same purpose,
(expressed) the same thoughts, (but) they were each different in their number; who
would hesitate in worshipping? Out of worship (people) gave. In a moment, the
temples with the gateways and innumerable, immovable women, were completed by
the surveyors working by the hundreds.
18.What would be comparable to this divine (building); it was there for a deification (?);
was this the cause why the spectators were overwhelmed and the (normal) sensations
did not come back (?)? The worshippers came in rows and in a groups (?), by the
hundreds, without saying a word; extraordinary were their names... a token that they
(the images worshipped?) would bring refreshment (?).
19.Who, then, would not be the very first to go and see? It was very charming ……
20....
21....
22.(transition to popular language); You herons, crows, swans, merchants,……; go and
take a bath to find protection (?) …. (?) pilgrimage (?) ……; and you, kalang, village

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 members and handsome gusti, you are ordered (?) to worship with smelling salts (?)
…… with old men.
23.(omission to akşara); On the day (fixed for) compulsory work on behalf of the gods,
the people in command performed the ceremonies; crowds of people came in and the
first surveyor came in the third place (?); monks, young men and women of rank, …..
(?); …….. (?); there were numerous guards (?).
24.(omission to anusvāra); In the time of the Saka year (denoted by) eight, mountains
and monks, in the bright half of the month Mārgaçîrca, the eleventh lunar day, on a
Thursday, Wagai (of the five days’ week) and Wukurung (of the six days’ week) …..
_ that was the date at which the (statue of the) god was finished and inaugurated.
25.After the Shiva sanctuary had been completed in its divine splendour, the (course of
the) river was changed so that it rippled along the grounds; there was no danger from
the wicked ones, for they had all received their due; then the grounds were
inaugurated as temple grounds….. with the gods.
26.Two tampah was the size of the rice-fields belonging to the Shiva temple; it was a
freehold of the Paměgět Wantil with his nayaka and his patih; the patih was called si
Kling and his kalima was called rasi Mrěsi; there were three gustis; si Jana, rasi
Kandut and rasi Sanab.
27.The winěkas was si Banyaga; the wahutas were Waranîyā, Tati and Wukul (?); the
laduh was si Gěněng; the following persons were representatives, speaking in the
name of other people, viz., Kabuh and sang Marsî, the later representing the village
elders without definite function.
28.After the inauguration of the wet rice fields, the freehold existed, fixed to remain a
freehold (?), (?), this was the freehold that would belong to the god forever (?).
29.Those (in charge) were sent back with the order to worship, every day, without
forgetting their duties; they should not be negligent in obeying the commands of the
gods; continuous rebirth in hell would be the result (if they were negligent).

Shiva or Batara Guru

In Indonesian Shaivism the popular name for Shiva has been Batara Guru, which is derived
from Sanskrit Bhattāraka which means "noble lord".He is conceptualized as a kind spiritual
teacher, the first of all Gurus in Indonesian Hindu texts, mirroring the Dakshinamurti aspect
of Shiva in the Indian subcontinent. However, the Batara Guru has more aspects than the
Indian Shiva, as the Indonesian Hindus blended their spirits and heroes with him. Batara
Guru's wife in Southeast Asia is the same Hindu deity Durga, who has been popular since
ancient times, and she too has a complex character with benevolent and fierce manifestations,
each visualized with different names such as Uma, Sri, Kali and others. In contrast to Hindu
religious texts, whether Vedas or Puranas, in Javanese puppetry (wayang) books, Batara Guru
is the king of the gods who regulates and creates the world system. In the classic book that is
used as a reference for the puppeteers, it is said that Sanghyang Manikmaya or Batara Guru
was created from a sparkling light by Sang Hyang Tunggal, along with the blackish light
which is the origin of Ismaya. Shiva has been called Sadāśiva, Paramasiva, Mahādeva in
benevolent forms, and Kāla, Bhairava, Mahākāla in his fierce forms.

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The Indonesian Hindu texts present the same philosophical diversity of Shaivite traditions
found in the Indian subcontinent. However, among the texts that have survived into the
contemporary era, the more common are of those of Shaiva Siddhanta (locally also called
Siwa Siddhanta, Sridanta).
During the pre-Islamic period on the island of Java, Shaivism and Buddhism were considered
very close and allied religions, though not identical religions. The medieval-era Indonesian
literature equates Buddha with Siwa (Shiva) and Janardana (Vishnu). This tradition continues
in predominantly Hindu Bali Indonesia in the modern era, where Buddha is considered the
younger brother of Shiva. Shiva is mentioned in the Buddhist Tantras and worshipped as the
fierce deity Mahākāla in Vajrayana, Chinese Esoteric, and Tibetan Buddhism. In the
cosmologies of Buddhist Tantras, Shiva is depicted as passive, with Shakti being his active
counterpart: Shiva as Prajña and Shakti as Upāya.
In Mahayana Buddhism, Shiva is depicted as Maheshvara, a deva living in Akanishta
Devaloka. In Theravada Buddhism, Shiva is depicted as Ishana, a deva residing in the 6th
heaven of Kamadhatu along with Sakra Indra. In Vajrayana Buddhism, Shiva is depicted
as Mahakala, a dharma protecting Bodhisattva. In most forms of Buddhism, the position of
Shiva is lesser than that of Mahabrahma or Sakra Indra. In Mahayana Buddhist texts, Shiva
(Maheshvara) becomes a buddha called Bhasmeshvara Buddha ("Buddha of ashes").

Buddhist Shiva from 1500 bc

The concept of the Trimurty

Tri murthy simply means 3 idols. The manifestation of Brahma Vishnu and Mahesh as a
single anthromorphic form has been the ideal of many sculptures since ancient
times.However, thr separated temples at Prambhanan –not just of Bharma, Vishnu and Shiva(
Mahesh) do not form a TRIMURTHY because they are not a single piece as in other places
discussed below.
A public water project to change the course of a river near Shivagrha Temple is also
mentioned in this inscription. The river, identified as the Opak River, now runs north to south
on the western side of the Prambanan temple compound. Historians suggest that originally
the river was curved further to east and was deemed too near to the main temple. The project
was done by cutting the river along a north to south axis along the outer wall of the Shivagrha

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Temple compound. The former river course was filled in and made level to create a wider
space for the temple expansion, the space for rows of pervara (complementary) temples.

Elephanta Caves off Mumbai

Three Headed Bust of SHIVA
In the Elephanta caves, Shiva is portrayed in the
non anthropomorphic Shivalingam form, as well as
in his quintessential being emanating from the
Shivalingam in the colossal image, and in 8
manifest forms.
This rock cut temples were created by carving out
rock, and creating the columns, the internal spaces
and the images. It consists a main chamber and two
lateral ones , courtyards and several subsidary
shrines. Above the temple is the mass of natural
rock.
In mid-6 t h century CE during the rule of the Konkan
Mauryas, Hindus hewed giant chambers in the solid
cliff and adorned them with some of the most
magnificent stone carvings known to be made by
man. The caves are embellished with elegant
sculptures, gigantic in proportion, and narrating
Puranic stories associated with Shiva. They are
carved in deep recesses and are characterised by
tremendous force and vitality. The central figure, an
enormous 20-foot high three-headed bust of Shiva
is amongst the finest creations of Indian genius.

20 pillared hall lines the axis, and on its western

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end is the cella in shich is enshrined a Shivalingam.
The pillars consist of fluted columns standing on
square bases, and are crowned with fluted cushion
capitals. The enigmatic image of Trimurthi
Sadasiva: The Sadasiva manifestation of Shiva is
carved in relief at the end of the north south axis.
This collossal 20 feet high image of the three
headed Shiva, Trimurthy is a magnificient one,
considered to be a masterpiece of Indian art. This
colossal image represents Panchamukha Shiva,
only three faces of whom are carved into the wall
and it demands immediate attention upon entering
the temple through the northern entrance.
Also on the southern wall are grand sculptured
images of Kalyanasundara, Gangadhara,
Ardhanariswara and Uma Maheswara. To the west
of the northern entrance are sculptured images of
Nataraja and Andhakaasuravadamoorthy, and to its
east are images of Yogiswara and
Ravanaanugrahamurthy.

To the east of the main temple is a courtyard,

flanked by the secondary shrine. This temple
contains six pillars at its entrance, four of which are
free standing and two engaged. The entrance leads
to a hall decorated with sculptured panels depicting
legends from the Shiva Purana. Many Statues have
been damaged by the Portuguese soldiers ,who
discovered Elephanta. The statues were used by
the soldiers for target practise.

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The main deity at the Elephanta Caves, Mumbai, India, (which is also a UNESCO world heritage
site), is a large stone sculpture of trimurti. However instead of representing 3 different Gods, the
three heads represent three essential aspects of Shiva: creation, protection, and destruction. The
right half-face (west face) shows him holding a lotus bud, depicting the promise of life and
creativity. This face is symbolism for Brahma, the creator or Uma or Vamadeva, the feminine
side of Shiva and creator. The left half-face (east face) is that of a moustached young man. This is
Shiva as the terrifying Aghora or Bhairava, the chaos creator and destroyer. This is also known as
Rudra-Shiva, the Destroyer. The central face, benign and meditative Tatpurusha, resembles the
preserver Vishnu. The three heads represent three essential aspects of Shiva: creation, protection,
and destruction. The right half-face (west face) shows him holding a lotus bud, depicting the
promise of life and creativity. This face is symbolism for Brahma, the creator or Uma or
Vamadeva, the feminine side of Shiva and creator. The left half-face (east face) is that of a
moustached young man. This is Shiva as the terrifying Aghora or Bhairava, the chaos creator and
destroyer. This is also known as Rudra-Shiva, the Destroyer. The central face, benign and
meditative Tatpurusha, resembles the preserver Vishnu.

The Thripaya Trimurti Temple at Thrissur, India is another temple dedicated to trimurti.
Here, the three deities are worshipped at once, as they are all placed on the same
pedestal.Thripaya Trimurti Temple is a Hindu temple in Irinjalakuda, Thrissur in Kerala,
India. It is the only temple in the world where the Trimurti sit in one pedestal in one sanctum
sanctorum.The main deity of the temple is Lord Shiva, Lord Vishnu and Lord Brahma in a
single form called Sthanumalyam. This 17th-century temple is famous for its architectural
grandeur. The seven-storey white Gopuram is visible from the distance. Its 40 m facade is
covered with sculptures of Hindu deities.

The place got the name of Suchindrum from the Sthala Purana. Hindu mythological legend
has it that king of devas, Indra got relieved of a curse at the place of the main linga in the

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temple. The term "Suchi" in Suchindrum is believed to have derived from the Sanskrit
meaning that stands for "purify". Accordingly, Lord Indra is supposed to visit the temple for
performing "Ardhajama Pooja", or worship, at midnight every day.

The Spiritual Triad- Tridev

In Indian Mythology, the life of a human being is divided into three stages : Birth , Growth
and Death. These Bifurcations is not only in how we see life but also which Devi/ Devtas
controls it.According to indian mythology, The Tridev i.e Brahma , Vishnu and Mahesh
controls these three different departments or stages in beings life.
The Spiritual Triad- Tridev

Unlike other religions where there is ONE GOD CONCEPT ( like Jesus in Christianity ,
Mohammad in Islam ) in Hinduism we see different gods and goddesses which symbolically
represents different quality of life.

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 The real TRIMURTHY( Tri means 3 Murthy means sculpture or form)
We will talk about the three major devtas of Hinduism

Brahma : The Creator

Vishnu : The Presever
Mahesh : The Destroyer

BRAHMA : THE CREATOR

He is called the 'creator' for the major that he creates everything present on the earth. Even
the earth is created by him. Starting from a small micro specie to a large and enormous living
being, everything is created by Brahma.It is also said that Brahma gave birth to the the first
man and woman i.e Manu and shatrupa respectively. He created the Dakshas that were the
power to rule the earth. He gave birth to civilisations or sabhyata that would help living
beings to enjoy and facilitate their lives. He gave birth to to Vansapatis or plants that are
immortal.

Brahma created three worlds or lokas :

Indralok or swarg (Heaven)

Mrityulok (Earth)
Patalok (Hell)
INDRALOK
It was meant for devtas and was a pure paradise where flow rivers of milk and vine. Females
are beautiful as nature and men so attractive.The indralok or swarg is ruled by Indra. The
common people are offered this heaven according to thier good or bad deeds throughout their
life. It is place with purity , peace and happiness.

MRITYULOK
It is the world of the common man. A place where people live , worship god and spend their
lives. Brahma created Dakshas for ruling this world.

PATALOK
The World of 'demons'. It was the place where Rakshasas (evil power lived). It is said that

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there are rivers of blood and demons eat flesh of human beings. It is ruled by Rakshas.

BRAHMA : SOURCE OF KNOWLEDGE

Brahma is always associated with knowledge and enlightenment. He is the god considered to
be major source of gyan (knowledge).
He is married to Saraswati , Goddess of knowledge. His body represents knowledge
symbolically. His four head represents Vedas and long beard represents age and experience.
He sits on a lotus that defines peace and purity.

Brahma : Source of Enlightenment

NO WORSHIP FOR BRAHMA

Brahma is the least worshipped god in Hinduism. Being the reason of shrap ( curse ) by
Shiva.

Vishnu : The Preserver

Vishnu represents the aspect of supreme reality that preserves and sustain the universe. He
reminds his devotees to live in this world with kindness and compassion towards all living
beings. Lord Vishnu teaches people to show love ans respect to our own self and all people.
Basically show the living in Mrityulok.

Vishnu is also represented as preserver and has the duty of preserving his devotees from
various problems and also destroy the demons to make the atmosphere of world beings. To
accomplish this task Vishnu is always seen taking different avatar (forms and incarnations)
and coming to mrityulok to actually experience people's problems and solve it by any means.
The Dashavatar tale of Vishnu is a very famous one. In this we remind each big and small
avtar taken by Vishnu to preserve people in different circumstances and situations of life.
DASH means ten and Avatar means incarnations, Ten incarnations of Vishnu. Each avatar
has its own meaning in itself and its own significance and principles that depends on the
situation of time when avatar is born.

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 Tridev or 3 Gods( Tri 3 Dev gods )

Dashavatar (10 Avatars ) of Vishnu

SYMBOL—OF-CONTENTMENTThe Lord Vishnu in hindu mythology symbolises

contentment in every form. He teaches us about how to live in this world.
The vajyatimala (garland) in his neck symbolises seasons that he controls all the seasons.
The chakra defines creativity and mental strenght that he carries beautifull to carve out an
excellent way of living. The Gadha is a weapon and symbolises his physical strenght which
helps him to fight aginst demons and make the earth full of peace which is his main motto.
The kamal is a symbol is purity and divinity which makes vishnu a perfect soul.
The Chaturbhuja (four arms) represents four directions and vedic geography.

WORSHIP

People worship Lord Vishnu for peace , happiness and prosperity in their lives. They see him
as a life saviour which will come and help them in any kind of situation or circumstance in
life. People worship him offering him fresh flowers , fruits and food. In Indian mythology
while worshiping the devta is considered as a guest is offered each comfort that a guest would

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expect off. In the same way Vishnu is welcomed given food,a place in home (usually called
mandir) offered sweet smell usually by agarbatti's.

People follow various shrines and temples for making Lord Vishnu happy. The Char Dham
Yatra is particularly famous for worshipping lord vishnu.

Mahesh : The Destroyer

Shiva or Mahesh is considered to be the destoryer of this earth at the time of pralay
(qayamat). He is one of the gods which make Mrityulok free from impurities by vanishing
everything present for a new start. He loves dance and music and is also worshipped as lord
of various art forms such as Natraj for dance. He lives in forest and is away from materialism
that exist in mrityulok.

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He is the only one out of this triad who owns a family. His family includes his wife parvati
and two sons Ganesha (the elephant headed god) and Kartikeya. Some texts also gives
information about his daughter Ashoksundari. He is reffered as Vairagi who needs nothing
for a living . He teaches us a Simple form of living without any materialism.

The 3 Temples mistakenly referred to as TRIMURTHY temples whereas they each bear a
separate part of the Trimurthy. From left the temples of Brahma/////Vishnu////Shiva

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Brahma/ VISHNU/ Shiva/ DURGA
The first building was completed in the mid-9th century by Rakai Pikatan and inaugurated by
his successor King Lokapala. Some historians that adhere to dual dynasty theory; suggest that
the construction of Prambanan probably was meant as the Hindu Sanjaya Dynasty's answer to
the Buddhist Sailendra Dynasty's Borobudur and Sewu temples nearby. Which means to
mark the return of the Hindu Sanjaya Dynasty to power in Central Java after almost a century
of Buddhist Sailendra Dynasty domination. Nevertheless, the construction of this massive
Hindu temple did signifies a shift of the Mataram court's patronage;
from Mahayana Buddhism to Shaivite Hinduism.
A temple was first built at the site around 850 CE by Rakai Pikatan and expanded extensively
by King Lokapala and Balitung Maha Sambu the Sanjaya king of the Mataram Kingdom. A
short red-paint script bearing the name "pikatan" was found on one of the finials on top of the
balustrade of Shiva temple, which confirms that King Pikatan was responsible for the
initiation of the temple construction.
The temple complex is linked to the Shivagrha inscription of 856 CE, issued by King
Lokapala, which described a Shiva temple compound that resembles Prambanan. According
to this inscription the Shiva temple was inaugurated on 12 November 856. According to this
inscription, the temple was built to honor Lord Shiva, and its original name was Shiva-
grha (the House of Shiva) or Shiva-laya (the Realm of Shiva).
PUBLIC WATER PROJECT
According to the Shivagrha inscription, a public water project to change the course of a river
near Shivagrha temple was undertaken during the construction of the temple. The river,
identified as the Opak River, now runs north to south on the western side of the Prambanan
temple compound. Historians suggest that originally the river was curved further to east and
was deemed too near to the main temple. Experts suggest that the shift of the river was meant
to secure the temple complex from the overflowing of lahar volcanic materials
from Merapi volcano. The project was done by cutting the river along a north to south axis
along the outer wall of the Shivagrha Temple compound. The former river course was filled
in and made level to create a wider space for the temple expansion, the space for rows
of pervara (complementary) temples.
Some archaeologists propose that the statue of Shiva in the garbhagriha (central chamber) of
the main temple was modelled after King Balitung, serving as a depiction of his deified self

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after death. The temple compound was expanded by successive Mataram kings, such as
Daksa and Tulodong, with the addition of hundreds of perwara temples around the chief
temple.
With main prasada tower soaring up to 47 metres high, a vast walled temple complex
consists of 240 structures, Shivagrha Trimurti temple was the tallest and the grandest of its
time. Indeed, the temple complex is the largest Hindu temple in ancient Java, with no other
Javanese temples ever surpassed its scale. Prambanan served as the royal temple of the
Kingdom of Mataram, with most of the state's religious ceremonies and sacrifices being
conducted there. At the height of the kingdom, scholars estimate that hundreds
of brahmins with their disciples lived within the outer wall of the temple compound. The
urban center and the court of Mataram were located nearby, somewhere in the Prambanan
Plain.

Ancient SHIVA temples of Java

In Indonesia Hindu and Buddhist temples are known as Candi, the word originates from the
Sanskrit word Candikagrha which is associated with the Goddess Durga. In ancient Javanese
language of Kawi Cinandi means buried. During the consecration of a temple, no human
body or ash is placed inside, but at the base precious stones and coins and other offerings are
placed known as peripih, symbolizing the union of the deceased and the creator. The raja or
king would have had his body cremated and the ashes placed in the ocean. There are no
temples remaining from the 5th century as the materials for the construction were perishable.
The ancient Javanese constructed temples following the instructions in Manasara Silpastra,
which are the ancient Indian scriptures on the building of a candi.

All temples are generally built on fertile ground and near water or at a maximum distance of
five hundred meters from a river. The temple styles developed over five hundred years
following the changing religious rituals. The central Javanese temples generally follow the
Indian style with east facing entrances. One can see the similarity between the Mamallapuram
temples and the early Javanese temples as both were built during the Pallavan kingdom of the
South India.
During the 8th till the 10th centuries central Java was ruled by two kingdoms, to the north
was the Hindu kingdom Mataram and to the south was the Buddhist Shailendras. Later they
merged and moved to East Java.

Central Javanese Temples:

Gunung.Wukir: Oldest inscription in Central Java at Canggal dated 732AD written in

Sanskrit by Sannaha who came from South India with his son Sanjaya. It describes the Island
of Java as being the finest, rich with seeds, rice and gold. Also describes Sannaha and
Sanjaya’s migration from Kunjarakunja in South India, and the building of Shiva temple on
Mount Wukir.

Dieng: Originally known as Dihyang, meaning abode of the Gods. There are three main
groups being Arjuna, Gatutkaca and Dwarawati built between 690 to 800 AD. Bima is in its
own category. Most are dedicated to Shiva. Arjuna complex consists of five temples, Arjuna,
Semar, Srikandi, Sembadra and Puntadewa. Arjuna had a lingam and the temple has gutters
for ritual bathing of the lingam. This temple structure is similar style to the Pallavan temples
in Tamil Nadu. The entrance faces west. Semar probably had a Nandi and has an east facing

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entrance. Srikandi on its northern side has a carving of Vishnu, whilst east side has a Shiva
and on the south is Brahma. The other two temples are Sembadra and Puntadewa of which
both no longer have deities. Dwarawati consists of four temples and in relatively good
condition. Dwarawati is similar to Gatutkaca and faces west. Candi Bima is the largest temple
on Dieng and different to any other as it was modeled from Orissa (North India) and later
modified around 800AD for Buddhist use.

Selogriyo: A single temple dedicated to Shiva, with deities still intact except for missing
heads. Statue of Agastya can be seen on southern side although damaged one can still see the
image clearly. Other sides are Nandisvara, Shiva, Durga and Ganesha. This temple originally
housed a lingam. The temple is situated near Mount Sumbing around 600m above sea level
and requires a two kilometer narrow walk besides padi fields and steep hills.

Syncretic temples at Ratu boko:Ratu boko is not a temple but a place and probably was
used as the headquarters of the Mataram empire. Within the compound are a series of
archaeological remains of temples. There was a Buddhist inscription dated 792 saying it was
built by Rakai Penangkaran and known as Abhayagiri Wihara. Later it became Hindu and
was known as Keraton Walaing named after King Rakai Walaing Pu Kombayoni who
governed from 898-908 AD. Ratu Boko site has yielded many smaller artefact including
statues, both Hindu (Durga, Ganesha, Garuda, a Linga and a Yoni) and Buddhist (three
unfinished Dhyani Buddhas). Other finds include ceramics and inscriptions; a golden plate
with the writing "Om Rudra ya namah swaha" on it as form of worship to Rudra as the other
name of Shiva. This proved that the Hindus and Buddhist live together with tolerance or in
a syncretism. Despite the large quantity and variety of remains found there, the exact
functions of Ratu Boko site is still unknown. Some believe it was the former palace of
ancient Mataram Kingdom; other scholars interpret this site as monastery. While third group
holds that it was a place for rest and recreation. Inscriptions shows that the site was occupied
at least during the 8th and 9th centuries. Five inscriptions in pre-Nagari script
and Sanskrit describe the construction of a shrine for Avalokitesvara. One inscriptions refers
to the constructions of a Buddhist monastery modelled after Abhayagiri Vihara (means a
monastery on a peaceful hill) in Sri Lanka, where a group of ascetic forest
dwelling monks resided. Three dated inscriptions in Old Javanese and poetic Sanskrit recount
the erection of two lingga, and bear the date of 778 Saka or 856 AD. Another undated
inscription mentions the erection of linga named Hara at the order of King Kalasobhawa.

Plaosan:Built during the early 9th century during King Pikatan of Mataram. Plaosan is made
of several temples, Plaosan Lor and Kidul, Plaosan Lor is in the north and Kidul is in the
south. Originally.one.complex.

Prambanan:Built around 850AD by the king Pikatan of Mataram, the temple was to honour
Lord Shiva, it was initially known as Shivagraha (Shiva’s house). Its location near Syailendra
temples served to show Mataram’s dominance and also tolerance towards Buddhism. As in
Indian temples the main shrine faces east, later east Java temples often faced the west. This is
the most important Hindu temple in Indonesia. Prambanan probably originated from the
Sanskrit words Brahmavanam meaning Brahman’s forest or Almighty’s forest. Prambanan
was abandoned as the kingdom moved to east Java and suffered greatly from Merapi’s
eruptions. Sambisari:Ninth century temple, in perfect condition discovered accidentally by a
farmer in 1966. It lay buried six meters underground, after Mount Merapi’s eruption. This
temple still has statues of Durga, Ganesha and Agastya in its niches. Inside has a complete

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lingam and yoni pointing to its Tantric leaning

East Java temples:

Badut:In the Dinoyo inscription of 760 AD it records the construction of this temple
dedicated to Agastya by the son of King Devasingha, ruler of Kanjuruhan known as
Gajayana. This temple is highly likely linked to Sanjaya and has the same style as Dieng and
Gedong songo but larger, it represents the oldest in East Java. Inside has a complete lingam.
Originally on the southern side it had a sculpture of Shiva Guru ( Agastya) and on the east is
Ganesha. Durga Mahisasuramaardini on the northern side is still remaining.

Jawi:Built by Kertanegara in the 13th century and his ashes were placed here. Kertanegara
followed Shiva Buddhism, a mixture of both religions and this temple originally had a Shiva
statue and Buddha Aksobya. It’s the best surviving temple of this era and has moats like the
early Dieng and Indian temples.

Singosari:Built around 13th century in commemoration of King Kertanegara of Singosari.

There are four empty niches which originally had deities, although this temple is a
masterpiece it was not completed. The statue of Agastya is still standing, the others were
taken to the Netherlands. The remains of the two large Dwarapalas (giants) and the large
open space, makes this area highly likely the centre of the Singosari empire.

Trowulan:Near Mojokerto consists of 100m2 of remains from the Majapahit empire and was
the headquarters for the Majapahit up until 1478. The building originally had a large brick
wall surrounding the complex. Built during Hayam Wuruk (1350-1389), Candi Tikus is a
bathing place and Candi Bajang Ratu originally led to a monument which is no longer
standing. Many of the buildings are for government administration as well as religious
purpose.

Agastya on south side of the 9th-century Javanese Sambisari temple unearthed from volcanic mud///The left
Indonesian statue shows Agastya with Shiva's trident, as a divine sage of Shaivism. Agastya iconography is common
in southeast Asian temples.
Javanese and southeast Asian texts
Agastya is one of the most important figures in a number of medieval era Southeast Asian
inscriptions, temple reliefs and arts. He was particularly popular in Java due to his teaching of
Saiva Siddhanta which was easily accepted into the Javanese society. He introduced the
Vedic science and the Pallavan Grantha script, his popularity declined when Islam started to
spread throughout the islands of Indonesia. He is also found in Cambodia, Vietnam and other

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regions. The earliest mentions of Agastya is traceable to about the mid 1st millennium CE,
but the 11th-century Javanese language text Agastya-parva is a remarkable combination of
philosophy, mythology and genealogy attributed to sage Agastya.
The Agastya-parva includes Sanskrit verse (shlokas) embedded within the Javanese language.
The text is structured as a conversation between a Guru (teacher, Agastya) and
a Sisya (student, Agastya's son Drdhasyu). The style is a mixture of didactic, philosophical
and theological treatise, covering diverse range of topics much like Hindu Puranas. The
chapters of the Javanese text include the Indian theory of cyclic existence, rebirth
and samsara, creation of the world by the churning of the ocean (samudra manthan), theories
of the Samkhya and the Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy, major sections on
god Shiva and Shaivism, some discussion of Tantra, a manual like summary of ceremonies
associated with the rites of passage and others
While the similarities between the Agastya-parva text and classical Indian ideas are obvious,
according to Jan Gonda, the Indian counterpart of this text in Sanskrit or Tamil languages
have not been found in Indonesia or in India. Similarly other Agastya-related Indonesian
texts, dated to be from the 10th to 12th centuries, discuss ideas from multiple sub-schools of
Shaivism such as theistic Shaivasiddhanta and monistic Agamic Pashupata, and these texts
declare these theologies to be of equal merit and value.
Agastya is common in medieval era Shiva temples of southeast Asia, such as the stone
temples in Java (candi). Along with the iconography of Shiva, Uma, Nandi and Ganesha who
face particular cardinal directions, these temples include sculpture, image or relief of Agastya
carved into the southern face. The Shiva shrine in the largest Hindu temple complex in
southeast Asia, Prambanan, features four cellae in its interior. This central shrine within
Prambanan group of temples dedicates its southern cella to Agastya
The Dinoyo inscription, dated to 760 CE, is primarily dedicated to Agastya. The inscription
states that his older wooden image was remade in stone, thereby suggesting that the reverence
for Agastya iconography in southeast Asia was prevalent in an older period. In Cambodia, the
9th-century king Indravarman, who is remembered for sponsoring and the building of a large
number of historic temples and related artworks, is declared in the texts of this period to be a
descendant of sage Agastya. According to Anne E. Monius,
the Manimekalai and Viracoliyam are two of many South Indian texts that co-opt Agastya
and make him a student of the Buddha-to-be.
Agastya elsewhere appears in other historic Buddhist mythologies, such as the Jataka tales.
For example, the Buddhist text Jataka-mala by Aryasura, about the Buddha's previous lives,
includes Agastya as the seventh chapter. The Agastya-Jataka story is carved as a relief in
the Borobudur, the world's largest early medieval era Mahayana Buddhist temple.

O0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o0o

++

158
 V
Mataram where Gods and Buddha
Reside- Book
Chapter 5 from this book
Rediscovery of Borobudur by maiguch.sakura
Brought to you my readers by Dr Uday Dokras

http://maiguch.sakura.ne.jp/ALL-FILES/ENGLISH-PAGE/JAVA-ESSAY/html-files/E5=Mataram-
Gods-and-Buddha.html

Even those who are usually indifferent to Java may remember Borobudur, and the Java Man,
if asked what they have learnt in school about Java. The ancient monument, which is rated as
one of the finest cultural heritages of the world, had been hidden for more than one thousand
years in the depths of the jungle until it was rediscovered in the beginning of the 19th
century. It was during the time of the Napoleonic war when Java was occupied by the British
that Thomas Stamford Raffles, who was then the Lieutenant Governor of Java and its
Dependencies, heard rumours of the “mountain of statues” called Boro-bodo from local
inhabitants and he gave an order to conduct surveys to Lieutenant Colonel Ir. H. C. Cornelis
who had formerly engaged in the excavation of the Prambanan ruin that had been known
about since eighty years earlier. In his great book,The History of Java [1], published in 1817,
Raffles wrote about the whole particulars that appeared after the felling of rank tropical trees
and the removal of thick soil, as follows:
“In the district of Boro in the province of Kedu, and near to the confluence of
the rivers Elo and Praga, crowning a small hill, stands the temple of Boro Bodo,
supposed by some to have been built in the sixth, and by others in the tenth,
century of the Javan era. It is a square stone building consisting of seven ranges of
walls, each range decreasing as you ascend, till the building terminates in a kind of
dome. It occupies the whole of the upper part of a conical hill, which appears to
have been cut away so as to receive the walls, and to accommodate itself to the
figure of the whole structure. At the centre, resting on the very apex of the hill, is
the dome, of about fifty feet diameter; and in its present ruinous state, the upper
part having fallen in, only about twenty feet high. This is surrounded by a triple
circle of towers, in number seventy-two, each occupied by an image looking
outwards, and all connected by a stone casing of the hill, which externally has the
appearance of a roof.
“Descending from thence, you pass on each side of the building by steps through
five handsome gateways, conducting to five successive terraces, which surround
the hill on every side. The walls which support these terraces are covered with the
richest sculpture on both sides, but more particularly on the side which forms an

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interior wall to the terrace below, and are raised so as to form a parapet on the
other side. In the exterior of these parapets, at equal distances, are niches, each
containing a naked figure sitting cross-legged, and considerably larger than life; the
total number of which is not far short of four hundred. Above each niche is a little
spire, another above each of the sides of the niche, and another upon the parapet
between the sides of the neighbouring niches. The design is regular; the
architectural and sculptural ornaments are profuse. The bas-reliefs represent a
variety of scenes, apparently mythological, and executed with considerable taste
and skill. The whole area occupied by this noble building is about six hundred and
twenty feet either way.
“The exterior line of the ground-plan, though apparently a perfect square when
viewed at a distance, is not exactly of that form, as the centre of each face, to a
considerable extent, projects many feet, and so as to cover as much ground as the
conical shape of the hill will admit: the same form is observed in each of the
terraces.
“The whole has the appearance of one solid building, and is about a hundred feet
high, independently of the central spire of about twenty feet, which has fallen in.
The interior consists almost entirely of the hill itself.”

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Borobudur Temple in Boro District Kedu
Reproduced from: Antiquarian, Architectural, and Landscape Illustrations of the History of Java 1844/John Bastin (preface),
Plates to Raffles's History of Java, Oxford University Press, 1989 (Vol. II). This sketch was made by Ir. H. C. Cornelis who conducted the
first excavation in 1815.

This news startled the world. It was thirty years earlier than the discovery of Troy ruins by
Heinrich Schliemann that was said to be the monumental epoch in the history of archaeology.
Who had built such a magnificent structure and when? I read somewhere that among
Europeans was someone who believed their superiority to other races raised such a
nonsensical speculation that it must have been constructed by Alexander the Great when he
reached there during his eastern expedition [2], because it was hardly possible by Asians.
Nevertheless the wider view was such that the temple had been built by the
natives in the 8th–9th centuries when Hindu-Buddhist culture prospered there, long
before Islam propagated around the island of Java. Presently, it is commonly
understood that the founder was King Samaratungga of the Sailendra and that the
year of its completion was 824 AD, as described below.
Although Raffles’s rule was not necessarily successful and left various problems, the
Dutch appreciated his efforts for promoting the study of ancient culture of Java and followed
the survey of this and other remains, after the restoration of the East Indies to the Netherlands

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in 1816. The second survey was conducted by the middle of the 19th century and, after the
emergence of photography, Borobudur became widely known in the world. A famous
naturalist, Alfred Russel Wallace, who visited the East Indies in the 1860s concluded his
paragraph on Borobudur as, “The amount of human labour and skill expended on the Great
Pyramid of Egypt sinks into insignificance when compared with that required to complete
this sculptured hill-temple in the interior of Java.” [3] Indeed, it would not be only myself
who had the same thoughts as Wallace, after visiting the two sites. While the Egyptian
pyramids were a mere stone masonry, the scenes on the bas-reliefs, which Raffles described
as “mythological”, had turned out to be not just ornaments but the pictorial explanations of
the biography of Gautama and various other sutras. This tradition of “narrative sculptures”
was inherited in the temples built shortly after then in Prambanan Plain as well as those
constructed in the 12th to 15th centuries in East Java.
Since the concept to preserve such ancient ruins as of Borobudur as cultural
heritage was yet to be common in the later 19th century, several pieces of
Buddha’s statue were presented to King Chulalongkorn of Siam (the present-day
Thailand) when he visited Java, and a tea hut was put on the tower (“central spire”,
in Raffles’s term) for sightseers, as taken in a photograph which remains to date.
The array of stone pieces in Borobudur was still significantly disordered and
irregular at that time. It was after the turn of the 20th century that proper
archaeological research commenced and the necessity of preservation was voiced.
The first large-scale restoration was conducted in 1907–11 under the direction of Ir. van
Erp, in which as many as one million stone pieces of one hundred thousand tons were
registered and rearranged. Marquis Tokugawa who visited there ten years later wrote in his
famous essay that, “The Buddhist monument even looked more precious, when I thought
over the time and effort that had been spent for the restoration.” [4] I recall this meaningful
comment by a scientist and historian whenever I visit this and other ancient remains.

The architecture of Borobudur

The structure of the temple was not a normal building but, as described by Raffles, an object
that stone pieces were layed on the surface of a rhyolitic hill covered by clay. The centre of
the dome, which was not clear in Raffles’s description, consisted of three layers of circular
terraces, the number of stupas (Raffles’s “tower”) on them being 16, 24, and 32, from the top
to the bottom, respectively (i.e. 72 in total). Regarding the dome itself as a gigantic stupa, a
pole threaded with finial rings was once added on top of the tower, but it was removed later
for the lack of historical evidence[5].

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 Cross-section of Borobudur.
Redrawn on: Karl With, Java – Brahmanische, Buddhistische und Eigenleige Architektur und Plastik auf Java ,
Filkwang Verlag. M. B. H. Haben 1. W. 1920.
Red lines to indicate the locations of reliefs have been added by the present writer.

Such a ringed pole, which can be seen in an old picture of Borobudur, can also be seen
today on the office building of West Java Government in Bandung, nicknamed “Gedung
Sate”, which is a famous building of Dutch–Javan eclectic style, built in 1924, designed by Ir.
J. Gerber, a young architect from Delft Technical Highschool. It was when I guided someone
from countryside Java during my stay in Bandung that the hungry guest fell into
disappointment, having misunderstood that Gedung Sate was not a sate-house that served
“sate”, a skewered meat that was a popular cuisine in Sunda (“gedung” means a “building”).
In reality the nickname has its origin on the side view of the ringed pole, which looks like
“sate” from the distance, while the architect must have faithfully imaged the ringed pole of a
Buddhist temple.
In the Borobudur temple, the numbers of niches on the five terraces were 104, 104, 88, 72
and 64, from the bottom to the top, respectively, and 432 in total, the sum of Buddha statues
was 504, by adding those in the 72 stupas on the upper circular terraces. Although those
sculptures are similar in both size and shape so that their difference is not easily noticeable
for amateurs, their names and the mudra have been identified in detail[6].

163
 The ground plan of Borobudur Temple
Redrawn on: Stutterheim, W. F., Pictorial history of civilization in Java.
Translated by Mrs. A. C. de Winter-Keen, The Java Institute and G. Kolff & Co., Weltevreden, 1926.

It is said that one more uncompleted sculpture of Buddha was discovered during the
survey by Hartmann in 1842 in a small cell that existed in the interior of the central tower,
and aroused interest at that time, but it could have been a trick by someone to plot a big
discovery, as conjectured by Dr. N. J. Krom5.
Bas-reliefs on the outer wall of the basement and both side walls of the four corridors were
as many as 1,300 in number, and they have been interpreted to represent such sutras as
Lalitavistara, Jataka, Avadana, etc.[7] Although these sutras are certainly not at all easy to
read, at least for myself, the reliefs depicting the life of Gautama (Lalitavistara) on the panels
on the main wall of the first corridor can be followed by ordinary visitors. They begin with a
scene of Bodhisattva in the heaven and through the scenes of Maya’s conception by seeing a
white elephant in her dream, Gautama’s birth and growth, his renouncement from the world
and so on, and end with his first lecture.

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Five scenes from 120 reliefs on the first corridor-parapet (upper row) of Borobudur, showing the Gautama’s life. From the top,
[No. 13] Maya dreams a sacred dream, [No. 49] Gautama shows talent of archery, [No. 51] Gautama marries Gopa, [No. 66]
Gautama parts from his horse and attendants to go into religion, [No. 120] Gautama gives his first lecture after ascetic practices.
From: Hidenosuke Miura (Ed.),
Buddhist monument Borobudur in Java: Folder 1–3, Borobudur Publishing Society 1924 By courtesy of The
Tokugawa Art Museum Library.

Besides those exposed reliefs, 120 panels with carvings of some scenes of karma
(Mahakarmavihanga) hidden under the ground on the wall of the basement were unearthed
and photographed by Dr. J. W. Ijzerman in 1885, before the first restoration, but were buried
again, having been judged that the basement had been covered with soil, in the course of the
construction of the temple, by changing the original design, in order to reinforce the upper
structure. In fact, some of the reliefs were unfinished according to photographs taken at that
time.
In addition to those Buddha statues and the reliefs, the building of Borobudur is also
ornamented with sculptures, such as Makara, a sea-creature in Hindu mythology, being
placed at the foot of each staircase, and of the head of Kala (Kirtimukha in Sanskrit means
"Glorious face"), the god of death, which originated from Hinduism, being put upon each
gate, as well as carvings of various animals, birds and flowers on the frames on the wall and
everywhere. One cannot but admire the elaborate and sophisticated idea of the designer.
As to the attributes of the temple, there is one common view that Borobudur was not a
stupa but a representation of the tridhatu, the basement with the hidden relief being the
Kamadhatu (desire-realm), the square terraces with those of sutras being the Rupadhatu (fine-
material-realm) and the upper circular terraces being the Arupyadhatu (non-material-realm).
W. O. J. Nieuwenkamp (1874–1950), a Dutch scholar and painter, well known for his fine
sketches and woodcuts of Java and Bali, had assumed that Borobudur had represented a huge
lotus flower floating on water and drawn such a picture in 1931, judging from the ground-
plan of the temple on some unearthed artefacts depicting a lotus rosette and petals around a

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circular flower-bed, and the results of water-level surveys, which showed that the Kedu Basin
beneath the 235-metre elevation line was once a lake [8]. Although his theory was fiercely
criticised by Ir. van Erp[9], Dr. Soekmono [10], a current authority of Borobudur wrote that
Nieuwenkamp’s hypothesis should not necessarily be rejected as further geological
investigation produced evidence in favour of his idea.
The theory to consider Borobudur as a representation of mandala was raised earlier in 1925
by Prof. Seigai Ōmura, an eminent art critic and professor of Tokyo Fine Art School. With
reference to his deep knowledge on Buddhist art, he wrote in an article contributed to Prof.
Miura’s book [11] that “Borobudur is neither a vihara (temple), a caitya (tower) nor a stupa,
but a great stone construction of karma mandala, one of the four types of mandalas” and that
“this had not been perceived by scholars in the world due to their deficient understanding of
Esoteric Buddhism.” Unfortunately, his paper does not seem to have caught wide attention,
until today, because it was written in Japanese in the not for sale, limited edition book of only
200 copies printed.
Dr. Krom who engaged in the restoration in the early 1900s began the first chapter of his
great book [12] as follows:
“Namo Buddhaya! Hail Buddha! No words more suitable than these could be
found with which to begin our description of this mighty monument. How often
they must have echoed through the galleries and over the terraces of the
Barabudur! To comprehend fully the meaning of this most splendid creation of
Hindu-Javan culture, we must transport ourselves, as far as possible, into the mind
and spirit of those who, 1,100 years ago, worshipped reverently at the feet of the
Lion of the Sakya-race, the Omniscient, the Protector of the Earth in divine
majesty.”
Whilst the pilgrims in those days are supposed to have climbed the staircases,
led by monks in robes, and received lectures of sutras in front of the reliefs on each
terrace, until finally feeling refreshed when they stood on the top terrace, we have
to hire a guide in a casual shirt today, as no monks are available in this religiously
abandoned temple. Once I met a guide who had profound knowledge on
Buddhism, despite the fact that he was a Moslem, and spoke English, Dutch and
Japanese. I visited Borobudur for the first time in the mid-1980s and many more
times after that during my stay in Bandung and Bogor, to accompany my guests,
and experienced every time that I was unconsciously saying, “Namo Amitabha!”,
filled with some deep emotion, even though I was not pious in my daily life.

The sunrise at Borobudur

An eminent scholar of English literature and novelist, Tomoji Abe, wrote in his book[13], “It
is said that those who wish to visit the Buddhist remains of Borobudur ought to arrive there
before the daybreak and see the sun rising above the peak of Mt. Merapi[14] from the top of
the temple.” I do try and arrange myself to do so whenever my schedules permit. Borobudur
is located 40 km north by northwest of Yogyakarta, the principal city of Central Java. If you
stay there the previous night, you should get up at 4 o’clock in the morning with the voice of
azan (adhan) from a near-by mosque to urge the praying for Allah as the alarm to go to the
Buddhist temple. If scheduled to go straight by night train, which arrives from Jakarta or
Bandung to Yogyakarta around 3 o’clock in the morning, you must start soon after depositing

166
 luggage and sipping a cup of coffee in the station or a near-by hotel. Driving in the dim light
for one hour, one arrives at Hotel Manohara near the precinct of the temple, and pays the
admittance there. It is still pitch-dark at 5 o’clock. With the aid of a torch given from the
hotel, you can sense the stone construction and find one of the four staircases that lead to the
upper terraces. On the top of the temple, if Mt. Merapi is not active and no glow is seen on its
summit, check the east direction by means of a compass and sit for a while.

The sunrise seen from the top terrace of Borobudur.

Top: 19 June 2004, 5:34’32” Bottom: ditto, 6:05’22” (West Indonesia Time). Photographed by M. Iguchi. Peaks on the left (north)
and right (south) are Mt. Merbabu and Mt. Merapi, respectively. Ash is seen trailing on the right-hand side of Merapi’s peak.

A big difference from those countries is the fact that there is almost no period of twilight in
the morning and evening in this low-altitude country. Within a matter of half an hour before

167
the sunrise, the colour of the sky dramatically changes. Located at 110°2" E and 7°36" S,
while the West Indonesia standard time line is set at 105° E, the sunrise at Borobudur is
around six o’clock throughout the year, the deviation being only a few minutes, but the angle
or the position of sunrise related to the axial tilt of the earth is largely variable. Isaw the
sunrise once around the summer solstice between Mt. Merapi (2,930 m) and Mt. Merbabu
(3,142 m), the latter being located 10 km to the north, but the sunrise was shifted far to the
southern foot of Merapi in February.
When the morning mist at the circumference of the monument below clears, being radiated
by a godly sunbeam, a beautiful landscape in which palm woods are scattered in the flat
fields appears. In the southern direction is seen the mountain range of Menoreh, the skyline
of which is said to resemble the lying posture of Gunadharma, the legendary architect from
Ceylon who designed Borobudur [17]. The left-hand or the eastern side of the mountain ridge
in particular looks like the profile of a man’s face with a low nose and a small chin. To the
northwest one can view Mt. Sumbing (3,371 m), which also resembles Mt. Fuji in the
distance with Dieng Plateau in the background.

A view of Mount Menoreh from the top terrace of Borobudur Temple.

Photographed by M. Iguchi, May 2009.

If visiting Borobudur in the daytime, one must walk from the car park through
the row of souvenir shops to the main gate and buy a ticket. On entering the
approach through the grass field decorated with tropical flowers of vivid colours,
the whole view of the temple appears. The temple looks like a crown and one can
feel comfortable only up to there. On arriving at the staircase of the building, the
visitor becomes drenched in sweat all over the body by the radiant heat from the
stones scorched by the sunbeam from right overhead to such an extent that a fried
egg may be cooked on the surface.
The sunset at Borobudur is said to present a different grace, although I have not seen it.
Marquis Tokugawa wrote as follows [18]:

168
 “When I had a look from the side of the tower, the red sun was about to set
behind the mountains that stood in the distance beyond palm fields. It was a
gorgeous sunset at an ancient Buddhist monument. What a quiet and tranquil scene
it was! The glory of the sunset made the lonely traveller’s loneliness even deeper.”
Another traveller, Frank Carpenter, wrote about the Buddha statues fantastically lit up at
midnight by the ray of a full moon, surrounded by dark mountains that must have been more
fantastic than his description in words[19].
The area in the periphery of Mt. Merapi extending from the Kedu Basin to the west, to the
Prambanan Plain to the south and to the Solo Plain to the east is the most fertile land in fertile
Java, thanks to the volcanic ash incessantly scattered from the volcano, and was called Bhumi
Mataram [20], or the Soil of Mother, where indigenous people inhabited ever since ancient
time. In the vicinity of Magelang, ten kilometres north of Borobudur, lies the hill of Tidar,
known as the “Nail of Java”, which according to a tradition had fixed the island of Java when
it was floating in the sea. Thus, it was reasonable that this location had been chosen as the site
to construct this holy temple.
The Borobudur temple is locally called Candi Borobudur. Although the word, candi,
derived from Candika, an alternative name of the Hindu Goddess Durga, formerly denoted
the mausoleums of kings and nobles or the temples for Hindu-Buddhism statues [21], it
became generally applied in later centuries to old religious structures built prior to the
Islamisation of Java. Let us adopt this word, candis for its plural form, in the text below.

Accounts of Borobudur in old documents

Although it was The History of Java of Stamford Raffles that aroused interest in Candi
Borobudur in the world, some descriptions on the same candi did exist in Java. In a book
published for commemorating the restoration in the late 20th century [22], two examples
were cited. One was Babad Tanah Jawi (Chronicle of the Land of Java), which recorded that
a certain Ki Mas Dana who had rebelled against King Amangkurat in vain was killed in 1709
at the Hill of Borobudur. The other was in Babad Mataram (Chronicle of Mataram) in which
it was written that Crown Prince Mancanagara of Yogyakarta who went to the forbidden
“Mountain of one thousand statues” to meet a miserable satria (warrior) who was enclosed in
a cage, died of a disease on the next day of his return. The satria was no doubt one of the
Buddha statues in the stone-basket stupa on the upper terrace of Borobudur.

Borobudur visited by a scholar in The Centhini Story

I had also learnt from the brief view on Google Books on the internet that some descriptions
on Borobudur had existed in the Serat Centhini (The Centhini Story), a book that included a
variety of knowledge on early 17th-century Java. In the copy I had recently obtained[23] in
the Taman Pintar book market in Yogyakarta was a detailed story, the abstract of which is as
follows:
“Along the way, Mas Cebolang recalled the happy times with his wives, who
were like the angels in the abode of Indra. The difficulties and loneliness he
encountered on his journeys had sharpened his desire to return to the conveniences
of life with them. It was only when he came to a forest that his heart could beat in
rhythm with the warble of birds and the sound of nature. By virtue of his
upbringing as the son of a great ascetic, his lips mumbled formulas of praise and
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gratitude towards The Almighty. Allahu Akbar! Allahu Akbar! Allahu Akbar! (The
God is great!).
“His steps were guided by faith and stopped only by a stupendous sight, for in
front of him loomed an impressive stupa. Although there were already signs of
decay due to the ravages of time, the stupa of Borobudur, since its foundation ten
centuries ago had always been able to instil feelings of adoration, peace and
security among Buddhists and non-Buddhists, with the exception of people without
faith.
“Mas Cebolang walked up the temple steps and inspected the reliefs on the
walls, which recounted tales from the Jataka stories [stories of living beings who
later became the Buddha after living according to religious guidance] and those of
noble people who traveled around looking for knowledge and life experiences. He
felt inspired when he stopped in front of a Buddha statue with its hands in the
dharmmacakra position, which denotes the Buddha instructing the people to live
according to the teachings and guidance of the Creator. The Buddha appealed to
humanity to follow his path towards nirvana [heaven].
“Likewise, Rasulullah [the Messenger of God] Muhammad ordered his followers to follow
his way of life as an example, which was none other than the implementation of the teachings
of the holy Qur’an. Tears welled up in his eyes and rolled down his cheeks. As the sun was
setting, Mas Cebolang decided to pass the night in the temple. Later, a full moon shone
brightly against a blue cloudless sky, its beauty almost perfect. And on Earth, amongst the
Buddha statues and, whilst his attendants were snoring, Mas Cebolang was deep in
contemplation.” [24]
As might be expected of a scholar who later married a daughter of the Sunan
Giri, a famous family of their cultural tradition, Mas Cebolang’s understanding of
the Borobudur reliefs was just right, despite the fact that his religious background
was Islam. The fact that he showed profound reverence to Buddha without
prejudice to the divinity of a different religion would be attributed to the
characteristic of the Javanese who had respect for their ancestors’ faith. The
condition of Borobudur at that time is supposed to have been much better than that
observed two hundred years later by Stamford Raffles and other visitors.

The origin of the name Borobudur

What was the origin of the name Borobudur? Unfortunately, no hint for answering this
question was available in those documents in Java. Apart from a speculation by Stamford
Raffles as “Great Buddha”, an authority of Javanese palaeography, Dr. Poerbatjaraka had
once proposed that “boro” would mean the Sanskrit “biara” for monastery, and “budur”, the
name of a sanctuary of the Vajradhara sect of Mahayana Buddhism, which appeared
in Nagarakertagama (or Desawarnana), a chronicle composed by Mpu Prapanca in 1365
AD. Later, Prof. de Casparis interpreted that a word, “Bhumisambhara-bhudhara” appeared
in Prasasti Karang Tengah [25], dated 842 AD, meant “The mountain of the accumulation of
virtue on the ten stages of the Bodhisattva” and that it was the original name of Candi
Borobudur [26].

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Candis that remain in Central Java
In central Java, there remains a number of candis, retaining their original superstructure,
although the majority of those built in the past, which is estimated at as many as more than
280 in number, have either completely disappeared or retained only some stone pieces [27].
In the vicinity of Borobudur, one can find two more nice candis: Candi Mendut, which
houses a large Shakyamuni Buddha Triad (or Shakyamuni Triad, i.e., Shakyamuni flanked by
two attendants) in its niche, and Candi Pawon, which is small but elegant and lovely. In the
Prambanan Plain, a group of Hindu candis, called Candi Loro Jongglang (commonly known
as Candi Prambanan), which rank with Borobudur in their scale and magnificence stand,
along with Buddhist Candi Kalasan, Candi Sewu and others. There are eight old Hindu candis
in Dieng Plateau, and some more in Gedung Songo on the slope of Mt. Ungara, although I
have not been to the latter place [28].

Historical sites in Central Java

G (Gunung)=Mountain, K (Kali)=River, C (Candi)=Temple..

A beautiful statue of Shakyamuni in Candi Mendut

Candi Mendut can be easily accessed as it is located 2.9 kilometres to the east of
Borobudur on the highway from Yogyakarta. When discovered in 1834, this candi
was buried in a jungle in such a condition that only its top part was exposed on the
ground, and many stone blocks had been taken away by near-by inhabitants for
their housing. Having been restored in 1908 by Ir. van Erp, the candi stands with a
dignified appearance in a precinct, as wide as a soccer field, surrounded by banyan
and other tropical trees. On the basement with a staircase in its front side, which
measures 24 metres wide, 28 metres deep and 3.5 metres high, a massive temple
with a floor size of 13.7 metres square towers. The pyramid-shaped roof
ornamented with small stupas has now been restored over the last few years, and
the total height is 26.4 metres, whereas the top part of the temple was still flat
171
when I visited there in 2003. The whole surface of this candi is decorated with
elaborate carvings. On the three outer walls, on the left, the back and the right sides
of the building, are huge bas-reliefs of 3.5 metres wide and 2.5 metres high, which
depict eight-armed Tara, four-armed Kwannon and four-armed Tara, respectively.
On the wall of the entrance to the niche, there are beautiful reliefs of Hariti
(goddess of childbirth and children), Yaksha (demon warrior) and others, in which
the elegant “flying celestial being” appeared most attractive to me. Probably a
whole day will be necessary if you wish to see all of the building’s detail.
In the niche, one finds a big statue of Shakyamuni Buddha, which is about 3
metres tall, flanked by statues of Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara and Bodhisattva
Vajrapani, both of 2.5-metre height, on the left- and right-hand sides, respectively.
The nimbus for them looked rather small for the size of the statues. One feature
that looked interesting to me was that each of them was sitting on a chair, the
Shakyamuni hanging both legs down, the Avalokitesvara and the Vajrapani
horizontally folding their left and right legs, respectively, because most Buddha
statues, including all of those that I saw in Borobudur and elsewhere, sat cross-
legged or stood upright. I speculate that the monk who ordered these statues might
have been influenced by Hellenism in India or somewhere else. The mudra of
Shakyamuni was apparently the wheel-of-law turning mudra, whereas those of the
Avalokitesvara and the Vajrapani looked to be the blessing mudra and the earth-
touching mudra, respectively. Besides the fact that the surfaces of these sculptures
were well finished and smooth as if they were not made of a stone but a metal, I
was impressed by the beautiful face of Shakyamuni, which was rather long-shaped
with a shapely nose, not round like those in Borobudur or the giant statues of
Buddha in Nara and Kamakura, Japan.

The Shakyamuni Triad in Candi Mendut.

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 Upper part of Candi Mendut (viewed from the southeast)
Photographed by M. Iguchi, February 2007.
(The top of the upper part was unreconstructed and flat in pictures taken in June 2004.)

In the outside of the dark niche, the green leaves, the yellow aerial roots and the dark-
brown trunks of banyan trees showed a vivid contrast under the bright sunlight. It was when I
visited there for the first time that a famous tanka (short poem) by Akiko Yosano [29] came
up in my mind. She sang:

Later, I found the same impression given by Yusuke Tsurumi [30] in his old travelogue,
i.e. “If this were shown to the genius Akiko, the phrase of ‘how like a handsome man he
seems, adorned with the green of summer’ would have been produced in Mendut.”
In the Serat Centhini, there were some descriptions on the visit of Mas Cebolang to Candi
Mendut. He was so deeply moved also by this candi that he spent the night in the niche
together with the statues of Buddha and Bodhisattvas.
Relatively recently, I saw a signboard of “Mendut Monastery” outside of the precinct of
Candi Mendut and visited there with my friends. It was a cosy, modern monastery. An
entrance path lined both sides with several stone stupas of about two metres tall stretched
straight forward seen from the gate and a small temple and a monk’s quarters, both single-
storey, were situated on the left- and right-hand sides. The chief priest came to guide us after
receiving a notice from an apprentice who was cleaning the ground. About ten metres ahead
by the side of the path was a standing statue of Bodhisattva guarded by a sculpture of raksasa
(giant) and at the end of the path was a big stupa of five- to six-metre height. On the left-hand
side, there was a small hall of traditional Javanese architectural design, called pendopo, in the
middle of a lotus pond, and in the hall was enshrined a statue of cross-legged Shakyamuni,
made of white granite, with a golden halo behind, which looked rather new. According to the
chief monk, it was presented in 2002 by Rev. Ryogen Furusho of Zenyouji Temple,
Kawasaki, Japan, as written on a commemorative tablet. He told us that their denomination
was Mahayana Buddhism. He also told us with deep emotion that now the monastery had
such beautiful statues, buildings and garden and six members, whereas it had only humble
bamboo huts when he opened the monastery twenty years ago with one of his colleagues. To
my question, “Are you also taking care of Candi Mendut?”, he replied, “The candi is
maintained and cleaned by the government, but we perform rituals several times a year.” I
thought that the Shakyamuni Triad who had no pilgrims for ten centuries would be pleased
and left the monastery by offering some banknotes for incense.

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 Both Buddhism and Hinduism were, of course, brought from India. Although the
migration of Indians to Java would have commenced ever since prehistoric time, one party
who immigrated and built their own kingdom is said to be Aji Saka and his followers who
arrived around 78 AD, and the location of their settlement, Medang Kamulan, is supposed to
be somewhere around the present-day Semarang. According to tradition, they had to fight
against Negroids, whom they called “Rasaka” (wild devils), who had inhabited there, since
before the migration of Javanese, and were still in existence at that time[31]. The Indians
introduced their culture and social systems and taught letters, i.e. the Sanskrit scripts from
which Java Kawi was derived in later centuries, as well as calendar, i.e. called Saka Calendar,
in which the year of Aji Saka’s arrival or his death, 78 AD, was defined as the first year. The
fate of their kingdom is uncertain at least to me.

Sanjaya Dynasty – Records in Prasasti Canggal

The first dynasty evidently existing in Java was the Sanjaya Dynasty. The name of the first
king, Sanjaya, was recorded in a stone inscription, called Prasasti Canggal, written in Pallava
script and dated 732 AD (654 Saka), which was discovered early in 1879 at the site of a
ruined temple at Canggal in the south Kedu. Although its abstract is repeatedly cited
everywhere, let me translate the contents from the Indonesian text [32] in a faithful manner (S
= Stanza).
S1 [This is the monument for] The construction of Linga by King Sanjaya on
the mountain.
S2–6 Homage to Lord Shiva, Lord Brahma and Lord Vishnu.
S7 Java is very prosperous, rich in gold mines and much production of rice.
On this island, Shiva Temple was built for the happiness of people with the
help of residents of Kunjarakunja Village.
S8-9 The island of Java was formerly ruled by Sanna who was very wise,
fair in his actions, brave in war and generous to his subjects. On his death,
the country mourned, being sad for the loss of the protector.
S10–11 The successor of King Sanna is his son named Sanjaya who is likened to the
Sun. Power has been handed over to him not directly from King Sanna
but through the king’s elder sister, Sannaha.
S12 Prosperity, security and tranquillity [is maintained in] the country.
People can sleep in the middle of roads, do not need to be afraid of thefts and
robberies, or the occurrences of other crimes. People live all happily.

The Kunjarakunja village in this prasasti is supposed to be in the vicinity of

Sleman-Muntilan in the Kedu Basin at the west foot of Mt. Merapi.
According to a copper inscription, called Prasasti Mantyasih, left by King Balitung in 907
AD, the family line of the Sanjaya commenced by Ratu Sanjaya and the name of Balitung
himself was found in the last, eighth place[33]. Sanjaya’s name bore a royal title as Rakai
Mataram Sang Ratu Sanjaya and, hence, the kingdom was called the kingdom of
Mataram [34] in later times.

Sailendra Dynasty – Records in Prasasti Kalasan

With regard to the Sailendra Dynasty, which had presumably existed around the same age,
mention was found in a stone inscription, called Prasasti Kalasan, discovered at a Buddhist
temple, Candi Kalasan, in the Prambanan Plain, leading to a presumption that the dynasty

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was prosperous to such an extent to be able to have such a fine temple. The translation of the
content of the inscription from the Indonesian text is as follows [35]:

S1 Prayer and homages to Arya Tara, hopefully the devotees can achieve their goals.
S2–3 Teachers of the king of Sailendra asked Maharaja Dyah Pancapana Panangkaran to co
temple, and several houses for the priests who are versed in the knowledge of Mahaya
S4-6 The three high tax officers [36] received orders to make Candi Tara and houses for pr
the Sailendra”, for the benefit of the teachers of the king of Sailendra. In the year Saka
made offerings.
S7-9 Kalasan Village was awarded. The three high tax officers, the prosecutor of the villag
king’s successors of the Sailendra Dynasty, by the successors of three high tax officer
the temple shall be preserved forever for the happiness of all people.
S11–12 Thanks to the construction of the monastery, everyone is expected to gain more know
The noble Kariyana Panangkaran repeated his request to all kings who will follow to
The “Candi Tara” must be no other than Candi Kalasan and the ruling king of the
Sailendra is regarded to be King Wisnu (alias Dharmatunga) who was mentioned in a
contemporary inscription, left in Ligor [38], Malay Peninsula, as “a brave killer of enemies”.
The name of King Indra, the successor of King Wisnu, appeared in a stone inscription,
named Prasasti Kelurak, dated 782 AD, discovered in Kelurak village in the Prambanan
Plain, which mentioned that “Sri Sanggrama Dhananjaya [the throne name of Indra] gave an
order to construct a sacred Buddhist temple to house the statue of Manjusri who held the
wisdom of Buddha, dharma [law] and sangha [priests]” [39]. The temple is regarded as Candi
Sewu in the Prambanan Plain.
In this connection, I may add that there is a proverb in Japan, “If three persons
gather, they can produce an idea comparable to that of Manjusri.” To my shame, I
have never thought about the true meaning, but the proverb may be better corrected
as “One must rely upon the three treasures (Buddha, dharma and sangha) to attain
the wisdom of Manjusri”, although no mention was found in dictionaries I have
ever checked. In fact, the wisdom of Manjusri could not be obtained even if three
mediocre persons gathered together.

The construction of Candi Borobudur

With regard to the construction of Candi Borobudur, a hint was available in the
aforementioned Prasasti Karang Tengah, dated 824 AD. Although the inscription, which
consisted of two parts written in Sanskrit and Old Javanese, was partially damaged, the
contents were interpreted by Dr. de Casparis. In the first part, it was written in Sanskrit, that
(1) Pramodawardhani, daughter of Samaratungga (reigned 812–33 AD), built a Jinalaya
(Buddhist temple) and placed a beautiful statue in Saka 746 (824 AD), which shines as if the
moon descended on the earth, and that (2) the establishment of a Jinamandira (Buddhist
temple) called Srimad Venuvana (Sublime Bamboo-Grove) is expected to earn the reward of
accomplishing the tenth stage of Bodhisattva’s career to become a Budda and, as long as gods
reside on Mount Meru and the sun shines in the sky for the life of thousands of inhabitants,
the temple is hopefully full of the virtue of Buddha; while in the second part of Old Javanese
language was read that (3) Rakai Patapan and his wife had donated rice fields (for a temple)
and villagers were invited as witnesses [40].

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 Although the names of the three temples were implicit in this inscription, Dr. de Casparis
concluded with reference to the records in other inscriptions that (1) Candi Jinalaya built by
Pramodawardhani was Candi Pawon dedicated to King Indra; that (2) Candi Jinamandira was
Candi Borobudur completed by Samaratungga; and that (3) Rakai Patapan was another name
of King Garung of the Sanjaya and the temple that received a donation from him was Candi
Mendut built by King Indra [41].

The Sanjaya and the Sailendra dynasties

Then, how were the Sanjaya and the Sailendra families related? By sorting out the kings’
names in “Balitung’s list”, Dr. N. J. Krom proposed a theory that the main dynasty in Java at
that time was Sanjaya, but two persons from the Sailendra had reigned, but a single-dynasty
theory in which all kings appearing also in Prasasti Kalasan, Prasasti Kelurak and other
inscriptions belonged to one family was proposed, bringing about a lot of arguments[42]. In
the 1950s, Dr. de Casparis had extensively studied this problem and launched the two-
dynasty theory in which the Sailendra was a powerful family independent from the
Sanjaya. [43]
Later, in 1963, a stone inscription, which was suggestive of the origin of the Sailendra was
discovered in Sojomerto, Kabupaten Pekalongan [44]. This inscription written in Old Malay
and dated 725 AD refereed to a certain adherent of Siwa, named Dapunta Selendra and
mentioned that the names of his father, mother and wife were Santanu, Bhadrawati and
Sampula, respectively [45]. “Selendra” must be the Malay spelling of Sanscrit “Sailendra”,
and the fact that the language used was Old Malay suggested that the founder of the family
might have come from Sumatra. Note that the Malay language that formed the basis of the
modern Indonesian language originated from the area around the east part of Sumatra and the
Strait of Malacca.
While Dr. de Casparis’s two-dynasty theory was monumental, the single-dynasty theory
voiced by another famous palaeographer, Dr. Poerbatjaraka, and others still receives support
from some researchers as questions are cast on the two-dynasty theory even in recent
publications [46]. Personally, I should like to accept Dr. de Casparis’s theory (See Table 1).
The throne of the Sanjaya Kingdom was succeeded, after Rakai Balitung, by
Daksa (910–19), Tulodong (919–21), Dyah Wawa (924–8) and Mpu Sindok (928–
9). In 928 AD, Mpu Sindok moved the home of the kingdom to the bank of
Brantas River in East Java, by abandoning the land of Central Java, and founded
the new capital at Medang, the location being assumed to be the area of the
present-day Jombang. Thus, the Mataram Kingdom that prospered in Central Java
for two centuries disappeared.
King Samaratungga of the Sailendra married Princess Tara of the Sriwijaya Kingdom,
which contemporarily flourished in Sumatra (Prasasti Nalanda, undermentioned). In his time,
the Sailendra Kingdom had not only ruled the central part of Java Island but had relations
with South and Southeast Asia, as a statue of Bodhisattva was presented to Borobudur from
Bengal in 782 AD and a high-priest of Ceylon visited Java ten years later on the occasion of
the inauguration of a temple [47]. To the question why the Sailendra were able to construct
such a stupendous temple as Borobudur at the time of Samaratungga, I would assume that, in
addition to the greatness of the king himself, it had largely owed to the wealth of his wife’s
country, which was extremely prosperous from sea-trade.

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 The unification of Sanjaya and Sailendra kingdoms
According to Dr. de Casparis [48], the Sailendra and the Sanjaya kingdoms were virtually
united when Pramodawardhani got married to Rakai Pikatan, the then crown prince of
Sanjaya, around 832 when her father Samaratungga retired. Prince Balaputradewa, the
younger brother of Pramodawardhani, who was still an infant at that time, later insisted the
continuation of the Sailendra’s lineage in Java and resisted against his sister and her husband,
but eventually moved to the Sriwijaya Kingdom, his mother’s country in Sumatra, and
succeeded the throne of the kingdom. Apparently, he seems to have held the title of
Sailendra, as it was described in the stone inscription in Nalanda, India, that stated, that “In
860 AD, King Balaputra of Sailendra had built a monastery and King Dewapala of Bengala
had donated five villages for its maintenance. Balaputra was the son of Samaragrawira
(Samaratungga) who was the grandson of ‘The decoration of the Sailendra’ and his mother,
Tara, daughter of Dharmasetu (King of Sriwijaya), who was as beautiful as Goddess
Tara.” [49]
Rakai Pikatan ascended to the throne in 838 AD, several years after his marriage with
Pramodawardhani, and constructed a group of Hindu temples, represented by Candi Loro
Jonggrang, in Prambanan, the details of which having been written in Prasasti Siwagrha
erected by his son, Balitung, in 856 AD[50]. That Rakai Pikatan did not exclude Buddhism
can be understood from the fact that a fine Buddhist temple, Candi Plaosan, in the
neighbourhood, was built by Sri Kahulunan (the royal title of Pramodawardhani) in
cooperation with her husband, as recorded in Prasasti Sri Kahulunnan [51].
Table 1 The genealogies of the Sanjaya and the Sailendra families
(Based on Dr. de Casparis’s Two-Dynasty Theory)
Sanjaya Sailendra
Ratu Sanjaya (c. 732–760) Selendra (c. 725?)*
｜ ｜
Rakai Panangkaran (c. 760–780) Bhanu (c. 752–775)
｜ ｜
Rakai Panunggalan (c. 780–800) Vishnu (Dharmatunga) (c. 775–782)
｜ ｜
Rakai Warak (c. 800–819) Indra (Sangramadhanamjaya) (c. 782–812)
｜ ｜
Rakai Garung (c. 819–838) Samaratungga (c. 8l2–832)
｜ (Married to Princess Tara, Sriwijaya)*
｜ ｜
｜ Pramodawardhani (married to Rakai Pikatan)
｜ Balaputra (moved to Sriwijaya)*
Rakai Pikatan (c. 838–851)
｜
Rakai Kayuwangi (c. 851–882)
｜
Rakai Balitung (c. 898–910)*
From: G. E. Hall, A History of South-East Asia 4th Ed. Macmillan Education 1981.
( ): The period of reign in AD, (*): Added by this writer (M. Iguchi)

As to the reason of the marriage between the Sanjaya’s Prince Pikatan and Sailendra’s
Princess Pramodawardhani, we often see such a view that it was for political convenience in
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that, for instance, “Samaratungga pursued peace and wished to be able to concentrate in the
construction of Borobudur”[52]. According to the view of Dr. de Casparis et al. [53], the
Sailendra was in a superior position over the Sanjaya and the latter was almost a vassal
country at that time. I would like to imagine, romantically, that Pramodawardhani had fallen
in love with Pikatan who attended on her father and that the father gave permission for the
couple to marry. Pramodawardhani must have been an active woman as her father relied on
her support for the building of temples and probably other matters. At least, she must not
have been a sort of just graceful and modest princess who obeyed her parents to go marry
someone who was not of her taste.

Sima, an enigmatic queen in the Books of Tang

The age when the Sanjaya and the Sailendra prospered in Java corresponds to the era of the
Tang Dynasty in China. In the Old Book of Tang (舊唐書, or Old History of the Tang
Dynasty) [54], completed in the mid-10th century, there were some accounts on “Ka-ling
Country (訶陵國)” situated on an island in the southern sea. The book mentioned the
geographical position that “The east is Bali, the west is Dva-pa-tan, the north is Chenla
[Cambodia], the south faces ocean” [55], the kingdom’s outline that “they make their castle
with hardwood, make multi-storeyed palaces roofed with the bark of hemp-palm. The king
sits in it, the whole floor of which is made of ivory”, the culture and customs that “they do
not use chopsticks to eat but take foods by fingers. They have letters and good knowledge of
calendar. They make wine from the [stem of] palm flower (…)”, and referred to their
despatch of embassies in 640, 768, 769, 815 and 818 AD, including monks in 815 AD in
particular. In the New Book of Tang (新唐書, or New History of the Tang Dynasty )[56] issued
one century later, the following accounts were added. “The seat of the king is in She-po (闍婆).
The founder, Ki-yen (吉延), moved to the east from Pa-lu-ka-si (婆露伽斯). In this region there are
twenty-four small countries, all of them serve as vassals. (…) On the summer-solstice, a
gnomon of 8 feet high, if erected vertically, casts a shadow of 2 feet 4 inches (2.4 feet) long
on the south side. (…) In Shangyuan Period [674–5 AD], the country people assigned a
female, named Sima (悉莫), to the throne. Her rule was just and things dropped on the road
were not taken up. (…)” The name of the country, Ka-ling, alternatively pronounced as Ho-
ling, also appeared in Buddhism books, one example being Legends of the teaching of Secret
Mandala by Konghai, in which the author received a lecture from Huiguo together with a
monk from Kalinga named “Benhong” .
The old and the new books of Tang have been of interest to scholars ever since the late
19th century [57], and what country corresponded to Ka-ling and “who was Queen Sima and
who was Ki-yen who moved the capital to the east” became big issues. By applying “Ka-
ling” to Kalinga, the country’s association with India was argued, but it was no more than a
speculation. As to the geographical position, it was pointed out that the incidental angle of the
sunbeam, written in the New Book of Tang, indicated 6°8' N that did not fall in Java
Island[58]. Today, however, the capital of Ka-ling (or Kalinga) is considered to have existed
somewhere around the present-day Semarang, or Pekalongan (where the Prasasti Sojomerto
was discovered), or Keling Village in Kabupaten Jepara [59].

The lineage of the Sima, the Sanjaya and other families found in history
books written in West Java
I was aware of the fact that Sanjaya was a person who moved from Galuh Kingdom, in West
Java, to Central Java, which I had read somewhere. Looking again into the Sejarah Bogor

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(History of Bogor) by Prof. Saleh Danasasmita[60], I found some accounts on the
relationship between the Sanjaya’s lineage and the Kalinga, which was as follows.
“King Mandiminyak, the 5th king of Galuh Kingdom, married Parwati, a
daughter of Queen Sima of Kalinga. He had a son named Sanna. Between Sanna
and Sannaha, a granddaughter of Sima, Sanjaya was born. Sanjaya was adopted as
a son-in-law by his father’s friend, Tarusabawa, the first king of the Sunda
kingdom, married to the latter’s daughter, Tejakancana, and became the 2nd king
of Sunda. His real father, Sanna, was ousted from the throne in 716 AD by his half-
brother (same father and different mother) and fled to Kalinga, the country of his
wife’s grandmother. Although Sanjaya had revenged on his father’s sworn enemy
and simultaneously assumed the crown of Galuh (the 5th), he abdicated the throne
in favour of his son, Tamperan (also called Rakeyan Panaraban) in 723 AD and
became the King of North Kalinga, as a rightful successor. He married Sudiwara, a
daughter of King Dewasinga of South Kalinga (Bumi Sambara) and Panangkaran
was born between them, etc.”
Unfortunately, the source of the documents was not given for this citation. I have
remembered a book entitled Pustaka rajya rajya i bhumi Nusantara (meaning,The Book of
Kings in the Land of Archipelago. Hereinafter, The Book of Kings, for short) [61], compiled
in the 18th century in West Java, and took up the file of its photocopy from my bookshelf. To
my surprise, many facts about the Sanjaya family and its relation to Kalinga were written in it
in significant detail. Let me summarise the corresponding part and translate from Indonesian
language, because no direct reference to this book has been found in books and articles that I
have surveyed.
“In Sumatra, Sriwijaya Kingdom had gained the hegemony by 613 Saka
(691/692 AD) and was dominant over other countries. While Sriwijaya had a pact
with Sunda Kingdom of West Java, signed between the former’s King Jayanasa
and the latter’s King Tarusabawa in 607 Saka (686 AD) and ambassadors were
exchanged between them, they were always envious of the Keling Kingdom, which
was very fertile and rich.
“In the Keling Kingdom, Prabu Kartikeyasingha had died in Mt. Mahameru [62] and his
wife, Dewi Sima was on the throne. The kingdom had a friendly relationship with China,
having sent an embassy with priests and astrologers in 570 Saka (648/649 AD) during the
reign of King Kartikeyasingha. and another embassy in 578 Saka (666/667 AD). Before then,
Kartikeyasingha’s father had sent embassies to China in 554 Saka (652/653 AD) and 562
Saka (640/641 AD). The founder of the Keling originated from the south Bharata (India).
“Dewi Sima was an elegant and charming woman unrivalled in Java, a perfect
beauty like a heavenly maiden. Sri Jayanasa of Sriwijaya had fallen in love with
Sima, but his love was not realised, because Sima disliked him to such an extent
that she would kill herself, if marrying the man was inevitable. Notwithstanding,
Jayanasa persistently approached and distressed Sima. Apart from her hatred, the
religions were different between the kings of Sriwijaya and Java, as they followed
the Mahayana Buddhism and the Saura [a fact of Hinduism], respectively. It was
also known that Sriwijaya had plundered the gold and diamonds from Melayu [a
kingdom in Sumatra] whom they had subjugated.

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 “In 608 Saka (686/697 AD), the king of Sriwijaya attacked Java, but in vain,
because the Chinese Empire, Bakulampra Kingdom, Hujung Mendini Kingdom
and other Indian countries supported Java. Then, the king of Sriwijaya ordered
Javanese merchant ships berthed in the ports of Palembang and Bangka to return
home, robbing their properties. In addition, the king gave orders to pirates to attack
the Javanese on the sea.
“Sunda Kingdom was not agreeable with the ambition of the king of Sriwijaya
and asked him for calmness and reconsideration.
“According to the history, Sriwijaya Kingdom conquered the regional kingdom
of Sanghyang Hujung and created a sanctuary there.
“Below is the narration of a great poet. Dewi Sima and Prabu Kartikeyasingha
had children, two of them being Dewi Parwati (daughter) and Nalayana (son).
Dewi Parwati married to Sang Mandiminyak, the king of Galuh, and they had a
daughter named Dewi Sannaha. Mandiminyak married also Pwah Rababu and had
a son named Sang Senna (alias Sang Bratasennawa). Senna married Sannaha and a
boy named Rakryan Sanjaya was born between them. Senna was ousted from the
throne by Purbasora.
“Sanjaya conquered King Purbasora of Galuh and became the king of Galuh.
Sanjaya had already ruled Indraprahasta Kingdom [the present-day Cirebon]. It
was because Indraprahasta was supporting Galuh, as Purbasora’s wife was a
daughter of the Indraprahasta, and, in fact, the army that defeated King Senna was
the troops of Indraprahasta, led by Purbasora himself. By the assault of Sanjaya,
the king of Indraprahasta, Purbasora and his wife, astrologers, ministers and
officers were killed.
“Moreover, Sanjaya advanced his army towards the east and subjugated many
kingdoms in Central and East Java. Then, he attacked many countries in Sumatra,
including Melayu, Sriwijaya and Barus. After then, he turned to the north.
Sanjaya’s campaign lasted for three years.
“In 645 Saka (732/733 AD), Sanjaya became the king of Medang in the Soil of
Mataram (Medang i bhumi Mataram). Sanjaya was succeeded by his son,
Panangkarana. His wife was a woman of the Selendra. Then, the Selendra became
a powerful kingdom. The land of Central Java was divided and the northern and
southern parts became the territories of the Sanjaya and the Selendra,
respectively.”
The year of Queen Sima’s coronation, 674/675 AD exactly coincides with the Shangyuan
Period (674–5) recorded in the New Book of Tang. The years of sending embassies to China
in the West Java chronicle do not agree with those in the Old Book of Tang, but I would
refrain from arguing the reason, rather conjecture that the former document, edited in the later
century on the basis of fragmental records and oral traditions, had inevitable errors. That
“Keling”, “Selendra” and “Senna” denote the same words as Kalinga, Sailendra and Sanna,
respectively, is undoubtful.The fact that the parents of Sanjaya, Sanna and Sannaha, were
both son and daughter of the same father, Mandiminyak, born from different mothers,
Rababu and Parwati, is noteworthy. Although a marriage between a half-brother and a half-

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sister is hardly thinkable nowadays, from both ethic and genetic viewpoints, some cases were
there in old days also in Japan and elsewhere in the world [63].
Next, I wished to check the famous Carita Parahiyangan ( The Story of Parahiyangan),
written on lontar strips around the 16th century by an anonymous author, but the text I had
obtained by courtesy of an authority through my friend in Bandung was still in Old
Sundanese, which was hardly readable by myself. Then, I asked a student of Sundanese
Literature Department of Pajajaran University to translate it into modern Indonesian, and
found some accounts on the life of Sena (Sanna), such as follows [64]:
“Pwah Rababu, a daughter of the Lord of Kendan had once a coitus with Lord
Makadria, as her father told, but later married to Rahiang Sempakwaja, who
became the Governor of Galungun, and gave birth to two sons, Purbasora and
Demunawan. One day, when she went to Galuh, she was seduced by
Mandiminyak, the youngest brother of her husband, who had succeeded the throne
of Galuh, and after months delivered a male baby who was named Salah. Having
been told by her husband to give the baby away to Mandiminyak, she took him to
Galuh. Mandiminyak said, “Oh, this is my son!”, but ordered his retainer to put the
baby in a vase and carried it to the field. When the retainer left the vase and
returned, a sign shone from the field to the sky, but the baby was still alive. He was
renamed Sang Sena. Sena succeeded the throne of Galuh, after his father, but seven
years later he was expelled by Purbasora and fled to Mt. Merapi [Central Java].”
From this description, it has become evident that Purbasora and Sanna (Sena)
were half-brothers from different mothers and that the expatriation of the latter by
the former was a sort of family discord. With regard to the transfer of power from
Sanna to Sanjaya, the clause in Prasasti Canggal that it was done “not directly from
King Sanna but through the king’s elder sister, Sannaha” was quite ambiguous, but
now it could be alternatively interpreted as “through the king’s consort, Sannaha”
or “through Sanjaya’s mother, Sannaha”. It might have been probable that the
status of Sannaha who was the legitimate child from the legal wife of
Mandiminyak was higher than that of Sanna who was an illegitimate child from the
wife of Mandiminyak’s brother.
Among the facts that Sanjaya conquered many countries in Java Island as well as Melayu
and China (?), also written in Carita Parahiyangan, a line that he “waged war against Keling
and defeated Sang Sriwijaya” (Sang=a respectful title) has provoked a thought in my mind.
Although Kalinga had rejected the approach of Sriwijaya in the era of Queen Sima (according
to The Book of Kings), was Kalinga under the rule of Sriwijaya at the time of the queen’s
great-grandchild?
Although Sanjaya was a great king in West Java, Carita Parahiyangan mentioned that he
was estranged by Kuku (alias Seuweukarma), his father’s half-brother and Purbasora’s
younger brother, who became the king of Kuningan, as well as other local rulers, as a killer of
a family member, suggesting that this could be the major reason of Sanjaya’s move to Central
Java.
The description in The Book of Kings that “Panangkaran (the son of Sanjaya who was born
after his father’s move to Central Java) took a woman of the Sailendra to wife and, then, the
Sailendra became a powerful kingdom” told that a marital relationship was formed between
the two families, although who the woman was was not written. This could be the reason, or

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one of the reasons, why Panangkaran was so cooperative with the Sailendra in the
construction and the maintenance of Buddhist temples and probably in other matters.
The phrase, “King of Medang in the Soil of Mataram (Rajya Medang i bhumi Mataram)”
in The Book of Kings has appeared on some stone monuments, giving the Mataram Kingdom
founded by Sanjaya another name, “Medang Kingdom”. Because later kings occasionally
moved their capital (e.g. Rakai Pikatan to Mamrati and Dyah Balitung to Poh Pitu), however,
Medang Kingdom may be more precise to be applied for the whole period of the Sanjaya
Dynasty[65].
Another description in the same book that the area of Central Java was divided into the
northern and southern parts and shared by the Sanjaya and the Sailendra, respectively, is
probably noteworthy. Whether this book was refereed or not is unknown; this demarcation is
written in general books and textbooks for secondary high-school in Indonesia [66], along
with the fact that “while Candi Gedung Songo on the mountainside of Ungaran in the
northern part of Central Java and groups of candis in Dieng Plateau were built by the
Sanjaya, many candis in the Kedu Basin and Prambanan Plain were built by the Sailendra”.
One remarkable exception is a group of candis in Prambanan, represented by Candi Lolo
Jonggrang, which is comparable with Candi Borobudur in its scale and magnificence (to be
undermentioned).
The name of Sudiwara, daughter of the king of South Kalinga, Dewasinga, whom Sanjaya
took as his wife in Central Java, mentioned in The History of Bogor, was found in a stone
inscription, dated 760 AD, discovered in Dinoyo near the present-day Malang. In addition to
the fact that “the centre of the kingdom existed in Kanjuruhan”, it was written that “once,
there was a just and powerful king named Dewasinga. This monument is to commemorate the
construction of a temple, by his son, Gajayana, to enshrine the new statue of Agastya to
replace the old rotten piece”.[67]
The fact that Gajayana had established himself in this district must correspond to the
“transfer of the kingdom” written in the New Book of Tang, and Gajayana himself is regarded
as Ki-yen. The fact that the two events, i.e. the transfer of the kingdom by Ki-yen in the late
8th century and the enthronement of Queen Sima in the late 7th century, are written in
chronologically reverse order in the New Book of Tang must be heeded, as it is generally said
the records in this New Book are frequently confused, while those in the Old Book of
Tang are not.
Extracting the names of kings, consorts, princes and princesses appearing in above
documents and adding some more names found in some articles[68] on Babad Galuh (Galuh
Chronicle), I have drawn a genealogical chart that includes the families of Sanjaya, Queen
Sima and others.

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 The reason of Gajayana’s move to East Java has not been concluded. If one was to assume
that he was expelled from Central Java by Sanjaya, the husband of his sister, Sudiwara, the
question of why their relationship was so bad has to be answered. I would prefer to think that,
in such a circumstance that the Buddhist Sailendra gained power and Sanjaya’s son,
Panangkaran, was the supporter of Buddhism, Gajayana had decided to explore a new land
for Hinduism in East Java.From the New Book of Tang, Kalinga seems to have continually
sent ambassadors to China after Gajayana’s move to East Java. As to the question why the
same book lacked accounts on the Sanjaya and the Sailendra dynasties, I can only speculate
that the Chinese had no information, having received no diplomatic mission. In any event I
would assume that the existence of Kalinga in Central Java had ended by the move to the east
by Gajayana.

Consideration on Borobudur
Let us stop the review of the difficult history and return to Borobudur. From the records of
stone inscriptions, the construction of Borobudur is considered to have required forty-two
years, ever since it was commenced by King Indra in 782 and completed by King
Samaratungga in 824. Although priests and architects might have been invited from Sriwijaya
and India, the majority of inhabitants at that time would have been Javanese as inferred from
the sculptures that ornamented the temple. The features of Buddha statues looks to have
portrayed the gentle, round faces of Javanese men, and the appearance and gesture of people
on the reliefs depicted their characteristics. In Journeys to Java, Marquis Tokugawa cited a
comment of Mr. Hidenosuke Miura, then an assistant professor, from Tokyo Fine Art School,
who he incidentally met there, “It is interesting, isn’t it? The life of Javanese people depicted
here of more than one thousand years ago is not so much different from the life of today’s
Javanese.”
Prof. Miura’s Javanese Buddhist Remains – Boroboedoer [69], published in 1925, with
photographs of all reliefs and statues of Borobudur, is regarded as a rival of the
aforementioned book of Dr. Krom as complete image recording of Borobudur. When I saw
the book in the Tokugawa Reimeikai Library, I was much surprised by the sharpness of the
reliefs in the photographs taken only ten years after the temple’s first restoration. When such
photographs are compared with the real sculptures that we see today, we can notice how
seriously erosion has progressed on the stone surfaces after exposure to air. The condition

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looks to have worsened during the last quarter-century, ever since I saw them for the first
time, as they have suffered from acid rain. It is said that the whole Borobudur temple was
originally covered with plaster and coloured. A humble researcher of polymer chemistry, I
wondered whether it could not be possible to protect them with a thin layer of some silicone
varnish even from now. When I had the honour of accompanying the late Mr. Yoshinobu
Tokugawa, an expert of art history and archaeology, to Borobudur, he told me, “It is a
difficult issue as if you did so would mean that you would spoil the object. One could say the
fact that the ruins were excavated itself was the beginning of destruction!” I had also thought
that it could not be impossible for modern technology to put a huge roof to cover the whole
temple, as was done for the Wimbledon court and some baseball fields, but it would not
match the original concept conceived by King Indra and Rev. Gunadharma twelve hundred
years ago. The making of replicas of historical relics is a common practice, but it can be only
applied to some limited number of components, such as statues and reliefs, not to the whole
gigantic monument. After all, I thought that photographs, especially those taken in early days,
would be of immense value as records for the future. With the current imaging technology, to
create three-dimensional images of all statues and reliefs or the image of the whole of
Borobudur would not be difficult.
There was a tragic episode in the book of Prof. Miura in that “To publish his new theory,
the manuscript, the photographic plates and other materials were brought to a printing
company in Kanda-Mitoshiro Street [in Tokyo] and the book was just ready to be turned to
the binding process, when the Great Kwanto Earthquake [1 September 1923] occurred and
everything was reduced to ash.[70]” Probably, a backup copy of the manuscript must have
been safe in a different place.It is said that the social structure in Java around the 8th–10th
centuries was not of such feudalistic type as in Western Europe in which the land and the
military service were interlinked. In Java, in exchange for receiving services, the kings gave
lands to religious organisations, high officials and royal family members, and granted rights
to collect taxes and to operate industrial and commercial activities. No slave system had
existed and farmers had a duty to serve for a certain number of days in agricultural off-
seasons. Although they were often recruited as non-skilled labourers for the construction of
temples, they would have served themselves with a pious mind. Professional architects and
sculptors who were indispensable for the construction of Borobudur and other temples were
probably exempted from other duties and formed artisan groups [71].
Nevertheless, whether the whole design of Borobudur was imaged and drafted up by the
legendary architect, Gunadharma, alone is an open question, while, if it were today, a project
team of one hundred selected members of Buddhism scholars, architects and artists would be
organised and several thousand sheets of drawings would be prepared with full use of
computer graphics. At that time when even a sheet of paper was yet to be produced [72], it is
hard to imagine how the master architect was able to notify the details of his design to his
engineers and artists. The generation of his staff and labourers must have altered during the
construction period of some forty years. In Europe, there are many churches and cathedrals
that were built in several hundred-year periods, but their construction is considered to have
been the continuation of much simpler works compared with that of Borobudur.
As a Buddhist monument, Dunghuang (敦煌) in China is much better known in Japan,
apparently because NHK has spent an enormous amount of money and persistently broadcast
the film, apart from a famous novel by Yasushi Inoue [73] and fine sketches by Ikuo
Hirayama[74]. Statues and paintings of Buddha installed in several thousand caves of
Dunghuang from the 4th to the 11th century are no doubt valuable for the study on the
diffusion of Buddhism on the northern route, but all those relics are the kind of things that
had been arbitrarily and sporadically brought there by unspecified people. When I had a

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chance to visit Dunghuang, I was impressed that, in terms of the artistic value, the remains
are inferior to the temple of Borobudur, which had been built according to a single concept at
one time.

Dieng Plateau
Before visiting Prambanan, let me report on the situation of Dieng Plateau. It was
twenty years ago that I went there for the first time. From Yogyakarta, my party
took a route to the north to Tumanggung and, by turning to the left, passed the col
between two mountains, Sumbing and Sundro, which both showed their beautiful
conical forms. We stopped at Wonosowo and stayed overnight in a small losmen
(tavern). It was cool but so cold on the mountainside town of 2,000-metre elevation
from the sea-level that I had to request a pail of hot water to take a mandi (shower).
Next morning, we drove off again to Dieng Plateau located twenty kilometres to
the north, above 200 metres, on a winding road that was much steeper and sharper
than that over the Hakone Pass in Japan or probably the famous Hanguguan in
China. The hills on both sides were well cultivated and I was told that various
vegetables grown there were transported far away to the market of Yogyakarta.
There were some greenhouses to grow mushrooms, too. While I was thinking over
the efforts of the authorities who had constructed this metallised road a hundred
years ago and the hard labour of farmers, the car brought us to Dieng of 2,200-
metre elevation from the sea-level. The circumstance of the tableland of 1
kilometre east–west and 1.5 kilometres north–south with gentle undulations was
dreary, where the vegetation was quite shabby, some cypress trees with dark-green
needles only on their top parts standing to and fro. I was told that to see morning
frost, or even thin ice, was not rare in dry seasons. In the middle of the plateau was
a small lake, which was turbid with a white colour produced by sulphur, reminding
me that the place was an old caldera. On a small hill was an experimental
geothermal power station, which emitted white steam together with the smell of
sulphur. Just for information, Indonesia is now the second leading geothermal-
power-producing country after the United States of America, while the abundant
geothermal resources are little used in Japan due to various regulations.
Next day, we first visited several Hindu temples, named Candi Arjuna, Candi
Semar, etc., named in a later century, located in the northern part of the plateau.
They were masonry works with a basement of some ten metres square and ten to
fifteen metres tall, the roofs of which had not been restored. The inside of the
niches were empty, as statues had been removed to some museums. They were said
to have been constructed around 670–730 AD in the early period of the Sanjaya
Dynasty, and the carvings on the walls were far less sophisticated than those of
candis built later in Kedu Basin and Prambanan Plain. Candi Sembadra in the
western part and Candi Bima in the southern part of the tableland were said to be
the constructions built in the beginning of the 13th century, suggesting that

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Hinduism was maintained by some local lord after the move of the Sanjaya
Dynasty to East Java, although the make of those candis was simple.
Walking around Dieng Plateau, I really wondered why ancient people had chosen this
remote highland as the site of their worship, by providing footpaths with several thousand
steps from the foot, from four directions. The name of the place, Dieng, was derived from the
Sanskrit Dihyang, which meant the abode of the gods. In an old Javanese manuscript,Tantu
Panggelaran [75], was told a mythical story, which follows.

A myth on the birth of Java Island

“Bhatara Guru [Lord Shiva] created the island of Java together with his wife,
Bhatari Parameswari [Durga] and provided Mount Dihyang [Dieng], but the island
was drifting on the sea. Shiva ordered the gods to move the sacred mountain,
Mahameru, from Jambudipa [India] and put it on Java as a weight to stabilise it.
Visnu and Brahma transformed themselves into a long serpent and a huge turtle,
respectively, and the latter carried Mount Mahameru on his back, while the former
put himself around to bind it. When Mahameru was placed on the western part of
Java, the island was unbalanced and tilted. During the process of moving
Mahameru eastwards, the mountain broke apart and six more mountains, i.e,
Kantong, Wilis, Kampud, Kawi, Arjuna, and Kemukus, were formed along the
route.”
Mt. Mahameru, alternatively called Mt. Semeru, located to the east of the
present-day Malang as the highest peak in Java (3,666 m), is still a sacred
mountain, especially for Tenggerese, an ethnic group who live around the area and
have worshipped Shiva ever since the Majapahit time. Note that Semeru is
equivalent to the Chinese Xumishan (須彌山) or the Japanese Miyaukau-zan (or
Myōkō-zan, 妙高山). When I spoke about Mt. Semeru to my old friend, a textile
engineer and scholar of Japanese history as well as a mountaineer who had
conquered many high peaks in the world, he pointed out that Semeru would lead to
“Sumera”, an archaic Japanese word for emperor. According to his theory, the
Sanskrit word, “Semeru”, for “the supreme being”, originating in ancient Indian
philosophy prior to the birth of Hinduism and Buddhism, must have been
introduced in Japan in the unknown past and applied to “emperor”.

Prambanan
Now let us go to Prambanan. If one takes the main road from Yogyakarta towards
Solo for twenty kilometres in an east by northeast direction, a group of Candi Loro
Jonggrang appears on the left-hand side like towers. As mentioned above, these
temples built in the mid-9th century had been embedded under the soil and
vegetation, like Borobudur, until their existence was reported in 1733 by C. A.
Lons of VOC. Although Baron van Imhoff, who served as the governor-general of
the Dutch East Indies (1743–50) and known as the founder of the Buitenzorg
estate, had once visited there in the mid-18th century, the first cleaning operation

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 was conducted much later in 1807 by Ir. H. C. Cornelis under Governor-General
Engelveld. Stamford Raffles who saw the ruins six years later wrote under the
heading of ‘Chandi’ Lolo Jongglang (or Temples of Lolo Jonggrang):
“These lie directly in front (north) of the village of Brambanan and about two hundred and
fifty yards from the road, whence they are visible, in the form of large hillocks of fallen
masses of stone, surmounted, and in some instances covered, with a profusion of trees and
herbage of all descriptions. In the present dilapidated state of these venerable buildings, I
found it very difficult to obtain a correct plan or description of their original disposition,
extent, or even of their number and figure…”[76]

The big temple at Prambanan

Reproduced from: Antiquarian, Architectural, and Landscape Illustrations of the History of Java 1844 (John Bastin (preface),
Plates to Raffles's History of Java, Oxford University Press, 1989).
This sketch was made by Ir. H. C. Cornelis who conducted the cleaning operation in 1807.

Although an archaeological survey was commenced at last in 1885 by Dr. J. W. Ijzerman,

the original form of the buildings was still completely unknown. After the turn of the 20th
century, a study was followed by such famous scholars as Drs. van Erp and de Haan and the
restoration was started in 1937. After the interruption during the Second World War, the
central Candi Siwa was rebuilt in 1953, four years after the independence of Indonesia. The
efforts of restoration were persistently continued and it was in the 1990s that all eight candis
in the central area were reconstructed into the present forms.

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 Entering the gate of the Prambanan Archaeological Park and walking about one
hundred metres forwards, one will see some stone blocks of black colour on the
ground that are a few metres lower than the surroundings, and notice that many
small structures had stood around there in the past. The outer precinct of 222metres
square, elevated about two metres from the peripheral ground is the place where
224 small candis used to be arrayed surrounding the inner precinct of one hundred
metres square. Although many of them have been rebuilt into the shape of candis,
others retain only their basement with numerous stone pieces miserably scattered at
random. Passing through the front gate and entering in the inner precinct, everyone
is overwhelmed by huge candis centred by the largest Candi Siwa. Candi Siwa has
a main hall twenty metres high with a tall pyramidal roof of over twenty metres
standing dignifiedly on a basement of thirty-four metres square and five metres in
height, hence, the total height being forty-seven metres.

A bird’s-eye view of Candi Lolo Jonggrang Temple Complex from Google Earth.
1: Shiva, 2: Visnu, 3: Brahma, 4: Nandi, 5: Angsa, 6: Garuda, 7: Apit.
The names of candi, from: Dwi Marno Sukandar et al., Guide to the Prambanan Temple, Yogya ADV 1991.

The majestic appearance ornamented with several hundred bell-shaped ratna (jewels) on the
parapet of the gallery (or corridor) and the roof and various fine bas-reliefs on the outer and
inner walls of the whole building, as well as large Kala heads, cannot be depicted by my pen.
Seven other candis are more or less similar in shape and also fully ornamented with
sculptures, although they are smaller in size.The figure of the candis with a gently pointed
roof was said to represent Mount Semeru, but how people were able to reconstruct such a
beautifully shaped tower full of ornaments from dispersed stone pieces was my big question.
According to a contemporary report[77], it was done by trial and error, by sorting out and
studying the shape of scattered blocks and building various parts one by one on the ground.
Supposing that it must have been equivalent to having solved a huge, intricate three-
dimensional jigsaw puzzle, I pay my deep respect not only to the work of ancient architects

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who had originally built these exquisite temples, but also the time and effort of all the people
who were involved in their reconstruction, whenever I visit Prambanan.

Reconstruction drawing of Candi Siwa elaborated for the operation commenced in 1937.
From: V. R. van Romondt, “De wederopbouw van den Çiwa Tempel te Prmbanan”, Djawa No.3, 20, 1940.

Candi Lolo Jonggrang temple complex

If one ascends five metres on the staircase at the front (east) of the basement, passes the gate
with a Kala head on its top, and ascends three metres more, you find a large niche of about
eight metres square in which a statue of Lord Shiva (Shiva Mahadewa) with four arms, three
metres tall, that has been given the name of Candi Siwa, stands. The statue is said to represent
King Rakai Pikatan who had built the Candi Loro Jonggrang [78]. On that account, the
intrepid face looks to be that of a human rather than that of the Supreme Deity. Turning
around the gallery of the same candi, one finds three more niches of a little smaller sizes (ca.
five metres square) in the south, the west and the north sides of the main hall, which
accommodate statues of Mahaguru (Shiva’s ascetic form as a great teacher), Ganesha

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(Shiva’s elephant-headed son and the god of wisdom and prudence) [79] and Durga (Shiva’s
consort in her destructive form). The statue of Durga is believed to be the figure of Loro
Jonggrang, a legendary princess who was transformed into stone, which gave the name of
Candi Lolo Jonggrang to the group of candis in this precinct. The goddess of war, the eight-
handed Durga, stands on the Nandi (ox) by pulling up the ox’s tail with her front-side right
hand, pressing the head of Asura with her front-side left hand, and holding bow, arrow, sword
and other weapons with her six other arms. Let me cite the description by Marquis Tokugawa
in his Journeys to Java:
“Perhaps, this statue is one of the masterpieces. Her pose is not such that will
lead a viewer into a pious feeling, but is rather erotic. Although it was carved from
a cold stone, she looked quite soft, as if warm blood streamed underneath her skin.
I thought that the sculptor would have wished to express the carving, not as a
goddess, but as a human. Perhaps Javanese people, having their own optimistic
thoughts conceived through their easy lifestyle in the tropics, might consider a god,
or a goddess, as a close existence to people, rather than putting him, or her, aside in
a remote place. In any case, it was quite wondrous to imagine the vitality and
efforts of an ancient artist who had made such a marvellous work with a chisel,
whether the artist was motivated by his religion or by his dedication to art.”

The statue of Durga.

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If the statue of Shiva depicted Rakai Pikatan, I believe that this Durga must have been
modelled after Pramodawardhani and feel attracted by her not necessarily very beautiful but
charming face and her voluptuous figure, whenever I visit there.In the gallery, which
surrounds the main hall, one finds forty-seven reliefs of Ramayana [80] panelled around the
inner wall of the parapet (See an example of reliefs in the front-cover), and the carvings of
Lokapalas (the guardian of the world) of eight divine forms[81] placed on the eight sides of
the main hall wall to protect the temple from evils. The fact that those Lokapalas sat cross-
legged and posed various mudras was interesting and I thought these might have been the
images of sculptors who had engaged in the sculpturing of Buddha statues in Buddhist
candis. The word, Lokapala, reminds one of Dyah Lokapala (or Mpu Lokapala), the original
name of Rakai Balitung, son of Pikatan and Pramodawardhani, who succeeded the throne
after his father’s abdication. Whether the statues are related to the prince is uncertain, at least
to my knowledge.

If you leave the main hall and look at the temple again from outside, you will see, all
around the outer wall of the parapet, interesting panels in the middle of which is a lion who
sits facing outward in a small niche and on both sides of it unique motifs called “Prambanan
motifs”. The motif has a symmetrical divine tree in the middle, a pair of birds flying on the
upper parts and a pair of various animals, such as kinara-kinari (male and female avians with
human upper body), deer, hares, mice, etc. On the upper part of the main hall wall, there are
fine sculptures of “Apsara Trios” as well as celestial beings who are dancing and playing
instruments.
The works of sculptures at Candi Lolo Jonggrang looked distinguished among many of
those in other candis, including Candi Mendut and Candi Borobudur. I supposed that
probably the artisans who had previously engaged in the sculpturing at Borobudur and other
temples had improved their skill and joyfully worked again in this new grand temple. The
masterpiece of masterpieces is said to be one of the “Apsara Trio” that “cannot but fascinate
anyone who sees their amorous figures. An episode has it that, in the early 20th century, an
American millionaire offered one hundred million dollars, but was unquestionably rejected
by the Dutch government of the East Indies.”[82] Unfortunately, because the erosion of stone
has progressed in Prambanan as in other remains, such sharp carvings as in photographs
taken a century ago [83] can hardly be seen today.

A view of the upper part of the wall of Candi Siwa, Prambanan with Apsara Trio (middle),
Makara (top-left) and Ratuna (top-right).

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 Examples of the so-called “Prambanan-Motif”
on the lower part of the wall of Candi Siwa depicting hares (left) and foxes (right).

A piece of contemporary sculpture, which strongly caught my eye during my recent visit to
the British Museum, London, was a stone figure of Kinari, of ca. 25 cm height, displayed in
the Southeast Asia section and labelled as collected by Sir Stamford Raffles in the Shiva
Temple, Prambanan. It was especially interesting because I was only familiar with Kinara or
Kinari carved in the bas-relief of the temple’s wall. Unfortunately, the place in the temple
where this stand-alone sculpture was found was not specified. Among several other
sculptures of the same age was a statue of Brahma (Trimurti, to be exact [84]) of ca. 40 cm
height, with three faces looking in the front, left and right directions, although where it
originated was unknown.

Stone figure of Kinari (female human upper body avian) of the 9th –10th centuries Java, from Shiva Temple,
Prambanan, collected by Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles and donated by his executor,
Rev. William Charles Raffles Flint, to the British Museum.

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A statue of Brahma (Trimurti) from 10th-century Java, donated by H. I. Daniell in 1861 to the British Museum.

In Serat Centhini, it was written that Mas Cebolang and his four students visited
Prambanan, guided by the village chief, Ki Harsono, and saw the eight candi in the
Prambanan complex as well as Candi Sewu, which was located near-by. To Mas Cebolang’s
question, why the surface of Lolo Jonggrang’s statue was so smooth, Ki Harsono answered,
“It is made of brass, not of stone.” Mas Cebolang commented, “All candi are splendid and
statues are marvellous. They are damaged to a certain extent, but Candi Loro Jonggrang is
still fine.” Was it true that the original statue was made of brass? The one that we see today is
a stone statue, as far as I know.
In any case, Mas Cebolang’s comment assures us that the condition of
Prambanan in the early 17th century was still good and was not as bad as that of
200 years later when the candi was cleaned by Ir. Cornelis, although there was no
description on the shape and height or whether the upper part was similar to that
restored in the 20th century. It was interesting to read that Ki Harsono was engaged
in the conservation of those candis. Probably, he would have considered those
candis as important heritage from his ancestors, even though their religion had
already been changed from Hindu/Buddhism to Islam. With regard to the fact that
incense was burnt and was diffusing smells in the niches of candis, Ki Harsono
explained that a number of pilgrims visited there to pray for fortune.
Candi Loro Jonggrang is no doubt the only large-scale monument that the Sanjaya
Dynasty left in the Soil of Mataram. How was it possible during the reign of Rakai Pikatan,
while other Hindu candis they had built earlier on Dieng Plateau, the slope of Mt. Ungaran

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(Gedung Songo) and later in the southern part of the Prambanan Plain (i.e. Candi Baron,
Candi Ijo, etc.) were smaller and simpler than many Buddhist temples built by the Sailendra,
viz. Candi Borobudur and Candi Mendut in the Kedu Basin and Candi Kalasan and Candi
Sewu in the Prambanan Plain? As one of the reasons, I would assume that Rakai Pikatan
owed much to the wealth of the Sailendra inherited by his wife, Pramodawardhani. Another
possible reason would have been related to the conflict between different religions. In the
historical novel, Arok Dedes [85] by Pramoedya Ananta Toer, a story on the coup d’etat of
Ken Arok, a young man of low birth, against the Governor of Tumapel in 13th-century East
Java, the great writer told as the voice of Shivaist Teacher, Dan Hyan Lohgawe:
“What happened to Mataram? How many [Hindu] temples were pulled down by
the army of Mahayana Sailendra? Those holy stones were stripped of their honour.
They were used as the base for their stupa shrines…”
Another remarkable candi in the Prambanan Archaeological Park is the aforementioned
Candi Sewu, located in the northern part of the park and is accessible by a non-rail trolley,
which goes around the interior of the park. This Buddhist monument is a temple complex of a
significantly large scale consisting of the main temple, which has been roughly restored, and
many small buildings, which are still in broken states. One interesting object is a pair of large
stone-made gate guardians (Skt. dwarapala), represented by raksasas, who each has a big
belly and holds a truncheon and a lasso in his hands as weapons against enemies of
Buddhists. Guardian gods in Buddhist temples are said to have originated in Gandhara, India,
where Hercules of the Greek myth was introduced. It is interesting that the god was imaged
differently in other countries, as carved as muscled wrestlers by Japanese sculptors, e.g.
Unkei and his disciples in the Kamakura Period (1192–1333), the most famous ones being in
the south-gate of Todaiji Temple in Nara. The common weapons of Japanese guardians are
also a truncheon and a lasso of different design from those of Java.[86]

A pair of statues of raksasas at the gate of Candi Plaosan, in Prambanan Plain, built in the mid-9th century
by Sri Kahulunan (alias Pramodhawardhani). Photographed by M. Iguchi, June 2008.

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A pair of wooden statues of Niou or Kongou Rikishi (lit. Herculean-strength wrestler) at the Great South Gate of Toudaiji Temple,
Nara, Japan. According to records, the large statues of 8.4-metres tall were made in 1196 AD within 69 days
by a group of sculptors; the open-mouthed one (left) by Unkei and Kaikei and the close-mouthed one (right)
by Joukaku and Tankei, both presumably under the direction of the master sculptor, Unkei.

In the same park, one can also see Candi Lumbung and Candi Buburuh, but in disastrously
broken forms. The famous Candi Kalasan and Candi Plaosan are located outside of the
Archaeological Park.

Istana Ratu Boko, a stone castle

On a hilltop, about three kilometres to the south of Candi Loro Jonggrang, there
are the remains of Candi Boko, alternatively called Istana Ratu Boko. While the
name may suggest a temple or a palace, I thought they were more like a castle or a
fort built on a mountain. Some five hundred metres ahead on a slope from a near-
by car park, a solid stone gate with guardrooms on both sides appeared, and on the
inside ground of two to three hectares were the ruins of a palace, a Buddhist
temple, a stage for rituals, a bathing pool and other facilities. When looking down
from a teahouse for tourists, the temples of Candi Loro Jonggrang were seen like
towers about 200 metres below in the distance on the flat, green ground.

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 Gates of Istana Ratu Boko viewed from the Crematorial Temple.

This was the place where Prince Balaputradewa of Sailendra who was not agreeable with
the extinction of his dynasty in Java after the marriage of his elder sister, Pramodawardhani,
to Rakai Pikatan of Sanjaya, had entrenched himself. The war situation having not been
favourable to him, Balaputra escaped to Sriwijaya, Sumatra, either being defeated or
reconciled, as mentioned before. In the early part of the aforementioned Prasasti Siwagrha, it
was written that, after the war, Rakai Pikatan had deplored the spilling of blood on this soil
and mourned for the souls of the deceased, and soon after then, he retired in the name of
Jatiningrat [87]. No record is available, though, Pramodawardhani is supposed to have stayed
in Java without accompanying her younger brother to Sumatra.
The name of Ratu Boko appears in the Loro Jonggrang Legend, but the story has
no bearing on the people involved in this incident.
To my knowledge, Candi Boko was the only stone castle built at that time in Java. As
recorded in the Old Book of Tang, as “they make their castle with hard wood”, other castles
must have decayed under the climate of tropical rainforest, even if teak wood, the most
durable wood, abundantly available at that time, were used.

The decline of Mataram and the move of the dynasty to East Java
After the Sanjaya and Sailendra kingdoms declined and Mpu Sindok of the
Sanjaya Dynasty moved the capital to East Java (928 AD), Candi Borobudur and
Candi Loro Jonggrang, as well as other candis, in Central Java became forgotten,
buried under the soil. Although there was a speculation that Borobudur would have
been covered by Buddhists who were afraid of the destruction by Moslems, it was
unlikely because the propagation of Islam around this area was later in the 15th
century.
With regard to the move of the kingdom to East Java, Dr. van Bemmelen, a
volcanist and geologist who worked in Java before the Second World War, had
pointed out two possible reasons in a theory based on his geological research. One
was the blockade of their outer port by the silted sand. Geographically, the island

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of Java, which is wide from east to west and narrow from north to south, is
latitudinally divided by a mountainous backbone and no break exists in the middle
part. In ancient times, people tended to inhabit the fertile southern part and built
their kingdoms, as the land of the northern part was geologically young and
frequently vacillated, but they had to go north to the shore of the Java Sea for their
trading with Asia, because the Indian Ocean with high waves was unsuitable for
their vessels. Since the route via Bengawan Solo, which led to the present-day
Gresik in East Java, was too long, the kingdoms of Mataram crossed over the col to
the west of Mts. Merapi and Merbabu and utilised Kali Garang (River Garung),
which originated from Mt. Ungaran and ran to the present-day Semarang.
According to Dr. van Bemmelen’s study, the coastline on the Java Sea at that time
ran four kilometres south to that of today and a good natural port was available by
the side of a small island, which became the present-day hill of Berkota. Mt.
Ungaran was very active at that time and a large amount of volcanic ash carried
down by Kali Garung was not dredgeable by the civil engineering technology of
those days.
Another possible reason in Dr. van Bemmelen’s theory was a volcanic disaster by Mt.
Merapi, which frequently explodes up until today. Regarding the disaster in Saka 928 (1006
AD) mentioned in the stone inscription of Pucangan[88], left by King Airlangga, Dr Kern,
the first decipherer, had assumed that it was a devastation of war (an attack by Sriwijaya), but
Dr. van Bemmelen thought it was a natural disaster and his presumption was supported by
Dr. C. C. Berg. While the move of the kingdom by Mpu Sindok in 928 AD and the year in
the inscription in 1006 differs by three-quarters of a century, the possibility that large
volcanic eruptions had also occurred before is not deniable.
Let me add an episode of Dr. van Bemmelen’s that I read in books [89]. During the last
world war, when Prof. H. Tanakadate heard of the fall of Singapore in Saigon where he was
visiting for a different mission, he immediately flew to Singapore to protect the Raffles
Museum and the Botanical Garden from the hands of Japanese armies, by arbitrarily
appointing himself the director, nine months before Marquis Tokugawa arrived as the
supreme advisor to the occupation army. Soon after the occupation of Java, he rushed there
and ordered to restore the activity of all universities and research institutions that were
captured by Japanese armies. One of the institutions was the Merapi Volcanic Observatory.
In his tight schedule, he spared a few days and climbed Mt. Merapi together with Dr. van
Bemmelen, a volcanist friend of his, whom he had freed from a military prison, and had a lot
of scientific discussion with the latter. The idea of Dr. van Bemmelen was introduced in Prof.
Tanakadate’s book, but the full paper I read was found in a journal published in 1956. [90]
Besides such geological reasons as indicated by Dr. van Bemmelen, religious conflict
might have been one factor that drove the kingdom eastwards. In Pramoedya Ananta
Toer’s Arok Dedes, mentioned above, Reverend Dan Hyan Lohgawe also narrated:
“One of the reasons the kingdom moved east, and then east again, was to escape
from the influence of Yoga, Tantri and Buddhism. Forgive us, Oh Lord, that the
greatness of Prambanan was not enough to fight off the wicked influence. Kalasan
gave them protection. Then, King Balitung moved Mataram eastwards. Mpu
Sindok moved it east again. In those days, the eastern area was still clean, free of
all such influences…”

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 After Mpu Sindok opened his Isyana Dynasty in Medang in 928, the tradition of
Hindu-Buddhism was succeeded by the Kediri Dynasty (1050–1222) and the
Singasari Dynasty (1222–92) but, in terms of the construction of large religious
monuments, the era of building Candi Loro Jonggrang at Prambanan was the
climax. In the period of the Majapahit Kingdom (established in 1293), fine cities
with good urban designs were developed and candis and other facilities were
constructed with precisely manufactured bricks, the traditional culture became
matured into Javan culture that produced new types of literary works and stage
plays, as well as some history books. In the 15th century, the Islamic Demak
Kingdom rose into power in north Central Java and encroached the territory of
Majapahit, leading to the demise of the latter kingdom. It was after Panembahan
Senapati became the sultan and founded the New Mataram Kingdom in 1584 with
its capital in Pajang (near the present-day Solo) that the gorgeous flower of
Javanese culture began to blossom.

Notes for Chapter 5

[1] T. S. Raffles, The History of Java, Vol. II, London 1817 (Reprint with an introduction by John Bastin,
Oxford University Press, Singapore 1988).
[2] Among Minangkabau (an ethnic group in Sumatra), there is a Tambo (tradition) that their ancestors
originated from Maharadja Diraja, one of the three sons of Iskandar (Alexander the Great) who came by boat to
their land, while his two other brothers, Maharadja Alif and Maharadja Diradja, went to, and became the kings
of, the Land of Sunset and the Land of Sunrise, located to the east and the west, respectively. Claire
Holt, Culture and Politics in Indonesia, Equinox Publishing 1972.
[3] Alfred R. Wallace, The Malay Archipelago (1869), Oxford University Press, Singapore 1985.
[4] Marquis Tokugawa (translated by M. Iguchi), Journeys to Java, ITB Press, Bandung 2004/Marquis
Tokugawa (diterjemahkan oleh Ririn Anggraeni dan Apriyanti Isanasari), Perdjalanan Moenoedjoe Jawa,
Penerbit ITB 2006 (徳川義親 「じゃがたら紀行」, 郷土出版社 1931 (十字屋書店 1943, 中公文庫 1975).
[5] Cited in: Daigoro Chihara, The architecture of Borobudur, Hara-Shobo 1970 (千原大五郎「ボロブ ドールの建築」, 原書
房 1970).
[6] On the main wall of the basement to the 3rd Terrace, East side=Akshobhya/Earth-touching mudra, South
side=Ratnasambhava/Blessing mudra, West side=Amithaba/ Contemplation mudra, North
side=Amoghasiddhi /Fearlessness bestowing mudra. On the main wall of the 4th Terrace, All sides=Vairocana-
Buddha/Dharma-exposing mudra. On the three Circular Terraces, all in the stupas=Shakyamuni/Wheel-of-law
turning mudra.
[7] Mahakarmavihanga (Basement 160), Lalitavistara (Corridor I-Main wall-Top 120), Jataka and Avadana
(Corridor I-Main wall-Bottom 120, Corridor I-parapet-Top 372, II-Bottom 128, Corridor II-Parapet 100),
Gandavyuha (Corridor II-Main wall 128, Corridor III-Main wall 88-Parapet 88, Corridor IV-Parapet 84),
Bhadracari (Corridor IV-Main 72). Figures denote the number of panels (Hidenosuke Miura (Ed), An
interpretation of Buddhist monument Borobudur in Java (三浦秀之助撰, 「闍婆佛蹟ボロブヅウル解説」, ボロブヅウル刋行會 1925).
The biography of Gautama (Lalitavistara) is explained e.g. in E. Oey, A. Cherian (Ed.), J. Miksic
(text), Borobudur: Golden Tales of the Buddhas, Periplus 1990.
[8] B. W. Carpenter, W. O. J. Nieuwenkamp: First European Artist in Bali, Periplus 1997.
[9] Th. Van Elp, “Nieuwenkamp's Nieuwe kijk op den Boroboedoer”, Nederlandsch-Indie Oud & Nieuw, Vol
16, No.8, December 1931.
[10] R. Soekmono, Candi Borobudur A Monument of Mankind, The Unesco Press, Paris and Van Gorcum,
Assen/Amsterdam 1976.

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[11] Seigai Ōmura, “Borobudur is a mandala”, [Hidenosuke Miura (Ed.), An interpretation of Buddhist
monument Borobudur in Java (Main Part-Chapter 11) , Borobudur Publishing Society 1925] (大村西崖「ボロブヅウル
は曼荼羅なり」 [三浦秀之助「闍婆佛蹟ボロブヅウル解説 (本論・第拾一章)」, ボロブヅウル刋行會 1925].
Other three mandalas are Maha mandala, Samaya mandala and Dharma mandala. This paragraph is new in this
English edition, not in the Japanese edition published earlier in October 2013.
[12] N. J. Krom, Archaeological Description of Barabudur, Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague 1927 (Reprint, Gyan
Publishing House, New Delhi 1986).
[13] Tomoji Abe, The islands of fire, Sogensha 1944 (阿部知二「火の島－ジャワ・バリ島の記」, 創元社 1944).
[14] An active volcano to the east of Borobudur, 2, 968 m.
[15] One of the finest essays written by Sei Shonagon (ca. 966–1025), a court lady, in the Heian Era, Japan.
English translation from: Arthur Waley, The Pillow Book of Sei Shonagon, Tuttle 2011 (First published by
George Allen & Unwin, London 1928).
[16] Trial translation by the present writer. “Tanka” is a Japanese, traditional short poem of thirty-one syllables,
written not only by high-class people but also by such commoners as soldiers and farmers, ever since the late
7th century. Shin-kokin-shu ( lit. New collective volume of past and present tanka) completed in 1216, in which
Rev. Ji-en’s above poem was No. 33 of the 1586 total number. Mt. Fuji was still emitting smoke in Rev. Ji-en’s
time (1155–1225) after the great eruption in 864 AD.
[17] I. G. N. Anom (Ed.), The Restoration of Borobudur, United Nations Educational 2006. No literature is
shown. Probably it was an oral tradition.
[18] Marquis Tokugawa (Footnote 4).
[19] Frank B. Carpenter, Java and the East Indies, Doubleday, Page & Scott Co., Garden City, New York 1926.
[20] “Mataram” is a Sanskrit word from which the English “mother” originated. “Vande Mataram”, the name of
a song, sung by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay in 1882 and became a national song (not the national anthem)
of India meaning “Oh, the land of mother”. The origin in Java will be mentioned below.
[21] R. Soekmono, The Javanese Candi: Function and Meaning, Brill, 1995.
[22] I. G. N Anom (Ed.), The Restoration of Borobudur, United Nations Educational 2006.
[23] Translation to Indonesian from Javanese. Ranggasutrasna (Ki Ngabei), Ranggasutrasna (Raden Ngabei.),
Paku Buwana IV (Sunan of Surakarta), Darusuprapta, Tim Penyadur,Centhini, Tambangraras – Amongraga
Jilid １, Balai Pustaka (1999). Serat Centhini is a story of three children (two sons and one daughter, and their
spouses) of Sunan Giri Prapen, who travelled around Java, when their palace in Giri in East Java was attacked
by Sultan Agung Hanyokusumo in the beginning of the 17th century. The book, compiled in the court of Solo in
1815, included the details of various places where they visited and the words of conversations with scholars
whom they met during their journeys.
[24] This abstract text from: Suwito Santoso, Kestity Pringgoharjono, The Centhini story: The Javanese journey
of life: based on the original Serat Centhini , Marshall Cavendish, 2006.
[25] “Prasasti” is the local word for a “historic inscription”. Most candis discovered in Java were the
monuments to commemorate the inauguration of temples and other structures.
[26] Also, R. Soekmono, Javanese Candi – Function and Meaning, Brill, Leiden 1995.
[27] Veronique Degroot, Candi, Space and Landscape: A Study on the Distribution, Orientation and Spatial
Organization of Central Javanese Temple Remains , Sidestone Press, 2010.
[28] On the hillside of Mt. Lawu (3, 265 m) to the east of Solo, two candis remain, Candi Sukuh and Candi
Ceto, built in the 15th century in the Majapahit period. (They will be mentioned in Chapter 6.)
[29] Akiko (1878–1942), a passionate female novelist and poet, married to her fellow writer, Tekkan Yosano.
The original tanka reads, “Kamakura ya, Mihotoke naredo Shakamuni (Shakyamuni) wa, Binan ni ohasu
Natsukodachi kana.”
The English translation from the homepage of Koutokuin Temple:
http://www.kotoku-in.jp/en/about/grounds_info.html.
[30] Yusuke Tsurumi, Nanyo-Yuuki ( Pleasure travels around the southern ocean), Dainihon-Yubenkai 1917.
[31] Thomas S. Raffles (Footnote 1).
[32] Sumantri, Yeni Kurniawati, Summary of course material: Sejarah Indonesia Kuno (History of Ancient
Indonesia) , Faculty of Social Science, Indonesia University of Education, 1977 (?).
http://file.upi.edu/Direktori/FPIPS/JUR._PEND._SEJARAH/197706022003122-
YENI_KURNIAWATI_SUMANTRI/Bahan_ajar_SIK.pdf
[33] The eight names were: Sanjaya, Panangkaran, Panunggalan, Garung, Pikatan, Kayuwangi, Watuhumalang,
Watukura (=Balitung). In Prasasti Wanua Tengah III, dated 908 AD (one year after the date of Prasasti
Mantyasih), discovered in the 1980s, thirteen names including the eight names in Prasasti Mantyasih were
found.
[34] To distinguish from the “New” Mataram Kingdom established after the Islamisation of Java, in the 16th
century and persists to date, it is often called the “Old” Mataram Kingdom.

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[35] Slamet Muljana, Sriwijaya, PT LKiS Pelangi Aksara, 2006. The English translation by the present author
(M. I). Stanza 10 is missing in the reffered book. Since S 11-12 contains four sentences, it may have been the
misprint of S 10-12.
[36] The original words were “pangkur, tawan and tirip”. Interpreted from a clause in Prasasti Muncang, dated
866 Saka (944 AD), “[this district] is no longer visited by the group of officials from the taxation office that
consists of three primary tax collectors, Pangkur, Tawan, and Tirip;…” (Ref: Siti Maziyah, “Daerah otonom
pada masa Kerajaan Mataram kuna: Tinjauan berdasar kedudukan dan fungsinya”, Paramita Vol. 20, No. 2,
July 2010).
[37] Unknown to the present writer (M. I.).
[38] This was described in Face B of Ligor Inscription (dated 775 AD). In Face A, it was written that “King of
Sriwijaya, who is the king of kings, built a Buddhist temple named Trisamaya caitya. Source: Slamet
Muljana, Sriwijaya, PT LKiS Pelangi Aksara, 2006.
[39] Slamet Muljana, Sriwijaya, PT LKiS Pelangi Aksara, 2006. The English translation by the present author
(M. I).
[40] Slamet Muljana, Sriwijaya, PT LKiS Pelangi Aksara, 2006.
[41] R. Soekmono (Footnote 21).
[42] E.g. Slamet Muljana, Sriwijaya, PT LKiS Pelangi Aksara, 2006; the two Sailendra persons whom Dr. Krom
considered to have reigned were Panangkaran and Indra Sangramadhanamjaya, but the former was actually the
son of Sanjaya.
[43] G. E. Hall, A History of South-East Asia 4th Ed., MacMillan Education 1981; Slamet Muljana, Sriwijaya,
PT LKiS Pelangi Aksara, 2006; Veronique Degroot, Candi, Space and Landscape: A Study on the Distribution,
Orientation and Spatial Organization of Central Javanese Temple Remains , Sidestone Press, 2010.
[44] Kabupaten: an administrative district corresponding to a county or prefecture.
[45] Timothy P. Barnard, Contesting Malayness: Malay identity across boundaries, NUS Press, 2004.
[46] E.g. Bo-Kyung Kim, Indefinite boundaries: Reconsidering the relationship between Borobudur and Loro
Jonggrong in Central Java, ProQuest, 2007.
[47] R. Soekmono, J. G. de Casparis, Jacques Dumarcay, Ping Amranand , Borobudur: Prayer in stone,
Archipelago Press, Singapore 1990.
[48] E.g. Bo-Kyung Kim, Indefinite boundaries: Reconsidering the relationship between Borobudur and Loro
Jonggrong in Central Java , UCLA ProQuest, 2007.
[49] Slamet Muljana, Sriwijaya, PT LKiS Pelangi Aksara, 2006.
[50] R. Soekmono (Footnote 21).
[51] R. Soekmono, Pengantar sejarah kebudayaan Indonesia 2, Kanisius-Yogyakarta, 2002.
[52] Paul Michel Munoz, Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula , Didier
Millet, 2006.
[53] R. Soekmono et al. (Footnote 47).
[54] Nagoya University, Jiu Tang Shu [Book of Tang] Vol. 197, Legends147, South/SouthwestBarbarians, 945
AD (舊唐書卷一百九十七・列傳第一百四十七・南蠻/西南蠻 945 AD),
http://toyoshi.lit.nagoya-u.ac.jp/maruha/kanseki/jiutangshu197.html
[55] Dva-pa-tan is unknown. A theory assumes that it was “Bali” (F. Stroliczka, in: Royal Asiatic Society of
Great Britain and Ireland. Straits Branch, Miscellaneous papers relating to Indo-China and Indian archipelago,
Vol. I , Trubner 1887), but it conflicts with the geographical location of the latter.
[56] Nagoya University, Tang Shu [The New Book of Tang] Vol. 222－ 1/2, Legends 147, Foreign Countries 2)
1060 AD (新唐書卷二百二十二下・列傳第一百四十七下・南蠻下),
http://toyoshi.lit.nagoya-u.ac.jp/maruha/kanseki/xintangshu222c.html.
[57] W. P. Groeneveldt, “Notes on the Malay Archipelago and Malacca”, in: Royal Asiatic Society of Great
Britain and Ireland. Straits Branch, Miscellaneous papers relating to Indo-China and Indian archipelago:
reprinted for the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. Second Series, Vol. I , Trubner, 1887.
[58] I-Tsing; J. Takakusu (trans.), A Record of the Buddhist Religion as Practised in India and the Malay
Archipelago (A. D. 671 –695), Clarendon Press, London, 1896. In his note, the translator obtained 6°8' N from:
If one assume the incidental angle of the sun beam the summer-solstice = 23.5°, and the latitude = x, 23.5 + x =
arctan (2.4/8). Then, x = 6°8'. The translator did not believe that Kalinga existed in the outside of Java, however.
[59] E.g. A. M. Sardiman, Sejarah 2 – SMA Kelas XI Program Ilmu Sosial, Quadra, Bogor 2007 (A high-school
textbook).
[60] Saleh Danasasmita, Sejarah Bogor, Pemerintah Daerah Kotamadya DT II Bogor, 1983.
[61] The source book was edited in the 18th century by the Committee of Pangeran Wangsakerta, in the court of
Cirebon, and written on lontar (palm leaves). The modern transcription, Atja, Edi Suhardi Ekajati, Pustaka
rajya-rajya i bhumi Nusantara Vol. I – 1, Bagian Proyek Penelitian dan Pengkajian Kebudayaan Sunda
(Sundanologi), Direktorat Jenderal Kebudayaan, Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, 1987, was a rare,

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limited edition, but this writer had incidentally found in the library of Museum Negeri Jawa Barat – Sri Baduga,
when I was looking for literature on the pre-Tarumanagara history of West Java, and was given a special favour
to copy a part (the translation into the modern Indonesian language).
[62] If Mount Mahameru (Gunung Mahameru) is regarded as today’s Mt. Semeru, it is supposed that Kalinga
had ruled up to the east part of Java Island or the king went on a campaign up to that far.
[63] In Japan, for instance, Emperor Youmei married Princess Anahobenohashihito, his half-sister from a
different mother, and Prince Shoutoku (574–622) was born between them.
[64] Carita Parahiyangan is a lontar document on the history of the Sunda Kingdom, written by an anonymous
author in the 16th century. The source text from: Atja, Carita Parahiyangan: Naskah Titilar Karuhun Urang
Sunda. Jajasan Kebudajaan Nusalarang , Bandung 1968. Later, its English translation was found on the
internet:
<sundanesecorner.org/2010/12/08/the-story-of-parahiyangan/>
[65] One prasasti in which “Medang i Bhumi Mataram” was Prasasti Sanggurah (846 Saka). This prasasti is also
called “Minto Stone”, because during the British occupation of Java in the early 19th century, it was presented
to Lord Minto by Stamford Raffles (and still held by the Minto Family). As to Mamrati and Po Pitu, records
were found in the following prasasti.
[66] Nana Nurliana, Sudarini, Sejarah SMP/MTs Kls VII (KTSP), Grasindo, etc.
[67] R. Soekmono (Footnote 21).
[68] Sketsalaku, Galuh Karangkamulyan, 18 June 2010 http://sketsalaku.wordpress.com/2010/06/18/4/ (A
summary of the Galuh Chronicle).
[69] Hidenosuke Miura (Ed.), Buddhist monument Borobudur in Java: Folder 1–3, Borobudur Publishing
Society 1924 (三浦秀之助撰, 「闍婆仏蹟ボロブヅウル第 1-3 帙 」, ボロブヅウル刊行会 1924); Hidenosuke Miura (Ed), An
interpretation of Buddhist monument Borobudur in Java (三浦秀之助撰, 「闍婆佛蹟ボロブヅウル解説」, ボロブヅウル刋行會 1925.
[70] Jushiro Takeda (Ed.), Jagatara episodes – Footnotes of Japanese in the Dutch East Indies, Tsurukawa-
insatshujo 1968 (武田重四郎編「ジャガタラ閑話－蘭印時代邦人の足跡」, つるかわ印刷所 1968).
[71] R. Soekmono et al. (Footnote 47).
[72] Daluang , a kind of bark-paper prepared from the bark of “paper mulberry” might have been available
(See Chapter 6).
[73] Yasushi Inoue, Dunghuang, Koudansha 1959 (井上靖「敦煌」, 講談社 1959).
[74] Yukio Hirayama, The road to Dunfuan – A sketchbook of Yukio Hirayana, Tokuma-shoten 1988 (平山郁夫「敦
煌への道－平山郁夫素描集」, 徳間書店 1988); Yukio Hirayama,The road to Dunfuan – A sketchbook of Yukio Hirayana,
Tokuma-shoten 1988.
[75] “Tantu Panggelaran: Keberadaan Pulau Jawa Pada Zaman Purbakala (Tantu Panggelaran The Creation of
Java Island in Ancient Times)” http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pembicaraan:Tantu_Panggelaran
[76] Thomas S. Raffles (Footnote 1).
[77] V. R. Romondt, “De wederopbouw van den Civa Tempel”, Djawa No.3, 20, 1940.
[78] D. Chihara, Hindu-Buddhist Architecture in Southeast Asia, Brill Academic Publishers 1996. According to
some Internet articles, there seems to be a theory that the model of this statue is King Balitung, but his time was
much later. It must be a speculation with no evidence.
[79] Ganesha is well known, adopted for the emblem of Bandung Institute of Technology.
[80] The story continues in the thirty panels in Candi Brahma.
[81] East: Indra 2x, Southeast: Agni 2x, South: Yama 2x, Southwest: Nairrta and Surya, West: Varuna 2x,
Northwest: Vayu 2x, North: Kuvera and Soma, Northeast: Isana 2x. Ref: Bijdragen tot de taal-, land- en
volkenkunde: Volume 148, Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde (Netherlands) 1992
(books.google.com).
[82] Yusuke Tsurumi, Nanyo-Yuuki ( Pleasure travels around the southern ocean), Dainihon-Yubenkai 1917.
[83] E.g. Karl With, Java – Brahmanische, Buddhistische und Eigenleige Architektur und Plastik auf Java ,
Filkwang Verlag. M. B. H. Haben 1. W. 1920.
[84] This paragraph and the relevant pictures are new in this English edition. The three-faced "Brahma" written
on the figure's panel is not precise but must be a "Trimurti", or a triad of Brahma the creator, Vishnu the
preserver and Shiva the destroyer.
[85] Pramoedya Ananta Toer, Arok Dedes, Hasta Mitra, 1999. English translation by Max Lane, Arok of Java,
Horizon Books 2007.
[86] The figure comparing the Javanese and Japanese guardians is new in this English edition.
[87] Slamet Muljana, Sriwijaya, PT LKiS Pelangi Aksara, 2006.
[88] Prasasti Pucangan, dated 1041, has a nickname, “Calcutta Stone”, because it was carried away to India by
Stamford Raffles and held in the Asiatic Museum, Calcutta.

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[89] Hidezo Tanakadate, The Seizure of Southern Cultural Institutions, Jidai-sha, Tokyo 1944 (田中館秀三「南方文化施
設の接収」, 時代社 1944); Tanakadate Hidezo’s Achievements Publishing Group, Tanakadate Hidezo’s
Achievements and Memoirs, Sekai-Bunko, Tokyo 1975 (田中館秀三業績刊行会編「田中館秀三—業績と追憶」, 世界文庫 1975).
[90] Rein W. van Bemmelen, “The influence of geologic events on human history (an example from central
Java)”, Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk Nederlands Geologisch Mijnbouwkundig Genootschap , Geologische
Serie, 20–36, 1956.

VI
MORE about the Architecture of Borobudur

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 Dr Uday Dokras

The exact origin of architecture can be placed back in the Neolithic period, about 10,000
B.C., as this is about when humans stopped living in caves. Back before recorded history,
humans made structures that confound people to this day, such as Stonehenge. Even though
Alberti's treatise on architecture was one of the most influential aesthetic works of the Italian
Renaissance. De re aedificatoria also became the first text on architecture to be issued from a
printing press when it was published in 1485, a year before the appearance of the earliest
printed edition of Vitruvius.
In the Hindu Realm of Design and religion TWO important ancient Indian (Hindu)
architectural texts could have formed the basic DNA of the Borobudur design. In those days
with the fever pitch of Buddhist missionary work and spread of the Gospel far and wide not
to mention with turmultous zeal the construction of stupas were considered acts of great
merit. The purpose of stupas were mainly to enshrine relics of Buddha. The design
specifications are consistent within most of the stupas, entrances to stupas are laid out so that
their centre lines point to the relic chambers. It is therefore no surprise that the Shailendra
Dynasty not only gave ascent to Hindu Temples but also construction of Buddhist Stupas.
Other studies such as the Chityrasutra deals exclusively with paintings, critically analysing
the main concepts described in the Sanskrit texts. These are a section of Sanskrit scientific
literature analysing painting within the framework of Indian philosophical thought.

Buddha statue in Borobudur (Indonesia), the world's largest Buddhist temple.

Buddhist religious architecture developed in the Indian subcontinent. Three types of

structures are associated with the religious architecture of early Buddhism:

1. monasteries (viharas), places to venerate

2. relics (stupas), and
3. shrines or prayer halls (chaityas, also called chaitya grihas), which later came to be
called temples in some places.
The initial function of a stupa was the veneration and safe-guarding of the relics of Gautama
Buddha. The earliest archaeologically known example of a stupa is the relic stupa located
in Vaishali, Bihar in India. In accordance with changes in religious practice, stupas were
gradually incorporated into chaitya-grihas (prayer halls). These are exemplified by the

203
complexes of the Ajanta Caves and the Ellora Caves (Maharashtra). The Mahabodhi
Temple at Bodh Gaya in Bihar is another well-known example.The pagoda is an evolution of
the Indian stupas.

Buddhist temple architecture, Architecture of Indic religions, Ancient Indian

architecture, Vastu shastra, and Shilpa Shastras

The Great Stupa

in Sanchi
A characteristic new development at Buddhist religious sites was the stupa. Stupas were
originally more sculpture than building, essentially markers of some holy site or
commemorating a holy man who lived there. Later forms are more elaborate and also in
many cases refer back to the Mount Meru model.

One of the earliest Buddhist sites still in existence is at Sanchi, India, and this is centred on a
stupa said to have been built by King Ashoka (273–236 BCE). The original simple structure
is encased in a later, more decorative one, and over two centuries the whole site was
elaborated upon. The four cardinal points are marked by elaborate stone gateways. As
with Buddhist art, architecture followed the spread of Buddhism throughout south and east
Asia and it was the early Indian models that served as a first reference point, even though
Buddhism virtually disappeared from India itself in the 10th century.

Decoration of Buddhist sites became steadily more elaborate through the last two centuries
BCE, with the introduction of tablets and friezes, including human figures, particularly on
stupas. However, the Buddha was not represented in human form until the 1st century CE.
Instead, aniconic symbols were used. This is treated in more detail in Buddhist art, Aniconic
phase. It influenced the development of temples, which eventually became a backdrop for
Buddha images in most cases. As Buddhism spread, Buddhist architecture diverged in style,
reflecting the similar trends in Buddhist art. Building form was also influenced to some
extent by the different forms of Buddhism in the northern countries,

Candi of Indonesia and Buddhism in Indonesia

204
Borobudur, 9th-century Mahayana Buddhist temple in Magelang Regency, in Central
Java, Indonesia. It is decorated with 2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha statues. Muara
Takus temple, an11th century Buddhist temple in Sumatra.
Buddhism and Hinduism reach Indonesian archipelago in early first millennia. The oldest
surviving temple structure in Java is Batujaya temples in Karawang, West Java, dated as early
as 5th century.[3] The temple was a Buddhist sites, as evidence of the discovered Buddhist
votive tablets, and the brick stupa structure.

The apogee of ancient Indonesian Buddhist art and architecture was the era of
Javanese Shailendra dynasty that ruled the Mataram Kingdom in Central Java circa 8th to 9th
century CE. The most remarkable example is the 9th century Borobudur, a massive stupa that
took form of an elaborate stepped pyramid that took plan of stone mandala. The walls and
balustrades are decorated with exquisite bas reliefs, covering a total surface area of 2,500
square metres. Around the circular platforms are 72 openwork stupas, each containing a
statue of the Buddha. Borobudur is recognised as the largest Buddhist temple in the world.

Thai temple art and architecture

Wat Phra Kaew, Bangkok, Thailand. These are discussed in this research writing as below:
The Borobudur is one of the most impressive monuments ever created by humans. It is both a
temple and a complete exposition of doctrine, designed as a whole, and completed as it was
designed, with only one major afterthought. It seems to have provided a pattern for Hindu
temple mountains at Angkor (see above Cambodia and Vietnam), and in its own day it must
have been one of the wonders of the Asian world. Built about 800, it probably fell into
neglect by c. 1000 and was overgrown. It was excavated and restored by the Dutch between
1907 and 1911. It now appears as a large square plinth (the processional path) upon which
stand five terraces gradually diminishing in size. The plans of the squares are stepped out
twice to a central projection. Above the fifth terrace stands a series of three diminishing
circular terraces carrying small stupas, crowned at the centre of the summit by a large circular
bell-shaped stupa. Running up the centre of each face is a long staircase; all four are given
equal importance. There are no internal cell shrines, and the terraces are solid. Borobudur is
thus a Buddhist stupa in the Indian sense. Each of the square terraces is enclosed in a high
wall with pavilions and niches along the whole perimeter, which prevents the visitor on one
level from seeing into any of the other levels. All of these terraces are lined with relief
sculptures, and the niches contain Buddha figures. The top three circular terraces are open
and unwalled, and the 72 lesser bell-shaped stupas they support are of open stone latticework;
inside each was a huge stone Buddha figure. The convex contour of the whole monument is
steepest near the ground, flattening as it reaches the summit. The bottom plinth, the
processional path, was the major afterthought. It consists of a massive heap of stone pressed
up against the original bottom story of the designed structure so that it obscures an entire

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series of reliefs—a few of which have been uncovered in modern times. It was probably
added to hold together the bottom story, which began to spread under the pressure of the
immense weight of earth and stone accumulated above.

The ultimate effect is that of a profusion, of similar forms emanating out of the structure. It is
a way to express the builder’s notion of the divine as self-manifesting. Similar concepts exist
in Buddhist art and architecture. The temple at Borobudur, Indonesia, is a magnificent
example similar forms arranged in a harmonic whole, interpreted differently from a classical
Hindu temple.
“The priests, supposedly the expositors of the sacred texts,could make little sense of these
tretises either, for they were not only mnemonic in form, but were replete with a technical
vocabulary as well-that is to say while apparently familiar terms were used
technically, they seemed to have meanings quite different from the obvious ones, making
confusionso much the worse. “

The Hindu
temples of Bagan and Angkor all date from between the 9th and 12th centuries as Indian
culture reached its zenith in the region

Greater India
So how is it that the world’s largest Buddhist temple is in the middle of the world’s largest
Muslim nation? The answer is that the Muslim faith did not spread to Indonesia until the 13th
century and did not reach central Java until the 16th century. For nearly a millennia prior to
that much of south east Asia had been heavily influenced by Indian culture. It is speculated
that a combination of traders and Hindu Brahman scholars from India traveled throughout the
region spreading their language, monumental stone architecture and predominantly Hindu
religion. This massive export of culture appears to have taken place in several waves but the
reasons behind it are not well understood. But from the 9th to the 13th centuries there was a
peak in Indian influenced cultures across the region. During this period over 4,000 Hindu
temples were built across the plain of Bagan in modern Myanmar whilst in Cambodia over
1000 Hindu temples arose around Angkor. In modern day Indonesia on the island of Sumatra

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a powerful Buddhist empire known as Srivijaya had emerged by the seventh century and also
reached its peak in this same period.

On Java surviving inscriptions describe a new ruling family from the middle of the eighth
century known as the Sailendras. This dynasty favoured Buddhism over Hinduism and with
them begins the construction of Buddhist temples such as that at Kalasan, 13km east of
modern Yogyakarta, and later Mendut and Pawon just a few kilometers east of Borobudur.
Construction of the great temple of Borobudur began around 782 under the reign of
Samaratungga and proceeded in five phases until about 840.

Mendut
is a Buddhist Temple built in the early ninth century as construction of Borobudur temple
was in progress

Rediscovery
In the case of Borobudur it was the arrival of Thomas Stamford Raffles, Lieutenant General
of the British East Indies from 1811 to 1816, that revived interest in the temple. Raffles was
keenly interested in Javanese culture, publishing The History of Java in 1817.

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Thomas Stamford Raffles, Lieutenant General of the British East Indies from 1811 to 1816
In 1814 whilst on a tour of Central Java he heard of a massive monument buried in the jungle
and sent a Dutch engineer, Cornelius Hermann to investigate. With two hundred men
Hermann spent two months cutting back the jungle to expose the temple. This initial work
was continued for several further decades by Christiaan Lodewijk Hartmann, exposing the
complete monument. Hartmann however, kept no records of his work and rumours persist
that he removed the central stupa’s main Buddha image.
Studies of Borobudur proceeded slowly throughout the nineteenth century and for much of
this period statues were lost to souvenir hunters. Even Siam’s King Chulalongkorn visited in
1896 and departed with eight cart loads of artifacts, some of which can be seen today in
Thailand’s National Museum in Bangkok.

The first
photograph of Borobudur taken by Isidore van Kinsbergen in 1872

The first photograph of Borobudur was taken in 1872 by Isidore van Kinsbergen, who found
the monument had again fallen into a state of considerable disrepair. In fact ten years later the
chief inspector of cultural artifacts recommended to the government that due to the risk of
collapse Borobudur should be dismantled and its treasures housed in museums. Fortunately
an archaeologist was appointed instead to thoroughly assess the state of the site. The resulting
survey reassured all that collapse was not imminent and the monument was saved.

The discovery of the Hidden Foot in 1885 re-ignited interest in Borobudur. Between 1890
and 1891 a photographic record of this previously unknown lower level was made before the
encasement was rebuilt around the base of the monument. The colonial Dutch government
was finally prompted to allocate funds to restoring and protecting the monument. This paid
for Theodor van Erp, a Dutch army engineer, to successfully dismantle and then rebuild the
upper levels of the monument between 1907 and 1911.

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Borobudur in 1911 following Theodor van Erp’s restoration showing the reconstructed chattra pinnacle

As part of his work Van Erp restored the three tiered stone parasol or chattra atop the main
stupa but later removed it again as he was dissatisfied with its authenticity given how few
original stones were found. It can today be seen standing in the grounds of Borobudur’s
museum.

++++

209
 VII
Movie in STONE - the 6 of Borobudur
Dr Uday Dokras
One should give up anger, renounce pride, and overcome all fetters. Suffering never befalls
him who clings not to mind and body and is detached.

— Verse 221, the Dhammapada[

Education as Key to liberation according to Buddhism: Buddhism is an
unworldly tradition and way of life that originated to teach people to
appreciate life as it in a more meaningful way that leads to inner satisfaction
and peace. They all follow the basic path and teach simple tenets that guide
mankind to attain perfect enlightement and peace just like Lord Buddha. It
aspires human beings to live in complete harmony with utmost kindness,
sincerity and generosity.
Doing so involves training one’s mind to gain complete control over their
thoughts and actions. Buddhism preaches to rely upon one’s own inner
strength than external factors and it can be done at any moment of time, all
a person needs is absolute determination and strong will to transform any
situation good or worst. As, if we wait for better time to come on their own,
we will never begin to find right motivation to practise Dharma. The greatest
purpose of life, as per Lord Buddha was to provide a means of liberation and
enlightenment to fellow human beings. And this can be achieved by gaining
control over the mind. Explore more about the Path of Buddhism and educate
yourself with its simple yet powerful wisdom teachings!

Borobudur is said to have been built by King Samaratungga, one of the kings of the old
Mataram Kingdom, the descendants of the Sailendra dynasty. Based on Kayumwungan
inscription, an Indonesian named Hudaya Kandahjaya had a revelation in which he was told
that Borobudur had once been a place for prayer that was supposed to be completed on 26
May 824, almost one hundred years after the construction had started. The name of
Borobudur, as some people say, means a mountain having terraces (budhara), while other
says that Borobudur means monastery on a high place.

Borubudur is a movie in stone. Gunadharma its architect is the director, Sudana is the main
character and Buddha is the real hero. As one walks through each narrow passage in
Borobudur with a competent guide one canl come to know much of the philosophy of
Buddhism. Atisha, a Buddhist monk from India in the tenth century once visited this temple
that was built 3 centuries before Angkor Wat in Cambodia and 4 centuries before the Grand
Cathedrals in Europe. After gathering a lot of information from these reliefs he returned to
India and started another sect known as Vikramashila Buddhism. Later he became the leader
of the Vikramashila monastery and became a teacher in Tibet. Six scripts from Serlingpa
were then summarized as the core of the teaching called "The Lamp for the Path to
Enlightenment" known as Bodhipathapradipa. The function of arts to their culture of
Borobudur Temple is that it blends geometry, geomancy, and theology all instruct adherents

210
toward the ultimate goal of enlightenment. Meticulously carved relief sculptures mediate a
physical and spiritual journey that guides pilgrims progressively toward higher states of
consciousness.
The carved panels are all on the walls of the terraces. In order to see them, as I mentioned
earlier, one has to climb the stairs of each of the terraces and then do a pradikshina or
circumambulation in a clockwise direction round it. This is the correct way to discover the
beauties of the temple and also derive maximum spiritual benefit. Each terrace has its own
panels showing how skillful the sculptors were. Some of these panels tell the legendary story
of the Ramayana. Besides these, there are panels depicting the condition of the society at that
time. Some show farmers working in the fields and some show sailors in boats, thus giving
us a glimpse of the advanced state of the navigation techniques of that age.

The bas-reliefs in Borobudur depicted many scenes of daily life in 8th-century ancient Java,
from the courtly palace life, hermit in the forest, to those of commoners in the village. It also
depicted temple, marketplace, various flora and fauna, and also native vernacular
architecture. People depicted here are the images of king, queen, princes, noblemen, courtier,
soldier, servant, commoners, priest and hermit. The reliefs also depicted mythical spiritual
beings in Buddhist beliefs such as asuras, gods, bodhisattvas, kinnaras, gandharvas and
apsaras. The images depicted on bas-relief often served as reference for historians to research
for certain subjects, such as the study of architecture, weaponry, economy, fashion, and also
mode of transportation of 8th-century Maritime Southeast Asia.

The sculpture of the panels must have left him, just as you and me, spellbound. Buddha’s
dictum was that karma or action alone decides our life both now and in there hereafter. The
mystery of why the temple was constructed in the first place and how it was buried for
centuries is still not clear.
In that sense we, the visitor, the novice, the aspirant, student, fledgling, members of the
sangha, the Buddhist monastic order, traditionally composed of four groups: monks, nuns,
laymen, and laywomen,the explorer, theseeker of entertainment and the seeker of
enlightenment

- We are all SUDHANAS: “The Buddhist way of life as modeled by the Buddha’s life story
and as delineated in the Borobudur’s allegory of good wealth, provide us with an archetypical
template illustrating that leading an affluent life might pave the way to extening a quest for
life’s meaning. Living in relative comfort, or even perhaps in “princely” circumstances,
middle class people all over the world are in principal all Sudhanas who are ready to seek and
learn what life is about, and to start on a profound inner journey of discovering wisdom.
Adhering to the message of the BOROBUDUR, relational Buddhism submits that the
wisdom of sustainable happiness amidst adversity is largely an intrapersonal equilibrating
experience of relationship and an ephiphenomenon of harmonious interpersonal interactivity-
of being genuinely kind, compassionate, and joyful in a mutually balanced togetherness and
Individual don’t exist independently from one another, but rely on interconnectness and
interdependence for this very survival.

The Borobudur is a mixture between art and spiritual wisdom in the three-dimensional
mandala. The Borobodur is big, in the form of a mandala; it has extensive reliefs on 7 levels

211
(or five depending on how they are counted) with the intention of guiding us (using the life of
the Buddha) through life to harmony with people, nature and God until enlightenment.

It is a portrait of life in all its activity both permanently and continuous with all its
connotations thus becoming an enshrinement, a book about the path to that absolute peace
that comes with self-realization or enlightenment. We just need to be able to read “the book”.
Furthermore the book includes each pilgrim and his inner struggle.

This Cosmologoical science rests on a global concept. Whether in Buddhist philosophy or

any other philosophy of India or indeed the world - the starting point of wisdom is to realize
that we perceive the world through our five senses. What we perceive are five different
energy fields, with different characteristics, issues, benefits and problems. They are the
observable manifestations on the gross level of a variety of processes from the subtle to the
gross and are better known as the Five Elements. The entire cosmos, including us, is made of
these five energy fields. This means the Stupa can be looked upon as a representation of the
cosmos, or indeed the human “body, mind, spirit entity”. Both cosmos and man are then
expressed in the five primary levels and the 5 directions of the stupa (East, South, West,
North and Zenith).

Some wisdom teachings say that we as human beings have evolved five instruments of
perception in order to “compute” these five fields of energy we call: earth, water, fire, air and
space.

These five fields of energy (solidity, fluidity, trans-formation and transcendence,

discrimination and movement, creativity and source spirituality) are manifesting the entire
creation including ourselves; hence they are the “building blocks of creation” (as much as the
building blocks of Borobodur) and can be found across the globe in all manner of knowledge
from medicine to art, architecture to music, martial art to astrology…and spiritual wisdom!

Buddhist teachings, especially in the Mahayana tradition, makes ample use of these Elements
(aggregates and skandas). The Venerable Thich Nhat Hahn lets Buddha himself explain to his
son Rahul what to learn from and how to harmonize these 5 powers (in the biography of
Buddha: Old Path White Clouds).

The Tibetan Book of the Dead has many references of dissolution to the same. Furthermore
all suffering is understood to come from the ignorance, i.e not understanding the temporary,
ever changing and ever interacting nature of the five, which results in attachment and
distortions which in turn are the cause not just of emotional suffering, but actual physical
illness.

Moreover Buddhism uses these energies in its psychology and typology of human nature
talking of “families” displaying certain behavior and tendencies. (Vajra/ Buddha/ Ratna/
Padma/ Karma).

In Yoga we know of the five koshas, the five chakras which have their origin in the same
observation.

Encoded into the stupa mandala of Borobodur is a very detailed map of human
consciousness, from its grossest and most impulsive state- up through successive higher
levels of purity until it reaches the pinnacle of human development-full enlightenment and

212
awakening of the Buddha mind. The way this is done in the stupa is placing one specific
symbolic Buddha in each direction, as well as dedicating each level to one of the elements
and embodying their wisdom in the form of a Meditation (Dhyan) Buddha.

These Meditation symbols are called Dhyani Buddhas.

Symbolic Dhyani Cardina Location of

Statue Mudra
meaning Buddha l Point the Statue

Rupadhatu niche
Bhumisparsa Calling the s on the first four
Aksobhya East
mudra Earth to witness eastern
balustrades

Rupadhatu niche
Benevolence, Ratnasambhav s on the first four
Vara mudra South
alms giving a southern
balustrades

Rupadhatu niche
Dhyana Concentration s on the first four
Amitabha West
mudra and meditation western
balustrades

Rupadhatu niche
Courage, s on the first four
Abhaya mudra Amoghasiddhi North
fearlessness northern
balustrades

Rupadhatu niche
s in all directions
Reasoning and
Vitarka mudra Vairochana Zenith on the fifth
virtue
(uppermost)
balustrade

213
 Symbolic Dhyani Cardina Location of
Statue Mudra
meaning Buddha l Point the Statue

Arupadhatu in 72
Turning the perforated stupas
Dharmachakr Wheel on three rounded
Vairochana Zenith platforms
a mudra of dharma (law
)

These Buddhas represent energies with certain tendencies, that we have to work through and
they help bringing harmony into these within ourselves and the world.
They seem at first glance all looking the same, but their energy-field and their wisdom
teaching, in fact their healing power lies in their respective placement and mudra.

Furthermore the reliefs on each level show and support this inner work with stories from the
life of Buddha (which usually are what attracts attention).So after the base plinth (the first
undecorated level), we find the grosser world represented, with the levels of Earth and Water
respectively illustrated with the Dhyani Buddha Akshobya and Ratnasambhava.

Akshobya, (belonging to the Vajra family) facing east - is portrait with the mudra of
witnessing, or rather calling upon the earth to witness the process, (bhumiparsha). He
himself represents the energy of Water; whereas Ratnasambhava (belonging to the Ratna
family) represents the energy of Earth (facing South) with the Mudra of supreme giving
(wealth and support which the earth provides); the gesture of varada.Many details are
enshrined and associated with these simingly simple facts; such as, for example: colors are
energy vibrations, so each Buddha has a color – even though there is no color! Each Buddha
brings a certain type of wisdom and healing. In this way Akshobya is associated with blue
and wisdom that mirrors the facts of the world and Ratnasambhava with yellow, and the
wisdom needed to recognize sameness, thus providing stability.

Akshobya

Akshobya associated with the water energy points to the constant flow and change, which
brings uncertainty and fear; hence the issues we have to face on this first level are associated
with safety and security in the world; amongst the chaos of the physical world we have to
find our place. We live with the illusion that we find that by identifying with the gross
physical body. From here derives the will to live and stand up for ourselves. A focus on the
material world results from this.

As we experience the gross world basically through the senses in this context /on this level
we experience much pleasure and pain.

Akshobya encourages us to find the needed security in ourselves rather than the outside
world, and asks us to overcome hatred, lust, anger, greed and delusion. He offers to help us
overcome the emphasis on the physical, material world and learn instead to give and receive.

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Many of us are stuck on this first level to more or less degree; we need help. Imbalances and
stagnation in this energy-field can eventually lead even to physical illnesses (lower back-
pain, gynecological and urinary track problems, rectal tumors and cancer and also depression,
etc.), but Akshobya can help.

These Dhyani Buddhas are looked upon as healers and guides and we can call upon these
with seed-syllables and mantras. For Akshobya the seed syllable is Hum (or bam in some
context) and the mantra: om vajra akshobya hum.

(All disturbing energies, on all five levels can be let –go-of, balanced also with the
mantra: shudde shudde soha plus the respective seed-syllable)

Ratnasambhava

Ratnasambhava is the next one that helps us discover and heal ourselves; representing the
earth element he gives stability and support which is needed in the ever changing world,
especially on the mental level. Self-respect and self-confidence in relationship with others
grow from his energy. With his help our perception widens and we learn from him, to give
spiritually and mentally.

However, if this energy is imbalanced, it can be expressed on the emotional level as pride,
delusion and jealousy and on the physical level with such illnesses as gastric and duodenal
ulcers, anorexia/bulimia, liver dis-functioning, etc.

Whether we need balancing mentally or physically Ratnasambhava will help us, if we call
upon his energy with the seed syllable Tram (or lam in some context) or the mantra: Om
Ratnasambhava tram

Amitaba

The third Meditation Symbol is Amitaba. He faces West and lives on the third level of the
stupa. We find he represents the energy-field of fire, has red as his color and represents the
Element of Fire. He belongs to the Padma family.

His mudra is that of meditation itself from here comes all transformation, even
transcendence. Transformation comes from burning, burning leaves what is not needed
behind; hence the gift of Amitabha is discriminating wisdom (Interesting that in many culture
the direction of the West is the direction that brings concentration and clarity; it’s like the
autumn that leaves summer/the world behind and “shrinks to the essence”).

Amoghasiddhi

In the North-face and on the fourth level we find Buddha Amoghasiddhi. He represents the
Air Element (in many cultures, the North is the direction of the ancestral wisdom, and the air
element is that which brings clarity).

His mudra is abhaya (do not fear); he is green in color and belongs to the Karma kula
(family).

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Encouraged to walk the higher path, one now has to decided what to leave behind, so to
ascend one leaves the more manifest levels behind and walk towards enlightenment; now,
that we have learned to discriminate what is useful on this path, what not - he protects,
encourages and grants us freedom from fear.

He encourages us to turn fear and anger into joy and love. If we achieve this, he grants us his
blessing, the all- accomplishing wisdom.

His mudra says: stand back, do not get involved, cultivate non- object- orientated love; let go
of self-interest, loneliness, resentment …

If there are imbalances they manifest on the physical level as lung disease, asthma,
pneumonia, upper back problems etc. and on the emotional level as issues with clarity,
intellect, with acceptance of change, with the ability to let go, etc.

Yet Amoghasiddhi will help us; to call upon him we practice with the seed syllable ah
(yam) and the mantra om ah amoghasiddhi hum.

Vairochana

The three statues inside the ninth century Mendut buddhist temple, Magelang, Central Java, Indonesia,
at the center is 3 metres tall statue of Dhyani Buddha Vairocana, at the left is Boddhisatva
Avalokitesvara, at the right is Boddhisatva Vajrapani

Finally towards the top of the stupa, there is the last level, but within are several smaller
levels, elevated circles – just as “Space” has many levels; on these top- layers we find the
fifth Dhyani Buddha: Vairochana, and the final great bell-stupa.Vairochana is associated with
the Zenith, (Buddha or Tathagata family) and he grants the dhamadhatu wisdom.He appears
in two forms, one (more related to manifest Space/as in the mahabhutas) with the gesture of
reasoning and virtuous, and secondly we find him with the Dharmachakra mudra, turning the
wheel of dharma. (Please note, not karma – but dharma).

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One could say the mudra represents the upholding the dharma beyond space and time; we
would say in Yogic language, the sanatah dharma; the eternal laws.

With this we reached the level that is no more concerned with the manifest, the mahabhutas,
but we now find ourselves with Vairochana in the mahatattva, the higher mind, the higher
buddhi, the great mind beyond the confines of individual mind.Some say this is the level of
enlightenment; others connect it to the world of unlimited ideas, the highest intelligence, or
even the experiencing of ultimate peace and divine love.Conventionally we can say we have
reached the higher Chakras of mind and consciousness, Ajna Chakra and the Sahasra.

Vairochana stands for that level where individual mind is open towards the total mind, the all
mind –pure consciousness.And it is said if these energy are imbalanced they might manifest
as brain tumours and neurological disturbances, chronic fatigue, extreme sensitivity to light
and sound etc… on the physical level.

For working with Vairochana’s energy we work with his seed syllable - om (eh) and the
mantra om vairochana hum. With his help total integration of the personality might be
achieved and one develops trust into the divine – with his help only the highest ethical and
humanitarian values are left, and a life to be lived in expanded consciousness governed by
divine inspiration.

On the top of the stupa

On the top of the stupa in the three sub-circles we find 72 Mediation - Buddhas enclosed in
their own stone- bells, their own caves, meditating for the benefit of the world, turning the
wheel of dharma. Here is the soul’s place to rest in eternal meditation and live in
unconditional joy.

The pilgrim too has reached a state of inner peace, and rejoices having concluded the
meditative walk encircling each level, meditating on the relevant Buddha with its mantra.

Now the pilgrim, with a calm peaceful mind can look from high above the land onto the
green fertile landscape below…until the security guards comes and gestures to “move on” –
no sitting down to meditate! Keep walking….this is after all Indonesia’s biggest, most busy
Tourist site!

We are all Sudanas…in search of the Buddha

++++++++++++

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PART II

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 Tantric Borobudur

Tantricity of the Temples of the Prambanan

Group
CONTENTS
Chapter 1-Borobudur Temple Compounds ? page 10
Chapter 2-Tantric tradition and Greater India page 13
Chapter 3-Mendut TANTRIC Temple ? page 29
Chapter4- Brahma Mandala of Prambanan ? page 51
Featuring The Vishnu Purana, translated by Horace Hayman Wilson, [1840]
Vishnu Purana page 87
Chapter 5-The Concept of the Buddhist Shiva and associated Temples in East Java.Indonesia
page 96
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Chapter 6 Mataram where Gods and Buddha Reside- Book Rediscovery of Borobudur by
maiguch.sakura (Chapter 5) page 104

Chapter 7 Mystery of the TRIAD of the Borobudur page 147

Chapter 8=Borobudur as a Center of an Ancient Lake page 166

Chapter 1
Borobudur Temple Compounds ?
Borobudur Temple Compounds is a term used by the World Heritage designation of the
area of three Buddhist temples in Central Java, Indonesia. It comprises Borobudur, Mendut,
and Pawon.
These three temples are located in a straight line, and have been considered as being built
during the Sailendra dynasty circa 8th–9th centuries. Approximately 40 kilometres (25 mi)
northwest of Yogyakarta, Borobudur is located in an elevated area between two twin
volcanoes, Sundoro-Sumbing and Merbabu-Merapi, and two rivers, the Progo and the Elo.
According to local myth, the area known as Kedu Plain is a Javanese 'sacred' place and has
been dubbed 'the garden of Java' due to its high agricultural fertility.
During the restoration in the early 20th century, it was discovered that three Buddhist temples
in the region, Borobudur, Pawon and Mendut, are positioned along a straight line. It might be
accidental, but the temples' alignment is in conjunction with a native folk tale that a long time
ago, there was a brick-paved road from Borobudur to Mendut with walls on both sides. The
three temples (Borobudur–Pawon–Mendut) have similar architecture and ornamentation
derived from the same time period, which suggests that ritual relationship between the three
temples, in order to have formed a sacred unity, must have existed, although exact ritual
process is yet unknown.

Ancient Javanese Canggal inscription dated 732 edicted by King Sanjaya of Medang i Bhumi
Mataram kingdom. The inscription was discovered in Kadiluwih, Salam, Magelang Regency,
Central Java. Collection of National Museum of Indonesia, Jakarta.

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Besides these three temples, there are other Buddhist and Hindu temples scaterred in the area.
The earliest is Gunung Wukir or Canggal Hindu temple dated 732 CE, according to Canggal
inscription discovered in the temple complex, the Shivaite King Sanjaya commissioned a
Shivalinga sanctuary to be built on the Wukir hill, only 10 km (6.2 mi) east of Borobudur.
Ngawen temple located east of Mendut temple. The Canggal inscription is
a Sanskrit inscription dated to 732, discovered in the Gunung Wukir temple complex in
Kadiluwih village, Salam, Magelang Regency, Central Java, Indonesia. The inscription is
written in the Pallava alphabet. The inscription documents an edict of Sanjaya, in which he
declared himself the universal ruler of Mataram Kingdom.
The inscription describes the erection of a lingam (the symbol of Shiva) on the country of
Kunjarakunja, by Sanjaya's order. The lingam is sited on the noble island of Yava (Java),
which the inscription describes as "rich in grain and gold mines". Yawadwipa ("Java island"),
and had long been under the rule of the wise and virtuous king Sanna, but fell into disunity
after his death. Amid a period of confusion Sanjaya, son of Sannaha (the sister of Sanna)
ascended to the throne. Sanjaya mastered holy scriptures, martial arts, and displayed military
prowess. After the conquest of neighboring areas his reign was peaceful and prosperous.
The inscription makes reference to Kunjarakunja-desa, perhaps meaning "the hermitage land
of Kunjara", which has been identified as the hermitage of Rishi Agastya, a Hindu Maharishi
revered in Southern India. The Ramayana contains a reference to a visit to Agastya hermitage
on Kunjara by Rama, Sita, and Lakshmana.
The name Sanjaya, Sanna and Sannaha curiously was also mentioned in Carita Parahyangan,
a book from later period composed around 16th century which suggested refer to same
historical person.
Gunung Wukir temple, or Canggal temple, or also known as Shivalinga is
a Shivaite Hindu temple dated from the early 8th century, located in Canggal hamlet,
Kadiluwih village, Salam subdistrict, Magelang Regency, Central Java, Indonesia.[1] The
temple dates to the year 732, making it the first structure attributed to the ancient Mataram
kingdom, which ruled Central Java from 732 to around the middle of the tenth century.
Because of its relatively remote location, the temple site rarely appears on the itineraries of
foreign tourists. But it possesses some historical importance owed to its links with the
formation of the Central Javanese Mataram kingdom. The temple is located on Wukir hill,
which the locals refer to as Gunung Wukir ("Mount Wukir", or "carved hill" in Javanese), on
the western slopes of Mount Merapi volcano. The hill is located approximately 4 kilometres
southeast from the town of Muntilan. Gunung Wukir temple can be reached by following the
direction to the Ngluwar subdistrict by turning west from the Semen intersection, on
Yogyakarta-Magelang main road. The Kadiluwih hamlet in Canggal, is connected to the
Ngluwar road by a small walking trail that leads up to the hill plateau, approximately 300
meters above sea level.

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 The statue of Nandi bull, the vehicle of Shiva inside central perwara temple// One of the
three perwara (complementary) temples in front of main temple of Gunung Wukir
This temple is the oldest surviving temple in Southern Central Java, connected to the Canggal
inscription discovered within the temple ruins in 1879. The inscription describes the erection
of a lingam (the symbol of Shiva) on the country of Kunjarakunja, by Sanjaya's order.
The lingam is sited on the noble island of Yava (Java), which the inscription describes as
"rich in grain and gold mines".According to the inscription, the temple was founded during
the reign of King Sanjaya from the Mataram Kingdom, in 654 Saka (732 CE). This
inscription contains a lot of information related to Mataram Kingdom or Ancient Mataram.
Based on this inscription, Gunung Wukir temple might originally have been
called Shivalinga or Kunjarakunja. The temple compound measures 50 metres x 50 metres.
The temple building is made of andesite stone, and at least consist of a main temple and
three perwara temples (guardian or complementary smaller temple) lined in front of the main
temple. In addition to the inscription, within the temple complex were also found
archaeological artifacts including yoni pedestal and the statue of the sacred cow Nandi the
vehicle of Shiva. According to the inscription, the yoni once support a lingam, the symbol of
the god Shiva, however it is now missing

Two Banon Temples- Angkor and Yogakarta

Wat Banan is the best-preserved of the Khmer temples in Battambang Province. It was built
to give thanks, ask for help, and pray to God. In that era, they had a strong belief in god,
especially Hindu gods. However, Udayadityavarman was Shaivite and the sculptures of
Phnom Banan are mainly Buddhist. As they were later on defaced like those in Angkor, it's
highly likely that the Buddhist temple was the result of a temple rebuilding under Jayavarman
VII in the late 12th century.
The distinctive five towers of the temple are similar to the much larger and more famous
temple of Angkor Wat. At the base of the mountain, is a step laterite staircase flanked by
nagas.. The 11th century temple was built by King Udayadityavarman II son of
King Suryavarman I and despite some looting it is in a considerably better state of repair
than Wat Ek Phnom.
In case of the Indonesian temple, the ruin of Banon temple, a Hindu temple located several
hundred meters north of Pawon temple. The ruin of Banon temple is unreconstructable
because many stones were missing, however several stone statues of Hindu gods were
discovered in good condition in this area. Today the Banon statues of Vishnu, Brahma, Shiva
and Ganesha were displayed in National Museum of Indonesia, Jakarta.

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(L-R) Majestic stone statues of Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva and Agastya that were
retrieved from the Candi Banon site.

Chapter 2
Tantric tradition and Greater India
History of tantra
It is difficult to trace the history of tantra which is mostly obscure as in case of the history of
religions. Many tantras offer mythical explanations for their origins, often setting themselves
as the given word of either Siva or a goddess such as Devi. Scholarly depictions of their
origins are often as varied, ascribing tantras to pre-Aryan, Indus Valley civilizations or
similar aboriginal, tribal groups or as integral part of an Indian cultural fabric.

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Hindu tantra
Tantra exists in Vaisnava, Shaiva, and Shakta forms, among others. Extolled as a short-cut to
self-realization and spiritual enlightenment by some, left-hand tantric rites are often rejected
as dangerous by most orthodox Hindus. The popular perception of tantra among Hindus
espoused in Indian journalism, equates it with black magic.
Some tantric aspirants simply feel the union is accomplished internally and with spiritual
entities of various kinds. For this reason, almost all tantric writing has a gross, higher and
subtle meaning. This tripartite system of understanding readily obscures the true purport of
many passages for those without the necessary background or deeper understandings so
crucial to tantra. Thus, a 'union' could mean the actual act of sexual intercourse, ritual uniting
of concepts through chanting and sacrifice, or realization of one's true self in the cosmic
joining of the divine principles of Shiva and Shakti in Para Shiva.

Tantrism, which appears in both Buddhism and Hinduism, influenced many religious trends
and movements from the 5th century CE, but some of it was meant for esoteric circles.
Claiming to show in times of religious decadence a new way to the highest goal, Tantrism
bases itself upon mystic speculations concerning divine creative energy (shakti). Tantrism is
thought to be a method of conquering transcendent powers and realizing oneness with the
highest principle by Yogic and ritual means—in part magical and orgiastic—which are also
supposed to achieve other supranormal goals.

Tantrists take for granted that all factors in the macrocosm and the microcosm are closely
connected. The adept (sadhaka) has to perform the relevant rites on his own body,
transforming its normal, chaotic state into a “cosmos.” The macrocosm is conceived as a
complex system of powers that by means of ritual-psychological techniques can be activated
and organized within the individual body of the adept. Contrary to the ascetic emancipation
methods of other groups, the Tantrists emphasize the activation and sublimation of the
possibilities of their own body, without which salvation is believed to be beyond reach.

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The Tantrists of the Vamchara (“the left-hand practice”) sought to intensify their own sense
impressions by making enjoyment, or sensuality (bhoga), their principal concern: the adept
pursued his spiritual objective through his natural functions and inclinations, which
were sublimated and then gratified in rituals in order to disintegrate his normal personality.
This implies that cultic life was largely interiorized and that the whole world was given a new
and esoteric meaning.

Concentration on the body: Tantrikas generally see the body as a microcosm; thus in the
Kaulajnana-nirnaya, for example, the practitioner meditates on the head as the moon, the
heart as the sun and the genitals as fire. Many groups hold that the body contains a series of
energy centers (chakra - "wheel"), which may be associated with elements, planets or occult
powers (siddhi). The phenomenon of kundalini, a flow of energy through the chakras, is
controversial; most writers see it as essential to Tantra, while others regard it as unimportant
or as an abreaction. As it is, kundalini is nothing but the flow of the central sushumna nadi, a
spiritual current, that, when moving, opens chakras, and is fundamental to the siddhi concept
that forms a part of all tantra, including hatha yoga.
 Sahasrara
 Ajna
 Vishuddha
 Anahata
 Manipura
 Swadhisthana
 Muladhara
 Bindu

Tantric practices
Because of the wide range of groups covered by the term "tantra," it is hard to describe tantric
practices definitively. The basic practice, the Hindu image-worship known as "puja" may
include any of the elements below.

Mantra and Yantra: As in all of Hindu and Buddhist yogas, mantras play an important part
in Tantra for focusing the mind, often through the conduit of specific Hindu gods like Shiva,
Ma Kali (mother Kali, another form of Shakti) and even Ganesh, the elephant-headed god of
wisdom (refer to the Ganesha Upanishad). Similarly, puja will often involve concentrating on
a yantra or mandala.

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Identification with deities: Tantra, being a development of early Hindu-Vedic thought
embraced the Hindu gods and goddesses, especially Shiva and Shakti, along the Advaita
(nondualist Vedic) philosophy that each represents an aspect of the ultimate Para Shiva, or
Brahman. These deities may be worshipped externally (with flowers, incense etc.) but, more
importantly, are used as objects of meditation, where the practitioner imagines him- or herself
to be experiencing the darshan or 'vision' of the deity in question. The ancient devadasi
tradition of sacred temple-dance, seen in the contemporary Bharata Natyam is an example of
such meditation in movement. The divine love is expressed in Sringara and Bhakti.

Taboo-breaking: The act of breaking taboos is the definitive feature of left-hand Tantra.
While the breaking of sexual taboos is perhaps the most recognized of tantric practices, it is
not considered generally beneficial. All tantras state that there are specific levels of
preparation required for breaking taboos. Tantras practiced by inadequately prepared
individuals are considered harmful rather than beneficial to the practitioner. The normal state
of human preparation is referred to as pasu-bhava (animal disposition). A person in the state
of pasu-bhava is one who regularly eats meat and indulges in intoxication. They are
considered dishonest, promiscuous, greedy and violent. A fundamental requirement of all
tantras is the initial transcendence beyond this base state.

Tantras prescribe a strict regimen of penance, meditation, sensory control, cleansing the self
of negative thoughts and seeking truth and justice before an individual can hope to transcend
from her or his natural state. An individual who successfully practices these tasks may

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 eventually take a vow of viravrata (a hero's vow) to be of vira-bhava (heroic disposition). The
demarcation vira is potentially transient as it is considered a state of being free of desires.
In the Kaula and Vamachara schools of tantra the pañca makara (5 M's)
ritually/sacramentally broken in order to free the practitioner from binding convention are:
 madya (wine)
 mamsa (meat)
 matsya (fish)
 mudra (parched grain)
 maithuna (sex

The "sacramental" or ritual breaking was only for

the vira practitioner, not the divya or pasu. The pasu would misunderstand and get caught up
in the literal act while the divya will have already progressed beyond and not need the literal
act to understand the inner meaning.
There also exist tantric schools that substitute innocuous items for the taboo substances and
acts, claiming that literal interpretations of the pañca makara miss the inner truth of the rite.
The esoteric part of Tantric worship (puja) is complicated and in many respects different
from the ceremonies that it has influenced. Tantric devotees interpret their texts by means of
an ambiguous “twilight” language and distinguish between the texts’ “external” and their
esoteric meaning. Tantrists describe states of consciousness with erotic terminology and
describe physiological processes with cosmological terminology. They proceed from
“external” to “internal” worship and adore the Goddess mentally, offering their hearts as her
throne and their self-renunciation as “flowers.”
According to Tantrism, concentration is intended to evoke an internal image of the deity and
to resuscitate the powers inherent in it so that the symbol changes into mental experience.
This “symbolic ambiguity” is also much in evidence in the esoteric interpretation of ritual
acts performed in connection with images, flowers, and other cult objects and is intended to
bring about a transfiguration in the mind of the adept.

The mantras (sacred utterances, such as hum, hrim, and kleem) are believed to be
indispensable means of entering into contact with the power they bear and
of transcending mundane existence. Most potent are the monosyllabic, bija (“seed”) mantras,
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which constitute the main element of longer formulas and embody the essence of divine
power as the eternal, indestructible prototypes from which anything phenomenal derives its
existence. The cosmos itself owes its very structure and harmony to them. Also important is
the introduction of spiritual qualities or divine power into the body (nyasa) by placing a
finger on the relevant spot (accompanied by a mantra).
Tantrists who follow the “right-hand path” attach much value to the Yoga that developed
under their influence and to bhakti and aspire to union with the Supreme by emotional-
dynamic means. For them, Yoga is a self-abnegation in order to reach a state of ecstatic
blissfulness in which the passive soul is lifted up by divine grace.

There is also a
Tantric mantra-yoga (discipline through spells), which operates with formulas, and a hatha-
yoga, (Sanskrit: “union of force”). Hatha-yoga incorporates normal Yogic practices such as
abstinences; observances; bodily postures; breath control; withdrawal of the mind from
external objects; concentration, contemplation, and identification with the aid of mudras (i.e.,
ritual intertwining of fingers or gestures expressing the metaphysical aspect of the ceremonies
or the transformation effected by the mantras); and muscular contractions. It also consists of
internal purifications (e.g., washing out stomach and bowels), shaking the abdomen, and
some forms of self-torture. The whole process is intended to “control the ‘gross body’ in
order to free the ‘subtle body.’”

Some Tantrists employ laya-yoga (“reintegration by mergence”), in which the female nature-
energy (representing the shakti), which is said to remain dormant and coiled in the form of a
serpent (kundalini) representing the uncreated, is awakened and made to rise through the six
centres (chakras) of the body, which are located along the central artery of the subtle body,
from the root centre to the lotus of a thousand petals at the top of the head, where it merges
into the Purusha, the male Supreme Being. Once the union of shakti and Purusha has become
permanent, according to this doctrine, wonderful visions and powers come to the adept, who
then is emancipated. Some of the Tantric texts also pursue worldly objectives involving
magic or medicine.

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Tantric and Shakta views of nature, humanity, and the sacred

The Tantric movement is sometimes inextricably interwoven with Shaktism, which assumes
the existence of one or more shaktis. These are “creative energies” that are inherent in and
proceed from God and are also capable of being imagined as female deities. Shakti is the
deciding factor in the salvation of the individual and in the processes of the universe because
God acts only through his energy—which, personified as a goddess, is his spouse. Her role is
very different in the various systems: she may be considered the central figure in a
philosophically established doctrine, the dynamic aspect of brahman, producing the universe
through her maya, or mysterious power of illusion; a capricious demonic ruler of nature in its
destructive aspects; a benign mother goddess; or the queen of a celestial court. One form of
Shaktism identifies the goddess (usually Durga) with brahman and worships her as the ruler
of the universe by virtue of whom even Shiva exists. As Mahayogini (“Great Mistress of
Yoga”), she produces, maintains, and reabsorbs the world. As the Eternal Mother, she is
exalted in the Devimahatmya (“Glorification of the Goddess”) section of the Markandeya-
purana (an important Shakta encyclopaedic text). In the Bengal cult of the goddess Kali, she
demands bloody sacrifices from her worshipers lest her creative potency fail her. This cult
also propounds the belief that birth and death are inseparable, that joy and grief spring from
the same source, and that the frightening manifestations of the divine should be faced calmly.

In all of his incarnations Vishnu is united with his consort, Lakshmi. The sacred tales of his
various relations with her manifestations led his worshipers to view human devotion as
parallel to divine love and hence as universal, eternal, and sanctified. In Vaishnava Tantrism,
Lakshmi plays an important part as God’s shakti. In his supreme state, Vishnu and
his shakti are indissolubly associated with one another and thus constitute the
personal manifestation of the supreme brahman, also called Lakshmi-Narayana. In visual
imagery, Lakshmi never leaves Vishnu’s bosom. In the first stage of creation, she awakens in
her dual aspect of action-and-becoming, in which she is the instrumental and material cause
of the universe; Vishnu himself is the efficient cause. In the second stage, her “becoming”
aspect is manifested in the grosser forms of the souls and the power of maya, which is the
immaterial source of the universe. In displaying her power, she takes into consideration the
accumulated karma of the beings, judging mundane existence as merit and demerit. Presented
in myth as God’s wife and the queen of the universe.

Pancharatra Vaishnavism emphasizes that Lakshmi—who in the mythological sphere

intercedes with her husband for the preservation of the world—spontaneously and by virtue
of her own power differentiates herself from Vishnu because she has in view the liberation of
the souls. This current of thought complicated its explanation of the relation between God
and the universe—which was at the same time an attempt at assigning to God’s
manifestations a place in a harmonious theological and cosmological system—with an
evolutionist theory of successive creations. God is assumed to manifest himself also in three
other figures, mythologically his brothers, who, each with his own responsibility, have not
only a creative but also an ethical function, by which they assist those who seek to achieve
final emancipation.
Tantric ritual and magical practices

The ritual of the left-hand Tantrists was one in which all of the taboos of conventional
Hinduism were conscientiously violated. Thus, in place of the traditional five
elements (tattvas) of the Hindu cosmos, these Tantrists used the five m’s: mamsa (flesh,
meat), matsya (fish), madya (fermented grapes, wine), mudra (frumentum, cereal, parched

229
grain, or gestures), and maithuna (sexual union). This latter element was made particularly
antinomian through the involvement of forbidden women—such as the wife of another man
or a low-caste woman—who was identified with the Goddess. Menstrual blood, strictly taboo
in conventional Hinduism, was also used in Tantric rites. Such rituals, which are described in
Tantric texts and in tracts against Tantrists, made the Tantrists notorious. It is likely,
however, that the rituals were not regularly performed except by a small group of highly
trained adepts; the usual Tantric ceremony was purely symbolic and even
more fastidious than the pujas in Hindu temples.

The cult of the Shaktas is based on the principle of the ritual sublimation of natural impulses
to maintain and reproduce life. Shakta adepts are trained to direct all their energies toward the
conquest of the Eternal. The sexual act and the consumption of consecrated meat or liquor are
esoterically significant means of realizing the unity of flesh and spirit, of the human and
the divine. They are considered not sinful acts but effective means of salvation. Ritual union
—which may also be accomplished symbolically—is, for both partners, a form of
sacralization, the act being a participation in cosmic and divine processes. The experience
of transcending space and time, of surpassing the phenomenal duality of spirit and matter, of
recovering the primeval unity, the realization of the identity of God and his Shakti, and of
the manifested and unmanifested aspects of the All, constitute the very mystery of Shaktism.

The interpretation of doctrines and ritual practice is varied. Extreme Shakta communities, for
example, are said to perform the secret nocturnal rites of the shrichakra (“wheel of radiance,”
described in the Kularnava-tantra), in which they avail themselves of the natural
and esoteric symbolic properties of colours, sounds, and perfumes to intensify their sensual
experiences. Most Tantrists, however, eliminate all but the verbal ritual.

Individual and collective Yoga and worship, conducted daily, fortnightly, and monthly “for
the delectation of the deity,” are of special importance. After elaborate purifications, the

230
worshipers—who must be initiated, full of devotion toward the guru and God, have control
over themselves, be well prepared and pure of heart, know the mysteries of the scriptures, and
look forward to the adoration with eagerness—make the prescribed offerings, worship the
power of the Divine Mother, and recite the relevant mantras. Having become aware of their
own state of divinity, they are qualified to unite sexually with the Goddess. If a woman is, in
certain rituals, made the object of sexual worship, the Goddess is first invoked into her; the
worshiper is not to cohabit with her until his mind is free from impurity and he has risen to
divine status. Union with a low-caste woman helps to transcend all opposites. Union with a
woman who belongs to another man is often preferred because it is harder to obtain, nothing
is certain in it, and the longing stemming from the separation of lover and beloved is more
intense; it is pure preman (divine love). Adoration of a girl of age 16 aims at securing the
completeness and perfection of which this number is said to be the expression. However, the
texts reiterate how dangerous these rites are for those who are not initiated; those who
perform such ritual acts without merging their minds in the Supreme are likely to go to one of
the hells.

The esoteric Vaishnava-Sahajiya cult, which

arose in Bengal in the 16th century, was another emotional attempt at reconciling the spirit
and the flesh. Disregarding social opinion, its adherents, using the natural (sahaja, “born
with”) qualities of the senses and stressing the sexual symbolism of Bengal Vaishnavism,
reinterpreted the Radha-Krishna legend and sought for the perpetual experience of divine joy.
Based on this understanding of the legend, members of the Vaishnava-Sahajiya cult held that,
after arduous training, the realization of love can be experienced, because Krishna’s nature is
love and the giving of love and because man is identical with Krishna. Women, as the
embodiment of a theological principle, could even become spiritual guides, like Radha,
conducting the worshipers in their search for realization. After reaching this state, a devotee
remains in eternal bliss and can dispense with guru and ritual and be completely indifferent to
the world, “steadfast amidst the dance of maya.”
Tantric and Shakta ethical and social doctrines

These ethical and social principles, though fundamentally the same as those promulgated in
the classical dharma works, breathe a spirit of liberality: much value is set upon family life
and respect for women (the image of the Goddess); no ban is placed on traveling
(conventionally regarded as bringing about ritual pollution) or on the remarriage of widows.
Although Tantric and Shakta traditions did not oblige their followers to deviate in a socially
visible way from the established order, they provided a ritual and a way of life for those who,
because of sex or caste, could not participate satisfyingly in the conventional rites.

231
The ancient Tantric tradition, based on the esoteric tantra literature, has become so
interwoven with orthodox Hinduism that it is difficult to define precisely. Although it
recognizes an identity between the soul and the cosmos, it emphasizes the internalization of
the cosmos rather than the release of the soul to its natural state of unity. The body is the
microcosm, and the ultimate state is not only omniscience but total realization of all universal
and eternal forces. The body is real, not because it is the function or creation of a real deity
but because it contains the deity, together with the rest of the universe. The individual soul
does not unite with the One—it is the One, and the body is its function.

Tantrism, though not always in its full esoteric form, is a feature of much modern mystical
thought. In Tantrism the consciousness is spoken of as moving—driven by repetition of
the mantra and by other disciplines—from gross awareness of the material world to
realization of the ultimate unity. The image is of a serpent, coiled and dormant, awakened and
driven upward in the body through various stages of enlightenment until it reaches the brain,
the highest awareness. The 19th-century mystic Ramakrishna describes the process, which is
also what many Hindus seek in their quest for a spiritual experience:
When [the serpent] is awakened, it passes gradually through [various stages], and comes to
rest in the heart. Then the mind moves away from [the gross physical senses]; there is
perception, and a great brilliance is seen. The worshiper, when he sees this brilliance, is
struck with wonder. The [serpent] moves thus through six stages, and coming to [the highest
one], is united with it. Then there is samadhi.When [the serpent] rises to the sixth stage, the
form of God is seen. But a slight veil remains; it is as if one sees a light within a lantern, and
thinks that the light itself can be touched, but the glass intervenes.…In samadhi, nothing
external remains. One cannot even take care of his body any more; if milk is put into his
mouth, he cannot swallow. If he remains for twenty-one days in this condition, he is dead.
The ship puts out to sea, and returns no mo

232
Tantric Hindu traditions have also influenced other Eastern religious traditions such
as Jainism, the Tibetan Bön tradition, Daoism, and the Japanese Shintō tradition.
Certain modes of non-Vedic worship such as Puja are considered tantric in their conception
and rituals. Hindu temple building also generally conforms to the iconography of
tantra. Hindu texts describing these topics are called Tantras, Āgamas or Samhitās. Rituals
are most commonly associated with spiritual or religious activities and are considered an
important part of that tradition. A ritual is a ceremony consisting of a series of actions
performed by an ordained leader and according to a prescribed order. Weddings, funerals,
birthdays, coming of age rites, mass, baptisms, communion and religious holidays are just a
few examples of rituals that many of us are familiar with and can relate to. Essentially they
mark important moments and serve as an initiation or a change in status.

Tantric rituals are a spectacular science stemming from the Indian tradition which have been
known to produce supernatural phenomenon and provide a direct link to universal energies
for participants. That is of course if the ritual is of the authentic kind. In order to benefit from
the imprint tantric rituals can impart there are a few key elements that are necessary in order
to receive this sacred rite of passage. What are these elements? Read further and learn
more…

“Tantra is that Asian body of beliefs and

practices which, working from the principle
that the universe we experience is nothing
other than the concrete manifestation of the
divine energy of the godhead that creates
and maintains the universe, seeks to ritually
appropriate and channel that energy, within
the human microcosm, in creative and
emancipatory.ways.”

David Gordon White

Tantric art. Clockwise from upper

left: Vajrayogini (Buddhist), Sri
Yantra (Hindu), Chakra illustration, Tibet
deity Vajradhara (Holder of the Thunderbolt)
in maithuna, Kalachakra Mandala, Dakini.

233
 A temple relief, from Madya Pradesh in central India, showing the Tantric goddess Chamunda dancing on a corpse, 9th century AD.
Sandstone. Size: 89 x 61x 21cm © Trustees of the British Museum

The science of tantric rituals

Tantra is the science and study of energy and there are countless different types of energy in
the universe that can be controlled and utilized for spiritual gains. For every universal energy
that exists there are various tantric rituals that train solely with that energy.Tantric rituals can
be extremely potent if the right ingredients are involved and the knowledge is genuine. The
secrecy of this occult science therefore preserves its integrity and esoteric nature.

There does not exist a ritual manual, so to speak, outlining and detailing all of the various
rituals and accompanying effects. This is why it becomes more important than ever that such
knowledge is transmitted via a lineage and ideally by an experienced master.

The statue of Harihara,

the god amalgamation of Shiva and Vishnu, as the
mortuary deified portrayal of Sculpture of Raktayamari in union with Vajravetali, Tibet, 16th-

234
King Kertarajasa of Majapahit. Revering the king
as god incarnated on earth is the concept of 17th century. Bronze with turquoise, gold, and pigment.Size:
devaraja. 21.8 x 15.8 x 11.4cm. © The Trustees of the British Museum

Tantric ritual and magical practices

The ritual of the left-hand Tantrists was one in which all of the taboos of conventional Hinduism
were conscientiously violated. Thus, in place of the traditional five elements (tattvas) of the Hindu
cosmos, these Tantrists used the five m’s: mamsa (flesh, meat), matsya (fish), madya (fermented
grapes, wine), mudra (frumentum, cereal, parched grain, or gestures), and maithuna (sexual union).
This latter element was made particularly antinomian through the involvement of forbidden women
—such as the wife of another man or a low-caste woman—who was identified with the Goddess.
Menstrual blood, strictly taboo in conventional Hinduism, was also used in Tantric rites. Such
rituals, which are described in Tantric texts and in tracts against Tantrists, made the
Tantrists notorious. It is likely, however, that the rituals were not regularly performed except by a
small group of highly trained adepts; the usual Tantric ceremony was purely symbolic and even
more fastidious than the pujas in Hindu temples.

The cult of the Shaktas is based on the principle of the ritual sublimation of natural impulses to
maintain and reproduce life. Shakta adepts are trained to direct all their energies toward the conquest
of the Eternal. The sexual act and the consumption of consecrated meat or liquor are esoterically
significant means of realizing the unity of flesh and spirit, of the human and the divine. They are
considered not sinful acts but effective means of salvation. Ritual union—which may also be
accomplished symbolically—is, for both partners, a form of sacralization, the act being a
participation in cosmic and divine processes. The experience of transcending space and time, of
surpassing the phenomenal duality of spirit and matter, of recovering the primeval unity, the
realization of the identity of God and his Shakti, and of the manifested and unmanifested aspects of
the All, constitute the very mystery of Shaktism.

Adi Shankaracharya/ Coronation of Thai King

235
The interpretation of doctrines and ritual practice is varied. Extreme Shakta communities, for
example, are said to perform the secret nocturnal rites of the shrichakra (“wheel of radiance,”
described in the Kularnava-tantra), in which they avail themselves of the natural
and esoteric symbolic properties of colours, sounds, and perfumes to intensify their sensual
experiences. Most Tantrists, however, eliminate all but the verbal ritual.

Individual and collective Yoga and worship, conducted daily, fortnightly, and monthly “for the
delectation of the deity,” are of special importance. After elaborate purifications, the worshipers—
who must be initiated, full of devotion toward the guru and God, have control over themselves, be
well prepared and pure of heart, know the mysteries of the scriptures, and look forward to the
adoration with eagerness—make the prescribed offerings, worship the power of the Divine Mother,
and recite the relevant mantras. Having become aware of their own state of divinity, they are
qualified to unite sexually with the Goddess. If a woman is, in certain rituals, made the object of
sexual worship, the Goddess is first invoked into her; the worshiper is not to cohabit with her until
his mind is free from impurity and he has risen to divine status. Union with a low-caste woman helps
to transcend all opposites. Union with a woman who belongs to another man is often preferred
because it is harder to obtain, nothing is certain in it, and the longing stemming from the separation
of lover and beloved is more intense; it is pure preman (divine love). Adoration of a girl of age 16
aims at securing the completeness and perfection of which this number is said to be the expression.
However, the texts reiterate how dangerous these rites are for those who are not initiated; those who
perform such ritual acts without merging their minds in the Supreme are likely to go to one of
the hells.

The esoteric Vaishnava-Sahajiya cult, which arose in Bengal in the 16th century, was another
emotional attempt at reconciling the spirit and the flesh. Disregarding social opinion, its adherents,
using the natural (sahaja, “born with”) qualities of the senses and stressing the sexual symbolism of
Bengal Vaishnavism, reinterpreted the Radha-Krishna legend and sought for the perpetual
experience of divine joy. Based on this understanding of the legend, members of the Vaishnava-
Sahajiya cult held that, after arduous training, the realization of love can be experienced,
because Krishna’s nature is love and the giving of love and because man is identical with Krishna.
Women, as the embodiment of a theological principle, could even become spiritual guides,
like Radha, conducting the worshipers in their search for realization. After reaching this state, a
devotee remains in eternal bliss and can dispense with guru and ritual and be completely indifferent
to the world, “steadfast amidst the dance of maya.”

Tantric and Shakta ethical and social doctrines

These ethical and social principles, though fundamentally the same as those promulgated in the
classical dharma works, breathe a spirit of liberality: much value is set upon family life and respect
for women (the image of the Goddess); no ban is placed on traveling (conventionally regarded as
bringing about ritual pollution) or on the remarriage of widows. Although Tantric and Shakta
traditions did not oblige their followers to deviate in a socially visible way from the established
order, they provided a ritual and a way of life for those who, because of sex or caste, could not
participate satisfyingly in the conventional rites.

The ancient Tantric tradition, based on the esoteric tantra literature, has become so interwoven
with orthodox Hinduism that it is difficult to define precisely. Although it recognizes an identity
between the soul and the cosmos, it emphasizes the internalization of the cosmos rather than the
release of the soul to its natural state of unity. The body is the microcosm, and the ultimate state is

236
not only omniscience but total realization of all universal and eternal forces. The body is real, not
because it is the function or creation of a real deity but because it contains the deity, together with
the rest of the universe. The individual soul does not unite with the One—it is the One, and the body
is its function.

Tantrism, though not always in its full esoteric form, is a feature of much modern mystical thought.
In Tantrism the consciousness is spoken of as moving—driven by repetition of the mantra and by
other disciplines—from gross awareness of the material world to realization of the ultimate unity.
The image is of a serpent, coiled and dormant, awakened and driven upward in the body through
various stages of enlightenment until it reaches the brain, the highest awareness. The 19th-century
mystic Ramakrishna describes the process, which is also what many Hindus seek in their quest for a
spiritual experience:
When [the serpent] is awakened, it passes gradually through [various stages], and comes to rest in the heart.
Then the mind moves away from [the gross physical senses]; there is perception, and a great brilliance is
seen. The worshiper, when he sees this brilliance, is struck with wonder. The [serpent] moves thus through
six stages, and coming to [the highest one], is united with it. Then there is samadhi.…When [the serpent]
rises to the sixth stage, the form of God is seen. But a slight veil remains; it is as if one sees a light within a
lantern, and thinks that the light itself can be touched, but the glass intervenes.…In samadhi, nothing
external remains. One cannot even take care of his body any more; if milk is put into his mouth, he cannot
swallow. If he remains for twenty-one days in this condition, he is dead. The ship puts out to sea, and returns
no more.

Tantric Hinduism already had a significant presence in India by the middle of the first millennium CE, when
scriptural texts (tantras) began to be compiled. “Tantras (texts) clearly state that scripture is the necessary
complement to the oral teachings one receives from the mouth of one’s guru.” Little has been written about
Khmer Tantric Hinduism, although tantrikas (practitioners) were already present in Cambodia by the
medieval period. Unfortunately, no Khmer liturgical texts have survived to enlighten us as to what role
Khmer Tantric Hindusim may have specifically played in the Khmer world, but a few tantalizing clues have
resulted in surprising revelations. In the Khmer environment, there is an inherent minimization of the sexual
in art, whether it is Tantric Buddhist or Hindu, and this kind of imagery seldom appears in the Khmer world. 1

Shivaji left //// Jayavarman II, a Khmer Monarch pays homage to Lord Shiva while his personal priest pours offering of melted ghee and
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
lotus.

1.Tantric Hinduism in Khmer Culture

237
 by Emma C. Bunker, Asian Department, Denver Art Museum,
https://www.asianart.com/articles/bunker/index.html

The Janapadas ( 1500–600 BCE) from where Hiranyadarma was invited/ brought were
the realms, republics (ganapada) and kingdoms (saamarajya) of the Vedic period on
the Indian subcontinent. The Vedic period reaches from the late Bronze Age into the Iron
Age: from about 1500 BCE to the 6th century BCE. With the rise of
sixteen Mahajanapadas ("great janapadas"), most of the states were annexed by more
powerful neighbours, although some remained independent.
Tantricism and Magic of the Janapadas
The Sanskrit term janapada is a tatpurusha compound term, composed of two
words: janas and pada. Jana means "people" or "subject. The word pada means "foot" from
its earliest attestation, the word has had a double meaning of "realm, territory" and "subject
population" pedan, "place."Sanskrit padám, usually taken to mean "footprint, trail", diverges
in accent from the PIE reconstruction. For the sense of "population of the land", padasya
janas, the inverted padajana would be expected. A primary meaning of "place of the people,"
janasya padam, would not explain why the compound is of masculine gender. An
original dvandva "land and people" is conceivable, but a dual inflection would be expected.
Literary evidence suggests that the janapadas flourished between 1500 BCE and 500
BCE. The earliest mention of the term "janapada" occurs in the Aitareya (8.14.4)
and Shatapatha (13.4.2.17) Brahmana texts.
Sanskrit epics
The Bhishma Parva of the Mahabharata mentions around 230 janapadas, while
the Ramayana mentions only a few of these. Unlike the Puranas, the Mahabharata does not
specify any geographical divisions of ancient India, but does support the classification of
certain janapadas as southern or northern India.

Whether the term devaraja refers to a central cult object, such as a Siva linga on one of
Angkor's numerous pyramidal monuments, or to the ritual as such, and argues that the views
advanced by such authorities as G. Coedes are commonly unsatisfactory or inconsistent.
Tantra Sanskrit: तन्त्र, meaning to weave, warp' are the esoteric traditions
of Hinduism and Buddhism that developed in India from the middle of the 1st millennium CE
onwards. The term tantra, in the Indian traditions, also means any systematic broadly
applicable "text, theory, system, method, instrument, technique or practice." Starting in the
early centuries of the common era, newly revealed Tantras centering
on Vishnu, Shiva or Shakti emerged. There are tantric lineages in all main forms of modern
Hinduism, such as the Shaiva Siddhanta tradition, the Shakta sect of Sri-Vidya, the Kaula,
and Kashmir Shaivism.

CHENLA
Tonle
Oc Mekong
River

238

Area

0 30 600 Ja
 Chapter 3
Mendut TANTRIC Temple ?
Featuring Buddha Shiva Temple and The Amoghapāśa Statue of Jogo &
Adityavarman as the Tantric Bhairava

Mendut Temple and Pawon Temple are part of the Borobudur Temple Compounds, with
the two smaller temples located to the east on a straight axis to Borobudur. The Mendut
temple is on the processional walkway to Borobudur. Built in the early 9th century it is
considered older than Borobudur which is three kilometres away. It was buried beneath
volcanic ash and debris from Mt Merapi and was discovered in 1834. There are numerous
large panels of beautiful story telling bas-reliefs.

Staircase Reliefs of Candi Mendut

239
 As sso as one approaches the Mendut the Tantricism becomes acute. The outer walls
of the staircase exhibit fine reliefs of some Tantri tales. These are moralizing stories
about animals, the charming East Asian equivalent of Aesop's Fables in the West. An
overview of the northeast wall of the staircase is seen here.

Inside the temple are three Buddha statues, though trhere is another theory that there are two
and the third is of a prince. Be as it may, the central three metre high statue is stunning and
depicts Dhyani Buddha Vairocana/Dhyani Buddha Cakyamuni who is flanked by,
Boddhisatva Avalokitesvara to the left, with Boddhisatva Vajrapani on the right. Each of the
statues are cut from a single block of stone and thought to have been carved on site with the
temple walls and ceiling built after.

Temple Mendut was part of a larger temple complex, however all that remains of other
buildings are neatly stacked into piles within the temple grounds, where amongst the rubble,
carved stones can be seen. There is a very large banyan tree near the temple. Nearby is the
Mendut Buddhist Monastery. Very few people know that the grounds were originally a
Catholic Monastery until the 1950’s, when it was purchased by the Buddhist foundation and
turned into a Buddhist Monastery. Flip flop of religions. The grounds are very serene to
walk through and full of statues, pools of water and greenery.

However between the green lies a mystery.

What is tantric Buddha?

Tantra is a Hindu and Buddhist philosophy which affirms all aspects of the material world as
infused with divine feminine power. It is rooted in sacred instructional texts, composed from
around the sixth century onwards, called the Tantras. Inside the temple we find an altar-
shaped throne, and on the throne sits a colossal Buddha statue, dressed in the manner of the
southern Buddhists, having uncovered his right shoulder and arm. The hands before his breast
have the posture (mudra) of the Mahayanists, that is, the followers of the "Big Carriage"
(Great Vehicle).

240
 In the above pic Buddha is
on the left with the Buddha image in the crown. The middle Buddha is the Mahāvairocana. Princve is
on the right. This prince is not a Buddha.

It is explained that this is the posture that the followers “of the northern church, generally
(not always) give to the first of their five Dhyani-Buddhas”. In the Mendut temple, to the
right of Buddha, we see a buddhistic prince seated on a throne. This statute is considered
to be Buddha statute by some as mentioned earliuer and the controversy rages on. Be at it
may, this statute is richly decorated with nagas, lions, and elephants. He wears the monk's
hood and a small Buddha image in his crown. This characterises him as a Buddhist. The
other prince that we see opposite him, to the left of the Buddha, seating on an equally rich
throne, doesn't wear a monk's hood. This characterises him as not buddhistic prince. The
two kings wear the prabha, or disk of light, on the back of their heads.

Statue of Shakyamuni Buddha-Central Shrine, Candi Mendut

241
This colossal (10 ft tall) statue of Shakyamuni, located in the interior cella of Candi
Mendut, is very special: it is the oldest (c. 800 AD, as mentioned on the previous
page), the largest, and the finest statue of the historical Buddha that still remains in
its original location in Java. The Buddha is seated in "Western" style, legs apart
(cf: Ajanta, Cave 26), displays dharmachakra mudra, and is flanked by two
bodhisattvas (following pages). In this temple, modern visitors can still experience
something of the awe and majesty that inspired the devotees who first worshiped
here, over a thousand years ago.

Note: some scholars identify this statue as Vairocana, instead of Shakyamuni. See,
for example, "The Transcendental Buddha Vairochana(?) Seated in Western
Fashion," by Martin Lerner, in The Lotus Transcendent: Indian and Southeast Asian
Art from the Samuel Eilenberg Collection, Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1991, p.
177.

242
 At a distance of 750 m from Ajanta Foot Cave Bus Stop, Cave 26 is a chaityagriha situated
beside the Cave 25.Cave 26 is quite similar to Cave 19, but of a larger dimension and with
more elaborately and exquisitely carved sculpted figures. An inscription (AD 450 - 525)
found on the wall of the front verandah records the gift of this chaityagriha by a monk
Buddhabhadra, a friend of Bhavviraja, a minister of the king of Asmaka (Vidarbha). There is
a carving of Lord Buddha seated in the bhumisparsas mudra under the Bodhi tree at the
center. On the left is Mara on an elephant accompanied by his host of demon-forces attacking
Buddha and on the right is the retreat of Mara. In the foreground are the daughters of Mara
trying to tempt Buddha by dance and music; and in the bottom right corner is the figure of the
dejected Mara.

The chaityagriha consists of a hall, side aisles (pradakshina) and a rock-cut stupa with an
image of Buddha. The facade, inner pillars, triforium (between pillars and roof), and side
walls are extensively carved with images and decorative designs. The cave contains a stupa
with an image of Buddha seated on a lion throne. He is flanked by riders and flying
attendants.

However, the most striking and prominent image of this cave is a large carved statue of the
reclining Buddha, representing his moment of death. Below him, his followers mourn his
passing; above, celestial beings rejoice.

Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara

Central Shrine, Candi Mendut

The nine-foot tall statue of Avalokiteshvara is located to the viewer's left of

Shakyamuni (see previous page). The Bodhisattva of Compassion is identified
by a small statue of Amitabha Buddha that is carved into the top of his crown.
Seated on a lotus throne in "Royal Ease," his extended right hand holds a
missing attribute, and his raised left hand holds a missing lotus stem.

243
Bodhisattva Vajrapani-Central Shrine, Candi Mendut ( pic Right above)

Bodhisattva Vajrapani is usually paired with Padmapani, not Avalokiteshvara (previous

page); the unusual combination of Avalokiteshvara and Vajrapani in this Shakyamuni Triad
must reflect either an iconographic confusion, or perhaps a transitional form or a regional
variant in the evolution of the triad from Padmapani/Vajrapani (earlier) to
Avalokiteshvara/Manjusri (later).

Interpretation of thje Buddhas of Mendut by King Chulalongkorn (Rama V) of Siam

King Chulalongkorn (Rama V) of Siam visited Borobudur in 1896 when Java was still under
Dutch rule. As a Buddhist King Rama of |Thailand (Siam) was deeply interested in the
Borobodur and also Prambanan (for the Ramayana and Mahabharata are of course Hindu
epics that are well known in Thailand). He climbed up the temple twice on that visit. The
Dutch allowed him to choose anything from the temple to bring back as souvenirs as many he
wished. He went back to Bangkok with eight containers full of Buddha statues, bas-reliefs,
door facades from Borobudur, Prambanan, and other archaeological sites nearby. Several
Buddha statues he brought from Borobudur are now used to decorate royal temples in
Bangkok including the Emerald Buddha temple in the Grand Palace; others are on display in
the National Museum in Bangkok. Many years later, King Rama VII returned some
masterpieces from Prabanan back to its original place during his visit to Java and Bali in
1929. He interpreted the images as follow.
He took home four Buddha statues from Borobodur that now have places of honour at the
Phra Mondop in the Grand Palace complex; although the Buddha statues he admired most
were those in Candi Mendut. If those were sent to Siam a new temple would be built for
them. He knew the head of the Netherlands Indies Archaeological Society, Dr Groneman.
When he first saw Borobodur he wrote that it was not possible to describe it in words, that it
would be better to see it from pictures but even those would not be as marvelous as seeing it
with one’s own eyes. Dr Groneman believed that the Buddha statues there were Mahayana
because Buddhism in Java was the same as in China but the King convinced him that they
were of Indian influence. On his third trip when they visited Prambana, he commented that

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Dr Groneman could have given a good presentation “but it was no fun this time because he
had become my student so there was nothing on which to disagree with each other.”

1. One of the princes, who is wearing, “like he does himself, a Buddha image in his
crown,” was “perhaps the king of the buddhistic empire, under whose reign the
Barabudur was built”.

2. Further the King surmised that the other images represented the not-buddhistic father
and predecessor. (Amelia Carolina Sparavigna. The Ruins of the Buddhist Temples in
the Progo Valley, Borobudur, Mendut and Pawon, Described by Isaac Groneman in his
Book of 1912.. Philica, 2017. hal-01674399)

According to the above article there were 5 Tathgathas but today only one remains flanked
by Vairocana, Avalokiteshvara and Vajrapani. Remaining 4 are not currently presently,
destroyed probably by vagaries of time,nature or man.These once occupied the niches. A
niche is a semicircular architectural recess or platform, sometimes crowned by a semi-dome,
and either set into a building's façade or free-standing. This niche or exedra would typically
have an apsidal podium that supported the stone bench. The free-standing (open air) exedra,
often supporting bronze portrait sculpture, is a familiar Hellenistic structure, characteristically
sited along sacred ways or in open places in sanctuaries.

One of the four Buddha statues from the Borobodur given to Rama V during a trip to
Java. All four statues were placed in the Phra Mondop building in the Grand Palace
complex in Bangkok where they can be see still today. (photo: IO/Tamalia)

The Vairocanābhisaṃbodhi Sūtra or Vairocana’s Awakening Sutra, Mahāvairocana is an

important Vajrayana Buddhist text composed before 674 CE. The Indian tantric
master Buddhaguhya (fl. c.700 CE) classified the text as a caryātantra, and in Tibetan
Buddhism it is still considered to be a member of the carya classification. In Japan where it is
known as the Mahāvairocana Sūtra (Daibirushana jōbutsu jinpen kajikyō), it is one of two
central texts in the Shingon school, along with the Vajrasekhara Sutra. Both are also part of
the Tendai.school. The longer title of the scripture
is Mahāvairocanābhisaṃbodhivikurvitādhiṣṭhānavaipulyasūtrendrarājanāmadharmapary
āya (Dharma Discourse Called “Mahāvairocana’s Awakening and His Empowerment of
Miracles,” King of the Best of the Extensive Scriptures). Though the text is often called a
tantra by later figures (including later Indian commentators), the scripture does not call itself
a tantra.

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12th century painting of Mahāvairocana, Heian period, collecting in Nezu Museum/ Tibetan
representation of Buddha Vairocana, featuring several of his defining characteristics, including his white
color, the teaching gesture (dharmacakramudra), and sitting on an elaborate lion throne. Our mendut
Buddha at extreme right.

The Mahāvairocana Tantra is the first true Buddhist tantra, the earliest comprehensive
manual of tantric Buddhism. It was probably composed in the middle of the 7th century, in all
probability in north-eastern India at Nālandā. Evidence to support the text's composition in
Nalanda include the fact that many of the Buddhist scholars involved in the transmission of
the text resided in Nalanda including Buddhaguhya and Śubhakarasiṃha. The description of
plants and trees in the MVT also matches those found in the region surrounding Nalanda in
North-East India.

The Mahāvairocana Tantra consists of three primary mandalas corresponding to the body,
speech and mind of Mahāvairocana, as well as preliminary practices and initiation rituals.
According to Buddhaguhya’s Piṇḍārtha (a summary of the main points of the tantra)
the Mahāvairocana Tantra system of practice is in three stages: preliminary, application, and
accomplishment. Attached here and there are doctrinal passages, and sadhana practices which
relate back to the main mandalas.
The following outline is based on Hodge's translation of the Tibetan version of the Sutra. The
Chinese version has differences in the order of the chapters.
Chapters
 I - The sutra begins in a timeless setting of Mahavairocana Buddha's palace (symbolizing
all of existence), with a dialogue between Mahavairocana Buddha and his
disciple Vajrasattva. In chapter one, Mahavairocana Buddha expounds the Dharma to a
great host of bodhisattvas, with emphasis on the relationship between form
and emptiness.
 II-VI Three chapters on the mandala of the Body Mystery with detailed instruction on the
laying out of the mandala and the abhiṣekha ritual. This mandala is also known as
the Mandala of the Womb Realm (Sanskrit : Garbhakosha).
 VII-IX Three miscellaneous chapters originally at the end of the text. They are at the end
in the Chinese version.
 X-XII Three chapters on the mandala of the Speech Mystery. Includes a series of glosses
on meditating using the letters of the alphabet in various combinations.

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 XII-XVI Five chapters on the mandala of the Mind Mystery.
 XVII A stand alone chapter that may once have circulated separately.
 XVIII-XIX A further chapter regarding meditating on the letters of the alphabet which
involves placing them around the body while visualising oneself as the Buddha.
 XX A standalone chapter address to bodhisattvas.
 XXI-XXV Four chapters on the 100 syllable meditation.
 XXVI-XXX Five miscellaneous chapters including the six homa rites.

Esoteric precepts
Chapter 2 of the sutra also contains four precepts, called the samaya, that form the basic
precepts esoteric Buddhist practitioners must follow:
 Not to abandon the true Dharma;
 Not to deviate from one's own enlightened mind;
 Not to be reserved in sharing with others the Buddhist teachings;
 Not to bring harm to any sentient beings.
Shingon lineage
The Mahavairocana Tantra does not trace its lineage to Shakyamuni Buddha, the founder of
Buddhism. Instead it comes directly from Mahavairocana. The lineage then being, according
to the Shingon tradition:
 Vajrasattva, the disciple of Mahavairocana Buddha in this sutra;
o Nagarjuna received the text of the Mahāvairocana Tantra directly from Vajrasattva
inside an iron stupa in South India;
 Nagabodhi, Nagarjuna's disciple;
 Vajrabodhi, an Indian monk famous for translating esoteric rituals
into Chinese language;
 Amoghavajra, Vajrabodhi's famous disciple, and expert in esoteric
practices;
 Huiguo, a Chinese esoteric master;
 Kūkai, founder of Shingon Buddhism in Japan.

Within the vision of the Mahavairocana Sutra, the state of bodhi ("awakening,
enlightenment") is seen as naturally inherent to the mind - the mind's natural and pure state
(as in Dzogchen and Tathagatagarbha) - and is viewed as the perceptual sphere of non-
duality, where all false distinctions between a perceiving subject and perceived objects are
lifted and the true state of things (non-duality) is revealed. This is also the understanding of
Enlightenment found in Yogacara Buddhism. To achieve this vision of non-duality, it is
necessary to recognise one's own mind. Writing on the Mahavairocana Sutra, Buddhist
scholar and translator of that scripture, Stephen Hodge, comments:

... when the MVT [i.e. Mahavairocana Tantra] speaks of knowing your mind as it truly is, it
means that you are to know the inherent natural state of the mind by eliminating the split into
a perceiving subject and perceived objects which normally occurs in the world and is wrongly
thought to be real. This also corresponds to the Yogacara definition ... that emptiness
(sunyata) is the absence of this imaginary split. ... We may further elucidate the meaning of
Perfect Enlightenment and hence of the intrinsic nature of the mind by correlating terms
[which Buddhist commentator on the Mahavairocana Sutra,] Buddhaguhya, treats as
synonyms. For example, he defines emptiness (sunyata) as suchness (tathata) and says that
suchness is the intrinsic nature (svabhava) of the mind which is Enlightenment (bodhi-citta).
Moreover, he frequently uses the terms suchness (tathata) and Suchness-Awareness (tathata-
jnana) interchangeably. But since Awareness (jnana) is non-dual, Suchness-Awareness is not

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so much the Awareness of Suchness, but the Awareness which is Suchness. In other words,
the term Suchness-Awareness is functionally equivalent to Enlightenment. Finally, it must
not be forgotten that this Suchness-Awareness or Perfect Enlightenment is Mahavairocana
[the Primal Buddha, uncreated and forever existent]. In other words, the mind in its intrinsic
nature is Mahavairocana, whom one "becomes" (or vice-versa) when one is perfectly
enlightened.
The text also speaks of how all things can be accomplished once 'non-dual union with
emptiness' is attained.
Yet ultimately even emptiness needs to be transcended, to the extent that it is not a vacuous
emptiness, but the expanse of the mind of Buddha, Buddhic Awareness and Buddha-realms,
all of which know of no beginning and no arising - as Stephen Hodge points out:
Finally, though one has realized the true emptiness of the individual and phenomena, one
does not yet realize that the natural state of mind is the Tathagata's inherent Awareness and
that it is the all-pervasive Body of Vairocana with all the manifested Buddha realms.
Therefore one must transcend even emptiness with the emptiness of emptiness, when it is
seen that the mind is primordially unborn and unarisen.

10th-11th century, India, Kurkihar hoard, bodhisattva on lion, bronze, photo on vmis, at the Patna Museum./// Circa
10th century, India, Bihar, Nalanda, Avalokiteshvara, stone, item 4473/A24143 at the Indian Museum in Kolkata (India).//
9th century, India, Bihar, Nalanda, Avalokiteshvara, stone, item 3962/A24123 at the Indian Museum in Kolkata/ 8th
century, India, Nalanda, Padmapani (Avalokiteshvara), stone, item 49-148 at the National Museum in New Delhi
(India).

A new wave of Buddhism from Northeast India

A.J. Bernet Kempers published an important study in which he advanced his theories for a
possible Indian origin of the iconography of the five main statues of Candi Jago, namely
Amoghapasa Lokesvara with his four attendants Tara, Sudhanakumara, Hayagrrva, and
Bhrkutr. Accordingly the Candi Jago statues have been influenced by a new wave of
Buddhism from Northeast India, which reached Java in the first part of the 13th century.
(Ancient Indonesian Sculpture,Series: Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk Instituut voor
Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, Volume: 165 E-Book ISBN: Brill,1995)

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Pala Mandala of the Amoghapāśa: One of the richest visual objects in Tibetan Buddhism is
the mandala. A mandala is a symbolic picture of the universe. It can be a painting on a wall
or scroll, created in coloured sands on a table, or a visualisation in the mind of a very skilled
adept. In the Paladynasty there are no 8 armed images of the Buddha.Therefore, how the
concept of the Amoghapāśa came to be linked with the Pala dynasty is not clear. What is
clear is that the Amoghapāśa had a beginning in India and the concept was carried on to
Tibet, Sri Lanka and the Indonesian kingdoms of the earlier time.

Avalokiteshvara is a bodhisattva, a divine being who is on the path to becoming a Buddha (“Awakened
One”) and helps others on the path toward enlightenment. This multi-armed figure is hollow-cast from an
alloy of copper and 5% tin, called bronze. Using computed tomography or CT scans, museum
conservators determined that the head, arms, and body were cast in stages and joined using sophisticated
metal casting techniques. Avalokiteshvara is covered with images of the Buddha, like the ones making up
his necklace. Each of these small figures was originally carved or stamped in wax and applied to the
model before being cast in bronze. Avalokiteshvara also wears arm and wristbands made of a different
metal alloy: brass, which initially would have glistened like gold.
RIGHT PIC- Tibet Buddhism 4 Head 8 Arm Ushnishavijaya Namgyalma Kwan-Yin Buddha statue

The Pala Empire (r. 750-1161 CE) was an imperial power during the post-classical period in
the Indian subcontinent, which originated in the region of Bengal. It is named after its ruling
dynasty, whose rulers bore names ending with the suffix Pala ("protector" in Prakrit). The
empire was founded with the election of Gopala as the emperor of Gauda in 750 CE. The
Pala stronghold was located in Bengal and eastern Bihar, which included the major cities
of Gauda, Vikrampura, Pataliputra, Monghyr, Somapura,Ramvati
(Varendra), Tamralipta and Jaggadala.
The Palas were astute diplomats and military conquerors. Their army was noted for its
vast war elephant corps. Their navy performed both mercantile and defensive roles in the Bay
of Bengal. They built grand temples and monasteries, including the Somapura
Mahavihara and Odantapuri, and patronised the great universities
of Nalanda and Vikramashila. The empire enjoyed relations with the Srivijaya Empire,
the Tibetan Empire and the Arab Abbasid Caliphate. Abbasid coinage found in Pala
archaeological sites, as well as records of Arab historians, point to flourishing mercantile and
intellectual contacts. The House of Wisdom in Baghdad absorbed the mathematical and
astronomical achievements of Indian civilisation during this period.

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As the rulers of Gautama Buddha's land, the Palas acquired great reputation in the Buddhist
world. Balaputradeva, the Sailendra king of Java, sent an ambassador to him, asking for a
grant of five villages for the construction of a monastery at Nalanda. The request was granted
by Devapala. He appointed the Brahmin Viradeva (of Nagarahara, present-day Jalalabad) as
the head of the Nalanda monastery. The Buddhist poet Vajradatta (the author of
Lokesvarashataka), was in his court. The Buddhist scholars from the Pala empire travelled
from Bengal to other regions to propagate Buddhism. Atisha, for example, preached
in Tibet and Sumatra, and is seen as one of the major figures in the spread of 11th-century
Mahayana Buddhism.

The Palas also supported the Saiva ascetics, typically the ones associated with the Golagi-
Math. Narayana Pala himself established a temple of Shiva, and was present at the place of
sacrifice by his Brahmin minister. Queen of King Madanapaladeva, namely Chitramatika,
made a gift of land to a Brahmin named Bateswara Swami as his remuneration for chanting
the Mahabharata at her request, according to the principle of the Bhumichhidranyaya. Besides
the images of the Buddhist deities, the images of Vishnu, Siva and Sarasvati were also
constructed during the Pala dynasty rule.

The resurgent Hindu Sena dynasty dethroned the Pala Empire in the 12th century, ending the
reign of the last major Buddhist imperial power in the Indian subcontinent. The Pala period is
considered one of the golden eras of Bengali history. The Palas brought stability and
prosperity to Bengal after centuries of civil war between warring divisions. They advanced
the achievements of previous Bengali civilisations and created outstanding works of arts and
architecture. The proto-Bengali language developed under Pala rule as they laid the basis for
the Bengali language, including its first literary work, the Charyapada. The Pala legacy is still
reflected in Tibetan Buddhism. Gopala, the first Pala king, was a Buddhist and so all of his
descendants also were. It's no surprise when you consider how involved the rulers were in the
management of their empire that this also extended to religion. They used the revenue from
the new tax collection methods to fund initiatives all across the region that would spread
Buddhism. The most important of these were the large monasteries like Paharpur, that was
founded during the reign of King Dharma Pala Deva.

Pure Bronze Buddhist 1000 Arms Avalokitesvara Kwan-Yin Buddha Statue (B0328) |
Statue, Buddha statue, Buddha // Coins minted during Dharma Pala's reign.

Interestingly, though, most of the subjects in the area controlled by the Pala Empire were
actually Hindus. The Pala rulers followed an approach of religious tolerance, granting land
for Hindu temples and allowing Hindu Brahmins to hold high official posts in the Pala court.
This allowed for a peaceful exchange of ideas between the faiths and is a large factor in why
Hindu Tantrism made its way into Buddhism, giving rise to the Vajrayana philosophy.

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The Pala kings are also considered to have been shrewd diplomats, forging relationships with
different cultures to promote new trade routes. The empire enjoyed good connections with
Southeast Asia and the Middle East – but it was more than just trade that was shared. Cultural
ideas were also transferred and there's evidence of Islam appearing in Bengal during this
time, while mathematical and astronomical achievements of the Indian civilisation were
absorbed in places like Iraq. In Southeast Asia, the most prominent of this exchange of ideas
can be seen in the architecture of temples that were based on the design at Paharpur.
The Pala dynasty created the environment for Buddhist monasteries to thrive and discuss
philosophies without prejudice. But, importantly, it also facilitated the spread of these ideas
around the world, leaving a legacy that we can still see today.

Amoghapasa AvalokiteSvara (Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva )with the Unfailing Rope; Ch.

Bukongjuansuo Guanyin Fukukenjaku Kannon) is one of
the popular esoteric forms ofAvalokiteSvara, with widespread worship of this deity in
India, the Himalayas, East and Southeast Asia from around the latter part of the eighth
century. However, its presence in East Asia in the seventh and
eighth centuries remain unclear. Scholars of Indian art have been confounded by the lack of
Indian examples predating those in the east, assuming that there must have been
Indian precedents prior to the East Asian images.
And yet, the earliest extant representation of this bodhisattvaan imposing statue of
FukLlkenjaku Kannon in the Sangatsuda (Hall of the Third month) ofTadaiji Nara
the significance attached to the rise ofthe cult of this bodhisattva.
(The_Case_of_Amoghapasa.pdf- Dorothy C. Wong)

Bhairava, the depiction of King Adityavarman of Malayu

Dating to around 748 and over three meters high, the dry lacquer statue was probably one of
the largest bodhisattva statues created in Japan up till that.Central Javanese monument of
Borobudur, one of the largest Buddhist monuments in the world and the subject of extensive
scholarly scrutiny is not the only Buddhist art example to emerge from the S.E. Asian land.
Some scholars believe that by the tenth century Buddhism had been completely eclipsed by
the predominantly Hindu Eastern Javanese dynasties. In spite of which some, extraordinary
Buddhist images were produced as late as the fourteenth century. Here the portraiture of
Buddha as Prajñāpāramitā and the diety Amoghapāśa and his attendants and the meanings of
the Amoghapāśa mandala. The spectacular Javanese sculptures is a four-meter-high Buddhist
bhairava (demon) discovered in West Sumatra.

The Amoghapāśa Statue at Candi Jago

The Amoghapāśa Statue at Candi Jago ( Picture at Left above) Unlike the wealth of Buddhist
temples found in Central Java, there are only a few major structures in East Java that can be
definitely identified as Buddhist: Candi Jago, Candi Sumberawan, Candi Jabung, Candi Dadi,
Candi Boyol-angu (Gayatri), and Candi Sanggrahan (Cungkup). For a few monuments
(e.g., Candi Singasari and Candi Jawi), literary references or archaeological remains
seem to indicate both a Hindu and a Buddhist presence at the site. And even at a temple
like Candi Jago, for which, as A. J. Bernet Kempers writes, “the Buddhist character . . .
is beyond doubt,” the bas-reliefs are of a distinctly mixed character. Jago
temple (Indonesian: Candi Jago) is a 13th-century Hindu Buddhist temple from
the Singhasari kingdom in East Java, Indonesia, located about 22 km from Malang.
The Nagarakretagama written in 14th century mentioned this temple, as Jajaghu (English:

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"majestic"), as one of the temples visited by King Hayam Wuruk during his royal tour across
East Java.
The Singhasari King Vishnuvardhana was deified as Shiva, in the form
of Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara, here after his death in 1268. The temple's bas-reliefs depict
scenes from the Kunjarakarna, Parthayajna, Arjunavivaha, and Krishnayana.The name
of Adityawarman appears in 1343 on an image of the Bodhisattva Manjusri.

Another BUDDHA SHIVA TEMPLE OF JOGO

Another temple that has Buddha Shiva tie-up is the Jago Temple which is located in Jago
Hamlet of Tumpang Village, Tumpang Subdistrict, Malang Regency, or 22 km to the east of
Malang.Buddhist teaching is reflected in reliefs telling the story of Tantri Kamandaka and the
story of Kunjarakarna, which are carved on the lowest terrace. The walls on the second
terrace are carved with the next sequence of Kunjarakarna story and parts Mahabharata story
that contain Hindu teachings, Parthayajna and Arjuna Wiwaha. The third terrace is full of
reliefs telling the next sequence of Arjunawiwaha. The temple body’s walls are also carved
with Hindu stories of Krishna and Kalayawana war.

According to Negarakertagama and Pararaton, the original name of this temple is Jajaghu.
Verse 41 phrase 4 of Negarakertagama describes that King Wisnuwardhana who ruled
Singasari was a Buddhist Shiva, a religious sect that combines the teachings of Hindu and
Buddhist. The teaching flourished during the ruling of Singasari Kingdom, a kingdom located
20 km from Jago Temple. Jajaghu, which means 'greatness', is a term used for referring a
shrine.

In the middle of the front yard, around 6 m from the temple’s feet, there is a big carved stone,
1 m in diameter, which resembles the shape of giant pedestal. On top of it, there is a relief of
lotus flower rambling out of its stem.

On the west side of temple front yard is the statue of eight-armed Amoghapasa in the
foreground of giant-head-shaped thrones in a position of one opposing the other. The statue’s
head is missing and the arms broken. Around 3 meters to the south of the statue is a giant
head 1 m. high. No information is available whether the objects in the temple yard are in their
original places.

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The inner room of temple body is currently in empty. Negarakertagama mentions that inside
the temple’s niche there was a statue of Shiva with Aksobaya on his crown. The book also
mentions that there are a number of god statues in the Shiva system of belief, such as
Nandiswara, Durga, Ganesha, Nandi, and Brahma statues. None of the statues remain in their
place. Reportedly the Durga statue is now kept in Empu Tantular Museum, Surabaya.

This temple is located on the foot of Welirang Hill, Candi Wates village, Prigen Subdistrict,
Pasuruan Regency, around 31 km from the city of Pasuruan. The temple is relatively still
intact after frequent restorations. The second restoration of Jawi Temple was performed
between 1938 and 1941 out of its ruined condition. The work, however, was discontinued
because there are many missing stones, and was completed further between 1975 and 1980.

Verse 56 of Negarakertagama mentions that Jawi Temple was built by the last king of
Singasari Kingdom, Kertanegara, as a worship shrine for Shiva-Buddhist followers. King
Kartanegara was a Shiva-Buddhist follower. While being a worship shrine, Jawi Temple is
also a place where Kertanegara ashes are kept. This is rather strange because Jawi Temple is
located quite distant away from the center of Singasari Kingdom. It is probably because of
the fact that the people in the area were so loyal to their king and many of them were Shiva-
Buddhist followers. The assumption is founded on a reality that as Raden Wijaya,
Kertanegara’s son-in-law, fled after Kertanegara was dethroned by King Jayakatwang from
Gelang-gelang (Kediri); he had once hidden in this area before taking refuge to Madura.

In Chapter 12, The Tale of Sudhana and Manoharā on Candi Jago: An Interpretation of a
Series of Narrative Bas-reliefson a 13th-Century East Javanese Monument author
Kateo’Brien has discussed a scholarly and riveting interpretation of the tale of the
Bodhisattva prince Sudhana and the kinnarī princess Manoharā.-a tale we will not get into,

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but this candi as well as 3 othrr Candi in a group( nearby)-Candi Sumberawan, Candi
Jabung, Candi Dadi, Candi Boyol-angu (Gayatri), and Candi Sanggrahan (Cungkup).

Why did a Sumatran King make a statute of himself as the Tantric SHIVA

Sumatra was known in ancient times by the Sanskrit names of Suwarnadwīpa ('Island of
Gold') and Suwarnabhūmi ('Land of Gold'), because of the gold deposits in the
island's highlands. The earliest known mention of the current form "Sumatra" was in 1017,
when the local king Haji Sumatrabhumi ("king of the land of Sumatra") ] sent an envoy
to China. Arab geographers referred to the island as Lamri (Lamuri, Lambri or Ramni) in the
tenth through thirteenth centuries, in reference to a kingdom near modern-day Banda
Aceh which was the first landfall for traders. The island has also been known by other names,
including Andalas[ or Percha Island.
In the late 13th century, Marco Polo referred to the kingdom as Samara, while his
contemporary fellow Italian traveller Odoric of Pordenone used the form Sumoltra. Later in
the 14th century the local form "Sumatra" became popular abroad due to the rising power of
the kingdom of Samudera Pasai and the subsequent Sultanate of Aceh.
From then on, subsequent European writers mostly used Sumatra or similar forms of the
name for the entire island. By the year 692, the Melayu Kingdom was absorbed by Srivijaya.
Srivijaya influence waned in the 11th century year 1025 after being defeated by
the Chola Empire in southern India. By the end of the 12th century Srivijaya had been
reduced to a small kingdom, and its dominant role in South Sumatra with the last king ratu
Sekekhummong. At the same time, the spread of Islam in Indonesia occurred gradually and
indirectly, starting from the western regions of Indonesia such as the Sumatra area which
became the first place for the spread of Islam in the archipelago then Java to the eastern
regions of Indonesia, Sulawesi and Maluku. The island of Sumatra is also an area in the
archipelago that received the spread of Islam first compared to other islands or other areas.
The island of Sumatra became the first area to receive the spread of Islam because of the
position of the island of Sumatra which is close to the Malacca strait.

The esoteric Shaivism of which Bhairava is the Avatar of SHIVA was adopted in Sumatra
1000 years ago. Exactly when, no one knows. Why- that also is unknown. One can surmise
that Shiva worship spread to Sumatra early on and after a study over a period of time the
royalty absorbed the Tantric avatar as opposed to the normal one for a variety of reasons not
clear but one can guess.

Bhairava (Sanskrit: भैरव lit. 'frightful') or Kala Bhairava is a Shaivite and Vajrayāna deity
worshiped by Hindus and Buddhists. In Shaivism, he is a powerful manifestation, or avatar,
of Shiva associated with annihilation. In Trika system Bhairava represents Supreme Reality,
synonymous to Para Brahman.[5][6] Generally in Hinduism, Bhairava is also
called Dandapani ("[he who holds the] Danda in [his] hand"), as he holds a rod or Danda to
punish sinners, and Svaśva, meaning "whose vehicle is a dog".[7] In Vajrayana Buddhism, he
is considered a fierce emanation of boddhisatva Mañjuśrī, and also
called Heruka, Vajrabhairava, and Yamantaka.

Legend

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Aakash Bhairab in Kathmandu.

The origin of Bhairava is traced to a conversation between Brahma and Vishnu which is
recounted in the Shiva Puranam. In it, Vishnu inquired of Brahma, "Who is the supreme
creator of the Universe?" Arrogantly, Brahma told Vishnu to worship him as Supreme
Creator. One day, Brahma thought "I have five heads. Shiva also has five heads. I can do
everything that Shiva does and therefore I am Shiva." Brahma became a little egotistical as a
result of this. Additionally, he began to forget the work of Shiva and also started interfering
in what Shiva was supposed to be doing. Consequently, Shiva threw a small hair from his
head which assumed the form of Kala Bhairava and casually went to cut off one of Brahma's
heads. The skull (kapala) of Brahma is held in the hands of Kala Bhairava, Brahma's ego was
destroyed and he became enlightened. From then on, he became useful to himself and to the
world, and deeply grateful to Shiva. In the form of the Kala Bhairava, Shiva is said to be
guarding each of these Shakti Pitha (Shakti temples). Each Shakti Pitha is accompanied by
a temple dedicated to Bhairava.

There is another school of thought that states that Shiva himself created Bhairava. It states
that there was once an asura named Dahurāsura, who got a boon that he could be killed only
by a woman. Parvati took the form of Kali to kill him. The wrath of Kali killed the asura.
After killing the asura, her wrath metamorphosed as a child. Kali fed the child with her milk.
Shiva made both Kali and the child to merge with him. From this merged form of Shiva,
Bhairava appeared in his eight forms (Aṣṭāṅga Bhairavas). Since Bhairava was thus created
by Shiva, he is said to be one of the sons of Shiva.

The Puranas also give a version of Bhairava. In this version there was a war between devas
and asuras. To eradicate the asuras, Shiva created Kala Bhairava from whom Aṣṭāṅga
Bhairavas were created. These Ashta Bhairavas married Ashta Matrikas. These Ashta
Bhairavas and Ashta Matrikas have dreadful forms. From these Ashta Bhairavas and Ashta
Matrikas, 64 Bhairavas and 64 Yoginis were created.

Depiction
Normally in Shiva temples, idols of Bhairava are situated in the north, facing Western
direction. He is also called Kṣhetrapāla. He appears in a standing position with four hands.
His weapons are drum, pāśa (noose), trident and skull. In some forms of Bhairava, there are

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more than four hands. He appears with a dog. His weapons, the dog, protruding teeth,
terrifying looks, and a garland with red flowers all give him a frightening appearance.

In all Shiva temples, regular puja (reverence) rituals begin with Surya and end with Bhairava.
Devotees offer what is understood to be favored by Bhairava: a ghee bath (abhiṣeka), red
flowers, ghee lamp, unbroken coconut, honey, boiled food, fibrous fruits etc. If a Bhairava
idol is facing west, it is good; facing south is moderate; facing east is not good. The right time
to pray to Bhairavi is midnight. At midnight it is said that Bhairava and his
consort Bhairavi will give darśana (appearance) to their devotees. The most appropriate time
is a Friday midnight. There are eight types of flowers and leaves used in archana (अर्चन) to
Bhairava.

Some forms of Bhairava are guardians of the eight cardinal points. There are 64 Bhairavas.
These 64 Bhairavas are grouped under eight categories and each category is headed by one
major Bhairava. The major eight Bhairavas are called Aṣṭāṅga Bhairavas. The Ashta
Bhairavas control the eight directions of this universe. Each Bhairava has seven sub
Bhairavas under him, totaling 64 Bhairavas. All of the Bhairavas are ruled and controlled
by Maha Kala Bhairava otherwise known as Kala Bhairava, who is the supreme ruler of time
of this universe as per some Śaiva tantric scriptures (āgamas). Bhairavi is the consort of Kala
Bhairava. The eight Bhairavas are said to represent five elements viz. ākāś, air, fire, water
and earth and the other three being sun, moon and ātman. Each of the eight Bhairavas are
different in appearance, have different weapons, different vāhanas (vehicles) and they bless
their devotees with eight types of wealth representing Ashta Lakshmis. Continuous worship
of Bhairava leads the worshiper to a true Guru. There are separate mantras to all the eight
Bhairavas.

Bhairava is also called upon as protector, as he guards the eight directions of the universe. In
Shiva temples, when the temple is closed, the keys are placed before Bhairava. Bhairava is
also described as the protector of women. He is described as the protector of the timid and in
general women who are timid in nature.

It is generally believed that worshiping Bhairava gives prosperity, success and good progeny,
prevents premature death and gives solution to debts and liabilities. Different forms of
Bhairava evolve only from Śiva, who is called the Mahā Bhairava.

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Dharmasraya, is the capital of the 11th century Buddhist polity known as Melayu Kingdom, based on
the Batanghari river system in modern-day West Sumatra and Jambi, on the island of Sumatra, Indonesia. The
kingdom itself could be identified by the name of its capital Dharmasraya or by the name Bhumi
Malayu or Suvarnnabhumi according to Padang Roco Inscription.

After the invasion by Rajendra Chola I the king of the Chola Empire from Koromandel,
authority of Sailendra dynasty over the islands of Sumatera and the Malay Peninsula
weakened. Some time later came a new dynasty that took over the role of Sailendra Dynasty,
called by the name of Mauli dynasty. The Dharmasraya can be considered as the successor of
Srivijaya.
The oldest inscription bearing the name of Maharaja Mauli is the Grahi inscription dated
1183 discovered in Chaiya (Grahi) Malay Peninsula, Southern Thailand. The inscription
bears the order of Maharaja Srimat Trailokyaraja Maulibhusana Warmadewa to
the bhupati (regent) of Grahi named Mahasenapati Galanai to make a statue of Buddha
weight 1 bhara 2 tula with the value of 10 gold tamlin. The artist name that responsible to
create the statue is Mraten Sri Nano.
The second inscription from Mauli dynasty appear approximately a hundred years later in
1286. The inscription in which the name Dharmasraya and the name of king is Srimat
Tribhuwanaraja Mauli Warmadewa appears dates from the 13th century, namely the Padang
Roco inscription discovered around the headwaters of Batanghari river (now Dharmasraya
Regency in West Sumatera), dated 1286.

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The Maharajas of Dharmasraya:
Stone inscription or embassies
Date King's of name Capital
to China and events
Grahi inscription 1183 at Chaiya,
Srimat Trailokyaraja South of Thailand, the order to
1183 Maulibhusana Dharmasraya regent Grahi, namely
Warmadewa Mahasenapati Galanai to make a
Buddha stone.
Srimat Padang Roco inscription 1286 at
1286 Tribhuwanaraja Dharmasraya Siguntur, (now Dharmasraya
Mauli Warmadewa regency), Pamalayu expedition.
Srimat Sri Moved to Pagaruyung
Udayadityawarman Amoghapasa Statue 1347 at
1347 Pratapaparakrama Pagaruyung Dharmasraya, Kuburajo
Rajendra Mauli inscription at Pagaruyung (now
Warmadewa Tanah Datar regency).

Adityawarman the follower of Tantric Shaivism

Adityawarman (formal regnal name Maharajadiraja Srīmat Srī Udayādityawarma

Pratāpaparākrama Rājendra Maulimāli Warmadewa was a king
of Malayapura Suvarnabhumi, and is the successor of the Mauli dynasty based on
central Sumatra. He was the cousin of Jayanegara, king of Majapahit from 1309–1328, and
the grandson of Tribhuwanaraja, king of Melayu Kingdom. Adityawarman was awarded the
Senior Minister of Majapahit (wreddamantri) and used this authority to launch Majapahit
military expansion plans and conquered east coast region in Sumatra. Adityawarman then
founded the royal dynasty of Minangkabau in Pagaruyung and presided over the central
Sumatra region to take control of the gold trade between 1347 and 1375.

Adityawarman was born around in 1294 in Trowulan, East Java, the capital of the kingdom
of Majapahit, as recorded in the poem of Pararaton. According to Kuburajo inscription found
in Limo Kaum, West Sumatra, Adityawarman's father was Majapahit
[3]
nobleman Adwayawarman; and according to the 15th East Javanese text Pararaton his
mother was Dara Jingga, a Malay princess of Dharmasraya. He might have visited China for
a diplomatic expedition in 1325 if, as some historians believe, he is the envoy whom a
Chinese source calls Sengk'ia-lie-yu-lan.

In 1347 Adityawarman moved the statue further uphill to Rambahan site near Langsat River,
the source of Batanghari river. He also added inscription inscribed on the back side of the
statue, this inscription refer as Amoghapasa inscription dated 1347 CE. While the rectangular
base refer as Padang Roco inscription remain in Padang Roco area.
According to George Coedes, "His name appears in Java as early as 1343 on an image
of Bodhisattva Manjusri that was originally located in Candi Jago."[6]: 232 This is the sanctuary
built by Kertanegara for his father Visnuvardhana. In one of various inscriptions about him,
he explicitly calls himself Lord of the Golden Earth (Kanakamedinindra). An inscription in
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localised Malay Sanskrit found on the back of the Amoghapasa statue found at Rambahan,
West Sumatra, dated 1347, written (and perhaps composed) by Adityawarman,
commemorates his role as protector and source of welfare to the people of the capital of
Malaya (Malayapura) and his power as an embodiment of Amoghapasa. "At Malayapura,
Adityawarman bore the royal title of Udayadityavarman (or Adityavarmodaya)
Pratapaparakramarajendra Maulimalivarmadewa, a title which one scholar believes he can
detect an attempt at synthesis of the royal title traditionally in use in Srivijaya and Malayu."
His kingdom is believed to be the predecessor of the present-
day Minangkabau matrilineal society in Indonesia.
Adityawarman's inscriptions as a Sumateran ruler, shows that he was a devotee of Tantric
Buddhism. He ruled until at least 1375, the year of his last known inscription. He was
described as the Lord of Suravasa; and the name Suruaso itself is still used to refer to the area
near Pagaruyung, Kingdom of the Minangkabau people.
His son was Ananggawarman.

Adityawarman as Bhairava
The sizeable Buddhist statue in the form of Bhairava is a depiction of King Adityavarman of
Malayu. Bhairava is a Hindu deity, a fierce manifestation of Shiva associated with
annihilation.
Bhairava, although originating in Hindu legends, is sacred to Hindus, Buddhists, and Jains
alike. Today he is worshipped throughout India, Sri Lanka, and Nepal.
Adityawarman was a king of Malayapura, a state in central Sumatra. He founded the royal
dynasty of Minangkabau in Pagarruyung and presided over the central Sumatra region to take
control of the gold trade between 1347 and 1375.

Adityawarman was a devotee of Tantric Buddhism, and

this Buddhist statue of him was discovered in
Rambahan, Padangroco, West Sumatra. One can
confirm that Adityawarman switched to the Tantric
Buddhist umbrella later and became a follower of
Buddhist Tantricism. The reason we do not know but
one can conjecture that he felt the power of the 2- the
Buddha and Shiva as a better and more potent craft in
helping him achieve whatever he wanted to, using the
esoteric crafts and practices.
He could also project himself as a Buddha ( see Pic) as
opposed to projecting himself as SHIVA which would
have been difficult for this citizenary to accept

Ananggawarman his son was a crown prince (yuvaraja) of the Malayapura kingdom, which
ruled at the end of the 14th century. The Malayapura kingdom was centered on
the Minangkabau Highlands and its territory covers much of central Sumatra. The name
Ananggawarman is inscribed on Saruaso II inscription as the son of King Adityawarman (r.
1347–1375). It is not clear when Ananggawarman began to reign in place of his father, but it
was written in the History of Ming that the kingdom sent a messenger again to China in 1376.

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 Ananggawarman is mentioned in the inscription with the title Hevajra nityasmrti, which
indicated that he professed the same belief as his father, the Tantric Buddhism. This means
that the rulers of Sumatra embraced esoteric Buddhism at least until the 14th century. In those
days it was also thought that trade between Sumatra and South India was going well and there
were quite a number of South Indian merchants settled in Minangkabau, as there is also found
an inscription (Bandar Bapahat) written in two scripts, the Kawi and the Grantha.
After the reign of Ananggawarman, the historical record of Minangkabau was not found
again for a century and a half, until the arrival of the Portuguese adventurer Tomé Pires who
wrote about it in Suma Oriental around 1513–1515. Subsequently, the royal power (now
called Pagaruyung kingdom) further weakened until its coastal regions such
as Kampar, Indragiri, and Siak were seized by the Aceh and Malacca sultanates, and
eventually became independent polities.

1. The statue of Amoghapasa on top of

the inscription.
2. 1208 Saka or 1286 CE
3. Andelesite stone

The Story Of The Foolish Tortoise

Northeast Wall of the Staircase-Candi Mendut above pic to the right

In this Tantri tale from the northeast wall of the staircase, a foolish tortoise is chased by hunters,
suspends himself by his jaws from a stick, and convinces two geese to carry him to safety. But the
silly turtle can not stop himself from opening his mouth to boast of his cleverness, which of
course causes him to lose his grip on the stick, and so he falls down to his death on the rocks
below. Compare: the same story on Temple 2, Nalanda, India.

Relief Of Hariti_Inner Northeast Wall of the Porch-Candi Mendut

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 An example of religious usurpation, in which a contact religion (Buddhism, in this
case) incorporates the gods of its competitors (Hinduism, in this case) into its own
pantheon.

Twin reliefs on the inner walls of the porch illustrate the popular Buddhist legend
of Hariti, a Hindu plague goddess who was converted by the Buddha to become a
protector of children1. This relief of Hariti is located on the inner northeast wall of
the porch. A relief of Atavaka, her husband, is seen on the previous page.

Relief Of Atavaka-Inner Southwest Wall of the Porch,Candi Mendut

Twin reliefs on the inner walls of the porch illustrate the popular Buddhist legend of Hariti,
a plague goddess who was converted by the Buddha to become a protector of children1. A
relief of Hariti is displayed on the next page. Seen here, on the inner southwest wall, is a
rare and unusual relief of her husband Atavaka (or, Panchika) surrounded by the children

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whom he, like his wife, is now protecting.

Chapter 4
Brahma Mandala of Prambanan ?
Featuring The Vishnu Purana, translated by Horace Hayman Wilson, [1840]

Vishnu with Ayudhapurushas

Note: My friends in Jakarta pointed out to me (on several occasions ) that the Prambhanan
though dedicated to 3 Gods of Hinduism is actually built in the form of Brahma Mandala
paying genuflection to God Vishnu.
Of course with a plethora of temples, it can get confusing and also the Shiva temple is
Numero Uno there . So where and what is the role of Vishnu? So this paper tries to wade in
to clear the mist.

The world famous Javanese temple of Borobudur is located at the westernmost end of a
straight line which includes two satellite temples, Mendut and Pawon. Originally, the three
buildings were probably connected by a processional path running along this line. It is shown
here that the alignment points, at the horizon, where the sun sets in the days of the zenith
passages. This orientation is likely intentional and related to a ritual procession which
connected the three temples, mimicking the path of the sun in the sky. 1 Further Lokesh
Chandra, in his study Chandi Mendut and Pawon: A new interpretation, observed that the

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Chandi Mendut and Pawon belong to the system of carya-tantras. The prevalence of the
carya-tantras in Indonesia is proved by the San Hyan Kamahayanan Mantranaya (SHKM),
which is a tan trie text from Indonesia including 42 Sanskrit verses, each verse followed by
an Old Javanese commentary.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1
Archaeoastronomy of the Sun path at Borobudur,Giulio Magli, 2017
2. CHANDI MENDUT AND PAWON: A NEW INTERPRETATION, LOKESH CHANDRA
Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, Deel 136, 2/3de Afl. (1980), pp. 313-320 (8 pages)
Caryā Tantras ( Carya means Performance, or Conduct) are meant for practitioners of
middle ability. According to Tsongkhapa, it is for "those who balance external activities and
internal meditative stabilization without relying on very many activities." The kind of desire
it uses is the weakest kind, comparable to a couple looking at each other. They are also
known as Upa tantra, or Ubhaya tantra.
Although these tantras maintain numerous external ritual actions, the emphasis is now upon
obtaining liberation through meditation. It is thus seen as maintaining a balance between
inner and outer actions. It is externally similar to Kriyā tantra, and internally similar to Yoga
tantra.
The main elements of Conduct tantra are:
To practice and train thoroughly in a vast range of deeds related to activations, which are sets
of outer (physical and verbal) [actions] such as mudras and other characteristic focuses as
taught in action tantra, and thus [to have] objects of practice that accord with that tantra; to
cultivate inner (mental) contemplation that accords with yogatantra and to practice [deity
yoga] in what is like a friend-to-friend relation-ship with the deity. Conduct tantra is known
to have five initiations: water, diadem, vajra, bell, and name. In this class of
tantras, Vairochana is a principal deity.
In Tibetan Buddhism, this tantra class includes practice lineages for
the Mahãvairocanãbhisaṃbodhitantra ('Awakening of Great Vairocana'), for
the Vajrapãṇyabhiṣekamahãtantra (Vajrapāṇi Initiation Tantra) and for Manjushri.
The presence of Buddha Vairocana is often evident in tantras of this class where he is often
depicted in the centre of a mandala with four other Buddhas of his retinue placed to the four
quarters, the cardinal directions. Importantly, during the Caryā tantra class and literary
period, there developed the salient innovation wherein the sadhaka is to cultivate
identification with the deity in meditative absorption (known as "self generation"). This class
of literature was also important to Chinese Zhenyan Buddhism and tantric masters such
as Śubhakarasiṃha (637-735), Vajrabodhi (671–741) and Amoghavajra (705–774). This
focus was later imparted by Amoghavajra's disciple Huiguo (746-805) to the
monk Kūkai (774–835), leading to the development of Japanese Shingon Buddhism.
Guarisco & McLeod explain Jamgon Kongtrul's codification of this class as follows:
Conduct tantra, where conduct encompasses both outer ritual activity and inner
contemplation, involves training in a vast range of deeds while entering the inner reality that
presents itself in visual and audible divine representations. The notion here is that of being
close to the state of a perfect divine being, a state not yet fully realized. This limited view is
overcome by visualizing oneself as the deity, understanding that form to be the appearance
aspect of emptiness.

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In Caryā yoga, the yogi visualizes themselves as the 'commitment being'
(Sanskrit: samayasattva) and visualizes the 'gnosis being' (jñānasattva), who is envisioned in
the relationship of a spiritual friend, in front of them. Various "meditations with signs" are
part of this practice including: bija (seed syllable) and mandala visualization, mudra (hand
seals), repetition of mantras, etc. as found in Action tantra. Conduct yoga also includes a
special "yoga without signs", described by Kongtrul as follows:
The special yoga without signs is cultivated in conjunction with three minds: the minds of
entering, abiding, and emerging, the essence of which is the ultimate awakening mind itself.
The mind of entering is the realization of the unborn nature of all phenomena (the aggregates,
etc.) gained by examining them in terms of the four extremes; the mind of abiding, the direct
realization of the unborn nature as the essence of the nonconceptual state; and the mind of
emerging, the ensuing great compassion directed to-ward suffering beings who lack such
realization.

The role of royal patronage and religious institution

The Borobudur monument combines the symbolic forms of the stupa (a Buddhist
commemorative mound usually containing holy relics), the temple mountain (based
on Mount Meru of Hindu mythology), and the mandala (a mystic Buddhist symbol of the
universe, combining the square as earth and the circle as heaven). The style of Borobudur
was influenced by Indian Gupta and post-Gupta art.In all the regions of Southeast Asia, the
arts flourished under the patronage of the kings. About the time of the birth of Christ, tribal
groups gradually organized themselves, after some years of settled life as rice cultivators, into
city-kingdoms, or conglomerations of villages. A king was thus little more than a paramount
tribal chieftain. Since the tribes had been accustomed to worshiping local spirits, the kings
sought a new spirit that would be worshiped by the whole community.

One reason that the gods of Hinduism and Buddhism were so readily acceptable to Southeast
Asia was this need for new national gods. The propagation of the new religions was the task
of the kings, and consequently the period from the 1st to the 13th century was a great age of
temple building all over Southeast Asia.

Architecture, sculpture, and painting on the temple walls were the arts that flourished. In the
ancient empires of eastern Indochina and the islands, scholars of Sanskrit, the language of the
sacred works of Hinduism, became part of the king’s court, producing a local Sanskrit
literature of their own. This literary activity was confined to the hereditary nobility and never
reached the people, except in stories from the great Hindu
epics Mahabharata and Ramayana. Because the Hindu religious writings in Sanskrit were
beyond the reach of the common people, Hinduism had to be explained to them by Hindu
stories of gods and demons and mighty men. On the other side of the peninsula, in the Pyu-
Burmese empire of Prome, which flourished before the 8th century, there was no such
development—first, because Hinduism was never widely accepted in Burma and, second,
because the more open Burmese society developed neither the institution of a god-king nor
that of a hereditary nobility. Although Pali scholars surrounded the king in later Pagan, Pali
studies were pursued not at the court but at monasteries throughout the kingdom so that even
the humblest villager had some faint contact with Pali teachings. While the courts of the
kings in Cambodia and Java remained merely local centres of Sanskrit
scholarship, Pagan became a centre of Pali learning for Buddhist monks and scholars even
from other lands. As in the case of stories from the Indian epics, stories of the Jatakas (birth
stories of the Buddha) were used to explain Buddhism to the common people, who could not

264
read the scriptures written in Pali. Just as scenes from the great epics in carving or in fresco
adorned the temples in Cambodia and Java, scenes from the Jatakas adorned the Pagan
temples.

The patronage of the king and the religious enthusiasm of the common people could not have
produced the great temples without the enormous wealth that suddenly became available in
the region following the commercial expansion. With the Khmer and Javanese empires, the
wealth was produced by a feudalistic society, and so the temples were built by the riches of
the king and his nobles, combined with the compulsory labour of their peasants and slaves,
who probably derived some aesthetic pleasure from their work because of their religious
fervour. Nonetheless, their monuments, such as Borobudur, in Java, and Angkor Wat, in
Cambodia, had an atmosphere of massive, all-conquering power. At Pagan, where wealth was
shared by the king, the royal officials, and the common people, the temples and the
monasteries were built by all who had enough not only to pay the artisans their wages but
also to guarantee their good health, comfort, and safety during the actual construction. The
temples were dedicated for use by all monks and lay people as places of worship, meditation,
and study, and the kings of Pagan did not build a single tomb for themselves. The Khmer
temple of Angkor Wat and the Indonesian temple of Borobudur were tombs in that the ashes
of the builders would be enshrined therein; the kings left stone statues representing them as
gods for posterity to worship, whereas at Pagan there was only one statue of a king, and it
depicted him on his knees with his hands raised in supplication to the Buddha. Consequently,
the atmosphere that pervaded the temples of Pagan was one of joy and tranquillity.

The mandala is likened by some to a "floor plan of the universe." The type most familiar in
the West is an intricately patterned painting on cloth or paper that often takes the general
form of a circle within a square.

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The word "mandala" comes from the Sanskrit verbal root "mand" (meaning to mark off,
decorate, set off) and the Sanskrit suffix "la" (meaning circle, essence, sacred center).
The mandala's symbolic power can be traced back to millennia-old roots in Indian temple
architecture, which created sacred spaces linking the worshiper to the larger cosmos. In these
temples, time and space were represented in a vocabulary of circles and squares. Similarly, a
mandala helps believers visualize the universe and their place in it, often in relation to a
specific deity found in the center of the image.

The evolution of the symbol has happened throughout Asia under the influence of various
religious and artistic traditions over a period of several thousand years-some complex; others
quite simple offerering proof of the continuing vitality of the mandala and its role in Buddhist
devotions. The mandala is of significant importance in both Hinduism and Buddhism. Both
religions adopt the mandala as a peaceful and creative symbol. Hence, the speculative project
finds a balance to build a memorial, which will signify peace and harmony of the Tamil
community. The scale of the mandala here is monumental imposing the idea of spirituality
and peace. Contemplating the mandala does not only provide insight into reality, the Cosmos
but also communion with it.

Mandala is the mystery that pervades all existence. Mandala alleviates suffering individually
as well as in society. Contemplation can help overcome antagonism, conflict, stress and even
war. Bindu as a symbolism is the beginning of the process that culminates into a mandala.
In Buddhism, the mandala is a ritual instrument, much like a mantra, used to assist meditation
and concentration. Throughout history, these pictorial temples--intricate, two-dimensional,
multi-colored patterns of concentric circles, squares, and other shapes--have signified the
human need for wholeness, order, and balance. But while many people of the West accept
mandalas as representative of a cosmic force, few understand they are meant to be blueprints
as well. Indeed, a Tantric Buddhist meditator studies a two-dimensional mandala like an
architect, building up in his mind the image of a palace encompassing the sacred principles of
Buddhist philosophy.

MANDALA AND BUDDHIST TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

The mandala in Buddhism is a cosmic model depicting Buddha’s dwelling place as the center
of the universe. Like in the Hindu temples, the structuring of the Buddhist temples has also
been predominantly based on the spiritual model of the mandala. Illustrations can be seen
both in the form of two-dimensional mandalas as well as three-dimensional mandalas. The
two-dimensional mandalas which are drawings composed of squares and concentric circles
could be temporarily painted on various material or drawn on the ground or sand or other
natural substances using coloured powder. Customs involving ceremonious gatherings along
with prayers and chantings while drawing the mandalas are believed to alleviate difficulties
and be of greater good to an individual or a community. These ceremonies could even last up
to a number of days.

Three-dimensionally, the mandala diagram becomes a visual model of the built environment.
In the Buddhist worship place, the central space is significant having a statue of the Buddha
fronted by a worshipping space surrounded by walls. This is encircled by a circumambulating
space. The circumambulation pathway is a space of psychological awakening before reaching
the spiritual pinnacle

MANDALA AND HINDU TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

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Although there have been various arguments by authors of Indian temple architecture like
Stella Kramrisch and Michael W. Meister about the applicability of the Vastu Purusha
Mandala as a governing device for temple architecture, it is safe to say that for formulating
the layout of the temple, the Vastu Purusha Mandala has been an imperative tool. Though the
8 x 8 grid or the Manduka Vastu Mandala has been used in various temples of Indian
architecture, it is to be noted that regional differences have played a major influence on the
workability of the mandala design throughout India.

Customarily, mandalas were spaces for the symbolic consciousness of universal theories
which help in the awakening of the individual psyche. The mandalas can be thought of as
diagrams that function as a cue to reach a contemplational state which is the primary aim of
the tradition. The form of the temples that are based on the regulating lines of the mandala
were meant to create spaces that bring about a “physical and spatial” communion between
God and man.

A mandala (emphasis on first syllable; Sanskrit मण्डल, maṇḍala – literally "circle") is a

geometric configuration of symbols with a very different application. In various spiritual
traditions, mandalas may be employed for focusing attention of practitioners and adepts, as a
spiritual guidance tool, for establishing a sacred space and as an aid
to meditation and trance induction. It is used as a map (in Shintoism) in the Indian
religions of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism or Japanese religion of Shintoism representing
deities, or in the case of Shintoism, paradises, kami or actual shrines.
In New Age, the mandala is a diagram, chart or geometric pattern that represents
the cosmos metaphysically or symbolically; a time-microcosm of the universe, but it
originally meant to represent wholeness and a model for the organizational structure of life
itself, a cosmic diagram that shows the relation to the infinite and the world that extends
beyond and within minds and bodies. The basic form of hinduism mandalas is a square with
four gates containing a circle with a center point and it is called also a yantra. Each gate is in
the general shape of a T. Mandalas often have radial balance.

A yantra is similar to a mandala, usually smaller and using a more limited colour palette. It
may be a two- or three-dimensional geometric composition used in sadhanas, puja or
meditative rituals, and may incorporate a mantra into its design. It is considered to represent
the abode of the deity. Each yantra is unique and calls the deity into the presence of the
practitioner through the elaborate symbolic geometric designs. According to one scholar,
"Yantras function as revelatory symbols of cosmic truths and as instructional charts of the
spiritual aspect of human experience."

Many situate yantras as central focus points for Hindu tantric practice. Yantras are not
representations, but are lived, experiential, nondual realities. As Khanna describes:
Despite its cosmic meanings a yantra is a reality lived. Because of the relationship that exists
in the Tantras between the outer world (the macrocosm) and man's inner world (the
microcosm), every symbol in a yantra is ambivalently resonant in inner–outer synthesis, and
is associated with the subtle body and aspects of human consciousness.

Political meaning
The Rajamandala (or Raja-mandala; circle of states) was formulated by
the Indian author Kautilya in his work on politics, the Arthashastra (written between 4th

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century BCE and 2nd century BCE). It describes circles of friendly and enemy states
surrounding the king's state.

In historical, social and political sense, the term "mandala" is also employed to denote
traditional Southeast Asian political formations (such as federation of kingdoms or vassalized
states). It was adopted by 20th century Western historians from ancient Indian political
discourse as a means of avoiding the term 'state' in the conventional sense. Not only did
Southeast Asian polities not conform to Chinese and European views of a territorially defined
state with fixed borders and a bureaucratic apparatus, but they diverged considerably in the
opposite direction: the polity was defined by its centre rather than its boundaries, and it could
be composed of numerous other tributary polities without undergoing administrative
integration.

Mount Meru
A mandala can also represent the entire universe, which is traditionally depicted with Mount
Meru as the axis mundi in the center, surrounded by the continents.

Wisdom and impermanence

In the mandala, the outer circle of fire usually symbolises wisdom. The ring of eight charnel
grounds represents the Buddhist exhortation to be always mindful of death, and the
impermanence with which samsara is suffused: "such locations were utilized in order to
confront and to realize the transient nature of life". Described elsewhere: "within a flaming
rainbow nimbus and encircled by a black ring of dorjes, the major outer ring depicts the eight
great charnel grounds, to emphasize the dangerous nature of human life". Inside these rings
lie the walls of the mandala palace itself, specifically a place populated by deities
and Buddhas.
Taking the example of the Borobudur which I may say is the sister structure of Prambanan
built 1,198 years ago in 750 AD.Whereas the Prambanan was built in 850 AD
Both were started by one kings and finished by another.

Was Prambhanan built to honor VISHNU as per the Vishnu Purana?

Mandala means sphere, and the text is known as Mandala-brahmana Upanishad because the
Purusha in the sphere of the Sun (Narayana) gave this knowledge to Yagnavalakya.
Mandala-brahmana Upanishad (Sanskrit: मण्डलब्राह्मण उपनिषत्), also known
as Mandalabrahmanopanisad, is one of the minor Upanishads of Hinduism and a Sanskrit
text. It is attached to the Shukla Yajurveda and is classified as one of the 20 Yoga
Upanishads. The text describes Yoga as a means to self-knowledge, the highest wisdom Its
text is structured as a teaching from Narayana (Purusha in Sun, Vishnu) to sage Yajnavalkya.
The text is notable for teaching eight step Yoga but with somewhat different conceptual
framework than most other texts. The teachings of the text combine different types of Yoga
with non-dual Vedanta philosophy.
The date and author of this text is unknown. Some date this and other Yoga Upanishads, to
be probably from early 1st-millennium CE but Raman states that it is probably a late
Upanishad, composed after the 10th-century, because parts of it reflects Hatha Yoga
traditions. Other scholars state that the composition date of the text is uncertain, and place it
as a Hatha yoga or Raja yoga text.

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The Mandala-brahmana Upanishad (IAST: Maṇḍalabrāhmaṇa Upaniṣad) is listed at
number 48 in the Telugu language anthology of 108 Upanishads of the Muktika canon,
narrated by Rama to Hanuman.
The Mandala brahmana Upanishad is structured as five Mandala (books, or Brahmana in
some manuscripts), each with varying number of chapters. It opens with a praise for the
Vedic sage Yajnavalkya, who the text asserts went to the world of Surya (Sun), where he
meets the Purusha of the Sun, asks, "Pray, tell me all the tattva (truth) about the Atman (soul,
self)?" The Upanishad states that Narayana, the Purusha of the Sun, answers with a discourse
on eightfold Yoga along with Jnana.
.

Original name of Prambanan Temple is Siwagrha and the peak of Prambanan Temple like a
crown. Siwagrha, this name means Shiva House. Shiva is a God who is so special during the
reign of Rakai Pikatan.

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As a form of respect, Rakai Pikatan established a 3 meter tall Shiva Mahadewa statue located
in the main room of Prambanan Temple. If the peak of Prambanan Temple is observed, it is a
form of crown called Puncak Mastaka. This peak does not mean only a decoration, but has its
own meaning. This Mastaka Peak means lightning.

Design Concept of Prambanan Temple resembles Semeru Mount (The peak of Semeru Mount
named Mahameru)

According to ancient Hindu cosmology, Prambanan Temple was designed to resemble

the peak of Mahameru. This is because ancient people believed that mahameru was the home
of the Gods. Prambanan is the largest Hinduism temple in Indonesia and Southeast Asia
which has a stunning architectural building.

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Prambanan was built in the 9th century AD. Prambanan is also One of the
UNESCO world heritage sites and the largest Hinduism temple in Southeast Asia. Prambanan
is a building that was built in the 10th century during the reign of two kings, Rakai Pikatan
and Rakai Balitung. But about the latter Balitung I could not find any connect from online
research. So we can let thatb go.

There is a legend that is always told by Javanese people about this temple, the legend of
"Roro Jonggrang".Once upon a time, a man named Bandung Bondowoso loved Roro
Jonggrang. Because she did not love, Jonggrang asked Bondowoso to make a temple
with 1,000 statues overnight. The request was almost fulfilled before Jonggrang asked the
villagers to pound rice and make a big fire to form an atmosphere like the
morning. Bondowoso was able to make 999 statues with spirit power, then curse
Jonggrang into the 1,000th statue because he felt cheated. Prambanan Temples are often
referred to as Loro Jonggrang Temple.

Prambanan Temple has 3 main temples on the main yard, namely Vishnu, Brahma, and Shiva
temples.Each main temple has one companion temple. For the Shiva temple accompanied by
the Nandini temple, for the Brahma temple accompanied by the Angsa temple and for the
Wisni temple accompanied by the Garuda temple.The first report about Prambanan Temple
written by C.A. Lons who visited Central Java in 1733.

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In this report stated that Prambanan temple was collapse. Then restoration Prambanan
Temple started in 1883 until 2002.

There are 7 main statues spread in Prambanan temple.

7 main Statues are Siwa, Durga, Agastya, Ganesha, Brahma, Vishnu, and Nandhi.

Prambanan Temple Relief tells the story of Ramayana.

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Along the inside of the wall is carved into the Ramayana relief. This Ramayana story is
starting from the Vishnu scene that was asked to come down to earth by the kings to
overcome the chaos that was done by Ravana. Along the inner wall of the ledge are decorated
with a series of panels containing Krisnayana reliefs. Krisnayana is the story of Krishna's life
since he was born until he succeeded in occupying the throne of Dwaraka Kingdom.

Towering 47 meters high (5 meters higher than Borobudur Temple), the establishment of this
temple has fulfilled the wishes of its makers, showing the glory of Hinduism in the land of
Java. Renovation of the runis started in 1926 and continued on and off.
Prambanan Temple has 3 main temples on the main yard, namely Vishnu, Brahma, and Shiva
temples. Many parts of the temple were renovated, using new stones, because many of the
original stones were stolen or reused elsewhere. A temple will only be renovated if at least
75% of the original stone is still there. Therefore, many small temples are not rebuilt and only
the foundations.are.visible.

Prambanan Temple has 3 main temples in the main courtyard, namely Vishnu, Brahma, and
Shiva Temples. The three temples are symbols of the Trimurti in Hinduism. The three
temples face east. Each main temple has a companion temple facing west, namely Nandini
for Shiva, Ansa for Brahma, and Garuda for Vishnu. In addition, there are still two side
temples, four kelir temples, and four corner temples. Meanwhile, the second page has 224
temples.

Entering the Siwa temple which is located in the middle and the tallest building, you will find
four rooms. One main room contains a statue of Shiva, while the other three rooms each
contain statues of Durga (Shiva's wife), Agastya (Shiva's teacher), and Ganesha (Shiva's
son). It is the Durga statue that is mentioned as the Roro Jonggrang statue in the legend told
above.

In the Vishnu temple located on the north side of the Shiva temple, you will only find one
room containing a Vishnu statue. Similarly, the Brahma temple which is located on the south
side of the Shiva temple, you will also only find one room containing a statue of Brahma.

An alluring companion temple is the Garuda temple which is located near the Vishnu
temple. This temple holds the story of a half-bird human figure named Garuda. Garuda is a
mystical bird in Hindu mythology with a golden body, white face, red wings, beak and eagle-
like wings. It is thought that the figure is a Hindu adaptation of the figure of Bennu (meaning
'rising' or 'shining', commonly associated with the God Re) in Ancient Egyptian mythology or

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the Phoenix in Ancient Greek mythology. Garuda was able to save his mother from the curse
of Aruna (Garuda's sister who was born deformed) by stealing Tirta Amerta (holy water of
the gods). Prambanan also has temple reliefs that contain the story of the
Ramayana. According to experts, the relief is similar to the story of the Ramayana which was
handed down through oral tradition. Another interesting relief is the Kalpataru tree which in
Hinduism is considered a tree of life, sustainability and environmental compatibility. In
Prambanan, the Kalpataru tree relief is depicted flanking a lion. The existence of this tree
makes experts think that the people of the 9th century had wisdom in managing their
environment.

Each main temple has one companion temple. For the Shiva temple accompanied by the Nandini
temple, for the Brahma temple accompanied by the Angsa temple and for

A band of relief panels along the back and sides of Candi Vishnu show, in each panel, a pair of kinnaras -
the Hindu bird-men and women of the heavenly courts - on either side of a floral design, with a pair of

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flying birds in the upper corners. Although these conventional decorations are repeated in similar panels
all across the entire base, they were given individuality by the skill of the artist, as illustrated by the two
panels above. Similar reliefs are also carved along the base of Candi Shiva, arguing a unified program of
construction and decoration for the temples RIGHT..Lively reliefs from the Krishnayana (Stories Of
Krishna) are spread along the inside balustrade of Candi Vishnu. In these reliefs, the baby god and his
brother Balarama fight and kill various foes. Since Krishna and Balarama are both avatars of Vishnu,
such reliefs are appropriate decorations for the Vishnu temple.

In the panel on the left, Balarama is prying apart the jaws of Kaliya, a poisonous snake who had been
infesting Krishna's childhood pond on the Jamuna River, while Krishna dances in triumph. Continuing
to the center, Krishna tears apart the legs of a human (probaby his wicked uncle, Kamsa). At the far
right, Balarama catches the legs of the ass demon Dhenukasura, swinging him around and smashing him,
while the rest of the herd runs around in helpless panic.

Performing Kresnayana Kawedhar story. Kresnayana Kawedhar means The Story of Kresna

Our current knowledge of the names of kings that reign the Medang Mataram kingdom is
much owed to Mantyasih inscription (dated 907), issued by King Balitung (r. 898–910)—that
contains genealogy and the reign order of Medang Mataram kings, and he seek ancestor as far
as King Sanjaya. This inscription is also known as "Balitung charter". The motivation of
Balitung's edict has sparked various assumptions from historians—as if Balitung eagerly
seeks legitimacy of his rule, by stating his ancestral lineage. It is highly possible that he
related to the royal family and shared common ancestry. Thus, suggested that he married to
the daughter of previous king, which made him the royal son-in-law as well as heir.

King Samaratungga (r. 819–838) was credited for the completion of massive stone mandala, the
grand monument of Borobudur (completed in 825). Samaratungga just like Samaragrawira,
seems to be deeply influenced by peaceful Mahayana Buddhist beliefs and strive to become a
pacifist and a benevolent ruler. His successor was Princess Pramodhawardhani that betrothed to
Shivaite Rakai Pikatan, son of the influential Rakai Patapan, a landlord in Central Java. The
political move that seems as an effort to secure peace and Sailendran rule on Java by reconciling
the Mahayana Buddhist with Shivaist Hindus.

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The large stone statue of Hindu preserver god Vishnu in the garbhagriha (main chamber) of Vishnu
temple, Trimurti Prambanan temple, Yogyakarta, Indonesia.

Visnuism in Khmer lands

These Southeast Asian seafaring peoples engaged in extensive trade with India and China.
Which attracted the attention of the Mongols, Chinese and Japanese, as well as Islamic
traders, who reached the Aceh area of Sumatra in the 12th century. Indian scholars wrote
about the Dwipantara or Jawa Dwipa Hindu kingdom in Java and Sumatra around 200 BC.
"Yawadvipa" is mentioned in India's earliest epic, the Ramayana. Sugriva, the chief
of Rama's army dispatched his men to Yawadvipa, the island of Java, in search of Sita. It
was hence referred to by the Sanskrit name "yāvaka dvīpa" (dvīpa = island).

Examples of the Hindu cultural influence found today throughout the Southeast Asia owe
much to the legacy of the Chola dynasty. For example, the great temple complex
at Prambanan in Indonesia exhibit a number of similarities with the South Indian
architecture.According to the Malay chronicle Sejarah Melayu, the rulers of the Malacca
sultanate claimed to be descendants of the kings of the Chola Empire.Chola rule is

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remembered in Malaysia today as many princes there have names ending with Cholan or
Chulan, one such being Raja Chulan, the Raja of Perak. The Chola school of art also spread
to Southeast Asia and influenced the architecture and art of Southeast Asia.

Southeast Asia was frequented by traders from eastern India, particularly Kalinga, as
well as from the kingdoms of South India. The Indianised Tarumanagara kingdom was
established in West Java around 400s, produced among the earliest inscriptions in Indonesian
history. There was a marked Buddhist influence starting about 425 in the region. Around the
6th century, Kalingga Indianized kingdom was established on the northern coast of Central
Java. The kingdom name was derived from Kalinga east coast of India.
Some scholars have pointed out that the legends of Ikshvaku and Sumati may have their
origin in the Southeast-Asian myth of the birth of humanity from a bitter gourd. The legend
of Sumati, the wife of King Sagar, tells that she produced offspring with the aid of a bitter
gourd.
Sometimes here and sometimes there, the Khmer Kings and their Brahmanical advisors seem
to have been unable to decide on wheter to go for worshipping Shiva or Vishnu or perhaps
they thought that both were the same- as is the grain of some Hindu thought or they were
equidistant from esch other and the consequent holiness?

The reclining sculpture of Bhagwan Vishnu at Undavalli caves is one of a kind. Sculpted
from a single block of granite around the 4th cen C.E, this sculpture is a testament to the
architectural prowess of our ancestors.

Bronze Reclining Vishnu – West Mebon

by Andy Brouwer

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The famous bronze statue of a reclining Vishnu Anantashayin at the National Museum in
Phnom Penh is due to travel to Paris, France in 2022 for restoration by experts at the Guimet
Museum. This dramatic sculptural masterpiece is currently on display at less than a third of
its original six-meter length. The makeover is expected to last nine months, after which the
statue will be a temporary exhibit at the museum before heading back to Phnom Penh.

It was in December 1936 that a farmer living in the Angkor region is said to have had a
dream in which the Buddha appeared to him asking to be 'released' from the soil. He led
École française d'Extrême-Orient’s conservator, Maurice Glaize, to the West Mebon temple –
in the middle of the largest reservoir of the Angkor area - where at the end of a causeway,
they unearthed not a Buddha, but this magnificent statue of the god Vishnu in bronze.
Following its excavation, it eventually made its way to the National Museum by the end of
1950 and has remained on permanent display ever since. The sculpture, among the museum's
most-prized, has toured the world appearing in exhibitions of Khmer art in the USA, Japan
and Australia.
When the statue was cast sometime in the second-half of the 11th century or early 12th, it
was installed in the center of the Western Baray reservoir, part of the impressive hydraulic
system that maintained Angkor for many centuries, as the main feature of the West Mebon
temple, which has also been the subject of renovations over the past decade. The deity
would’ve been reclining on a serpent on the ocean, and the hollows of its eyes, eyebrows and
above the lips would've been inlaid with precious stones. A new-look for the museum’s
reclining bronze Vishnu is eagerly awaited.
Hinduism in Southeast Asia had a profound impact on the region's cultural development and
its history. As the Indic scripts were introduced from India, people of Southeast Asia entered the
historical period by producing their earliest inscriptions around the 1st to 5th century CE. Today,
Hindus in Southeast Asia are mainly Overseas Indians and Balinese. There are
also Javanese (also other minorities of Indonesia) and Cham minority in Cambodia and southern
Vietnam who practices Hinduism.
Hindu civilization, which itself formed from various distinct cultures and peoples, including
also early Southeast Asian, specifically Mon Khmer influence, was adopted and assimilated
into the indigenous social construct and statehood of Southeast Asian regional polity.
Through the formation of Indianized kingdoms, small indigenous polities led by petty
chieftain were transformed into major kingdoms and empires led by
a maharaja with statecraft akin to India. It gave birth to the former Champa civilisation in

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southern parts of Central Vietnam, Funan in Cambodia, the Khmer
Empire in Indochina, Langkasuka Kingdom and Old Kedah in the Malay Peninsula,
the Sriwijayan kingdom on Sumatra, the Medang Kingdom, Singhasari and the Majapahit
Empire based in Java, Bali and parts of the Philippine archipelago. The civilisation of India
influenced the languages, scripts, written tradition, literatures, calendars, beliefs system and
artistic aspects of these peoples and nations. A reason for the acceptance of Indian culture and
religious traditions in Southeast Asia was because Indian culture already some striking
similarities to indigenous cultures of Southeast Asia, which can be explained by earlier
Southeast Asian (specifically Austroasiatic, such as early Munda and Mon Khmer groups)
and Himalayan (Tibetic) cultural and linguistic influence on local Indian peoples. Several
scholars, such as Professor Przyluski, Jules Bloch, and Lévi, among others, concluded that
there is a significant cultural, linguistic, and political Mon-Khmer (Austroasiatic) influence
on early Indian culture and traditions. India is seen a melting pot of western, eastern and
indigenous traditions. Cambodia was first influenced by Hinduism during the beginning of
the Kingdom of Funan. Hinduism was one of the Khmer Empire's official religions. Angkor
Wat, the largest temple complex in the world (now Buddhist) was once a Hindu temple. The
main religion adhered to in Khmer kingdom was Hinduism, followed by Buddhism in
popularity. Initially, the kingdom followed Hinduism as the main state
religion. Vishnu and Shiva were the most revered deities worshipped in Khmer Hindu
temples. Temples such as Angkor Wat are actually known as Preah Pisnulok (Vara
Vishnuloka in Sanskrit) or the realm of Vishnu, to honour the posthumous King Suryavarman
II as Vishnu. Hindu ceremonies and rituals performed by Brahmins (Hindu priests), typically
only remained among the ruling elites of the king's family, nobles, and the ruling class..

Angkor Wat, in Cambodia, is one of the hundreds of ancient Hindu temples in Southeast
Asia.
The Khmer Empire has developed a complex society where sophisticated culture, art, and
architecture flourish. The Khmer king and his officials were in charge of irrigation
management and water distribution, which consisted of an intricate series of hydraulics
infrastructure, such as canals, moats, and massive reservoirs called barays. Society was
arranged in a hierarchy reflecting the Hindu caste system, where the commoners - rice

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farmers and fishermen — formed the large majority of the population. The kshatriyas -
royalty, nobles, warlords, soldiers, and warriors — formed a governing elite and authorities.
Other social classes included brahmins (priests), traders, artisans such as carpenters and
stonemasons, potters, metalworkers, goldsmiths, and textile weavers, while on the lowest
social level are slaves. The extensive irrigation projects provided rice surpluses that could
support a large population. The state religion was Hinduism but influenced by the cult
of Devaraja, elevating the Khmer kings as possessing the divine quality of living gods on
earth, attributed to the incarnation of Vishnu or Shiva. In politics, this status was viewed as
the divine justification of a king's rule. The cult enabled the Khmer kings to embark on
massive architectural projects, constructing majestic monuments such as Angkor Wat
and Bayon to celebrate the king's divine rule on earth.
The empire's official religions included Hinduism and Mahayana Buddhism until Theravada
Buddhism prevailed, even among the lower classes, after its introduction from Sri Lanka in
the 13th century.[29] Since then, Hinduism slowly declined in Cambodia, and finally being
replaced by Theravadan Buddhist as the major faith in the kingdom. Despite this, Hindu
rituals continue to play an important role in the kingdom. Like in neighboring Thailand, the
ceremony of coronation is conducted mostly by royal brahmins, during which the sovereign
swears in front of the idols of gods Vishnu and Shiva to maintain the ancient national
traditions.

Suryavarman II practiced a form of Hinduism known as Vaishnavism, which is devotion to

the god Vishnu above all others. Although Hinduism is generally regarded as a
polytheistic religion by westerners, it is actually henotheistic, meaning there is only one god
with many different aspects. In a henotheistic belief system, a single god is considered too
immense to be grasped by the human mind and so appears in a multiplicity of personalities all
of which focus on a single different aspect of human life.

In Hinduism, Brahma is the supreme deity who creates the world while, in his form as Vishnu
he preserves life and, as Shiva, takes life away and rewards humans for their toil with death,
which then continues the cycle of rebirth or leads to union with the oversoul. Angkor Wat
reflects the course of life, death, and eternity according to Vaishnavism, removing Brahma as
the supreme god and replacing him with Vishnu.

Vishnu appears to human beings in many forms throughout the centuries as avatars - like the
popular Hindu god Krishna - to guide and instruct people. The most famous example of this
comes from the religious text Bhagavad-Gita (“Song of God”) when Krishna visits
Prince Arjuna on the battlefield of Kurukshetra to explain the nature of existence and one's
purpose in life. The temple of Angkor Wat is designed to fulfill this same purpose through its
ornamentation which tells the story of the human condition, the immanence of the gods, and
how one is to best live one's life.

The rise of Vaishnavism in Cambodia was a direct result of the conflicts between the Khmers
and the neighboring Champa. Suryavarman I (r. c. 1006-1050 CE) extended the frontiers of
his realm into Thailand during his reign and came into conflict with the cities of the Champa.
The Champa's religion was Buddhism (which was also the faith of the Khmer elite) which
was viewed with hostility by most Khmer who saw it as a threat to their faith. Vishnu, as a
protector-god, rose in popularity through these conflicts and the backlash against Buddhism.

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By the time of Suryavarman II's reign, the form of Hinduism known as Brahmanism, which
favored the elite, was growing more popular in the region and Buddhism had also gained
more adherents. Suryavarman II elevated the position of the common people, using religion,
by decreeing the worship of Vishnu, a deity who was a protector of all, not the supreme
creator aspect nor the destructive aspect but the mediator between human beings and the
divine who had also proven himself a benevolent guardian.

One of the most popular stories of Vishnu's kindness and cleverness in the interests of human
beings is The Churning of the Ocean (also known as The Churning of the Ocean of Milk) in
which he tricks the demons into surrendering the amrita (ambrosia) which will make the gods
immortal and preserve eternal order. This story is among the most famous bas-reliefs found at
Angkor Wat and supports the claim that the building was originally conceived of as a temple
of worship rather than a funerary site.

While Vaishnavites (followers of Vaishnavism) worship Lord Vishnu (or his two
reincarnations – Lord Rama and Lord Krishna) as the primary deity, Shaivites (followers of
Shaivism) consider Lord Shiva as the Supreme God and worship him the most. Well, the
division between Vaishnavism and Shaivism has been very old, maybe as old as Hinduism
becauae of egos of humans- my God is better and bigger than your God. It was also fuelled
by Kings ,one would consider Vishnu as his favourite nd the other Shiva.

“Flollowing quote from he relationship between cosmology, geography, hydraulics and

sovereignty has been important to the development of Southeast Asian societies' religious
practices and state formation. The hydraulic network of Angkor in Cambodia was developed
by the Khmer rulers to take both symbolic and physical control of this water, and to reinforce
their power. Sanctified water from the source on the Kulen Hills was fed into the channels of
the hydraulic network of Angkor and into the large reservoirs (baray) and moats of the
temples.

In addition to the profane work of supplying water and mitigating floods, the purpose of
creating hydraulic works was to substantiate the king's ability to control water and to signify
the magnitude of his authority.

Further, it was important to consolidate his alliances with the gods by establishing his divine
connection with the heavens. From the early history of Southeast Asia epigraphy indicates
when a king evokes Śiva or Viṣṇu they also undertake some impressive hydraulic works. To
that end, successive rulers in Angkor modified the water network over several hundred years,
creating a complex network of hydraulic infrastructure.

The key to understanding the hydraulic network of Angkor and the proposed alterations of
the early 12th century are the two phases evident in the archaeology of the West Mebon and
the installation of an enormous bronze Viṣṇu at its centre. It is significant that the Vaiṣṇavite
king Sūryavarman II (r. 113–1150 +) later added Angkor Wat into the network, south of the
West and East Baray, and approximately midway between them.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Claiming the hydraulic network of Angkor with Viṣṇu: A multidisciplinary approach including the
analysis of archaeological remains, digital modelling and radiocarbon dating: With evidence for a 12th

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century renovation of the West Mebon, MarnieFeneleyaDanPenny RolandFletcher,-Journal of
Archaeological Science: Reports, Volume 9, October 2016, Pages 275-292

The West Mebon is unique in Khmer archaeology and its position within the hydraulic
landscape of Angkor makes it a very significant monument. The Mebon is located in the
middle of the vast Western Baray reservoir at Angkor. In the middle of this sanctuary is a
large basin, creating a pond approximately 100 m2. A causeway from the eastern gateway
leads to a central platform in this basin. The platform, which contains two shafts, was
excavated in the 1930s and 1940s by the École Française d'Extrême-Orient (EFEO).

In 1936 fragments of the exceptionally large bronze sculpture known as the West Mebon
Viṣṇu, and other artefacts, were found in the western shaft, seen here upon their discovery by
French archaeologists (Fig below ). This massive bronze sculpture may be that mentioned in
the late 13th century when a Chinese envoy to Angkor, Zhou Daguan recorded that there was
a large reclining sculpture of Buddha located in the ‘East’ Baray. According to his report
water issued from the sculpture's navel. In his journal, Zhou Daguan locates this sculpture in
the Eastern Baray. No evidence has been found to indicate a large reclining Buddha in the
Eastern or Western Baray, and it has generally been assumed that the Chinese visitor was
identifying the West Mebon Viṣṇu.

The West Mebon Viṣṇu upon discovery in 1936 (left to right): Henri Marchal, Maurice
Glaize and an unidentified Khmer man (EFEO).

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 The Buddhas of the first 4
balustrades have different mudras, each of which has distinctive features on each side of
Borobudur. The east-facing sculpture has the same mudra, and so is the patent facing west, north,
and south. The Buddha at the very top, or the fifth balustrade, has the same mudra regardless of
which direction they are facing. It is also the same as 72 Buddhas at the level of the circle, they all
show the same hand position but are different from the mudra at the lower levels.
There are six mudras in the statue in Borobudur. The six mudras include Bhumisparcamudra
(calling the earth to witness), Abhayamudra (frightening the fear), Varamudra (charity),
Vitarkamudra (gesture of judgment), and Dharmacakramudra (law wheel movement).

BOROBUDUR, THE ARCHITECTURAL MANDALA.

In Buddhism, the mandala represents a landscape of the universe with Buddha in its center,
and shows the different steps in the process of finding the truth.Borobudur was built on a hill,
following the layout of a giant mandala, representing the Buddhist cosmology. It consists of
nine platforms divided into three.sections:

1.The upper three are circular platforms, called Arupadhatu, and have a slightly curved oval
shape consisting of two minor axes aligned with the cardinal points and two major axes
aligned with the intermediate directions.
2. The six lower platforms are square, called Rupadhatu,
3. Kamadhatu. a structure in the base was discovered in 1885.
4. The lower platform probably also had a structural function to prevent the collapse of the
structure. It was added after the temple was finished, as it can be seen in one of the corners,
where the older reliefs have been exposed.

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 Stone
King's or inscription and
Constru
Date ruler's source of Event
cted
name historical
account
The Shaivist old Malay-speaking
Sojomerto family began to settle in coastal
c. 650 Santanu inscription (c. 670– Central Java, suggested of Sumatran
700) origin (?) or native Javanese family
under Srivijayan influences (vassal)

Sojomerto Establishing ruling family, the first

Dapunta
c. 674 inscription (c. 670– time the name 'Selendra' (Shailendra)
Selendra was mentioned
700)
Carita Parahyangan,
Chinese account
on Hwi-ning visits
674—
Shima (?) to Ho-ling kingdom Ruling the kingdom of Kalingga
703
(664) and the reign
of queen Hsi-
mo (674)
703— Mandiminya Son-in-law of Shima, ruling the
Carita Parahyangan kingdom of Galuh
710 k (?)
Canggal Sanna ruled Java, but after his death
710—
Sanna inscription (732), Ca the kingdom fell to chaotic disunity
717 by usurper or foreign invasion
rita Parahyangan
Sanjaya, the nephew (or son?) of
Sanna restore the order and ascend to
Canggal throne, some early historian took this
717—
Sanjaya inscription (732), Ca event as the establishment of
760 new Sanjaya Dynasty, while other
rita Parahyangan
hold that this only the continuation of
Shailendras

Raja Sankhara
Rakai Panangkaran converted from
760— Rakai inscription, Kalasan
Shaivism to Mahayana Buddhism,
775 Panangkaran inscription (778), Ca construction of Kalasan temple
rita Parahyangan
Also ruled Srivijaya in Sumatra,
Kelurak construction
775— Dharanindr inscription (782), Li of Manjusrigrha temple, started the
Borobudur construction of Borobudur (c. 770),
800 a gor inscription (c.
782 or 787) Java ruled Ligor and Southern
Cambodia (Chenla) (c. 790)

800— Samaragrawi Ligor inscription (c. Also ruled Srivijaya, lost Cambodia
812 ra 787) (802)

812— Samaratungg Completed Karangtengah Also ruled Srivijaya, completion of

833 a Boro inscription (824) Borobudur (825)

833— Pramodhawa Prambanan Shivagrha Defeated and expelled Balaputra to

856 rdhani co- and Plaosan inscription (856) Srivijaya (Sumatra)
. Construction of Prambanan
reign with and Plaosan temple. The successors of
her Pikatan,

284
 Stone
King's or inscription and
Constru
Date ruler's source of Event
cted
name historical
account
the series of Medang kings from
Lokapala (850—890) to Wawa (924
—929) could be
considered as the continuation
of Shailendra lineage, although
husband Rak
King Balitung
ai Pikatan (898—910) in
Mantyasih inscription (907)
sought ancestor only as far as
Sanjaya, thus enforced the
Sanjaya dynasty theory.
Defeated by Pikatan-
Pramodhawardhani,
Shivagrha expelled from Central Java
833— Balaputrade inscription (856), Na , took refuge in Sumatra and
850 wa landa rule Srivijaya, claim as the
inscription (860) legitimate
successor of Shailendra dynasty from
Java

Śri
Embassies to China Sending embassies, tribute and trade
c. 960 Udayadityav mission to China
(960 and 962)
arman
Haji (Hia- Embassies to China Sending embassies, tribute and trade
c. 980 mission to China
Tche) (980–983)
Sending embassies, tribute and trade
Embassies to China mission to China,
Sri Cudaman (988-992-1003), Javanese
King Dharmawangsa invasion on
c. 988 i Tanjore Inscription Srivijaya,
Warmadewa or Leiden Inscription building of temple for Chinese
(1044) Emperor, gift of village by
Raja-raja I
Sri
Embassies to China Sending embassies, tribute and trade
c. 1008 Maravijayott mission to China (1008)
(1008)
ungga

Sumatrabhu Embassies to China Sending embassies, tribute and trade

c. 1017 mission to China (1017)
mi (1017)

Sangrama Chola Inscription on

Chola raid on Srivijaya, the capital
c. 1025 Vijayatungg the temple of captured by Rajendra Chola
avarman Rajaraja, Tajore

The construction of Borobudur is said to have been started by Dharanindra or commonly

known as King Indra was the ruler of the Sailendra dynasty who was the Emperor of Central
Java and Srivijaya. Dharanindra was the successor of Panangkaran, he ruled the kingdom in the period
775—800. He was mentioned as a great conqueror and credited for Sailendra's overseas campaign.

285
He was mentioned in Kelurak inscription (dated 782) in his formal reign name Sri Sanggrama
Dhananjaya. In this inscription he was hailed as Wairiwarawiramardana or "the slayer of courageous
enemies". The similar title also found in Ligor B inscription discovered in Southern Thailand Malay
Peninsula; Sarwwarimadawimathana, which suggest it referred to the same person. Dharanindra
seems to be a warlike character, as he embarked on military naval expedition overseas and has
brought Sailendras' control on Ligor in Malay Peninsula. After conquering and taking Ligor back
from Water Chenla, he also launched raids against Champa in 774 and 770, and conquered Southern
Cambodia in Mekong delta in early 9th century. During this time, Jayavarman II from Java (Malay
Peninsula), was probably the commander of the Srivijayan army. [3] At the behest of Maharaja
Srivijaya (Dharaindra), Jayavarman II was installed as a new Cambodia king and Angkor
Dynasty was founded.
King Indra seems to continue the builder tradition of his predecessor. He continued and completed the
construction of Manjusrigrha temple, and according to the Karangtengah inscription (dated 824)
responsible for the construction of Venuvana temple, connected to Mendut or
probably Ngawen temple. He was also probably responsible for the conception, planning and initiate
the construction of Borobudur and Pawon temple.

This great Temple was finished by finished by King Samaratungga was the head of
the Sailendra dynasty who ruled Central Java and Srivijaya in the 8th and the 9th century. He was the
successor of King Indra, and his name was mentioned in Karangtengah inscription dated 824 CE as
the constructor of a sacred Buddhist building called Venuvana (Sanksrit: bamboo forest) to place the
cremated ashes of his predecessor King Indra of Sailendra. [2] During his administration, he initiated
the construction of a massive Buddhist monument Borobudur. Samaratungga married Dewi Tara, the
princess of Srivijayan ruler Dharmasetu, which created close political alliance between the Sailendras
and Srivijaya.

Samaratungga had one son by the name of Balaputra and one daughter Pramodhawardhani. After
Samaratungga died, Pramodhawardhani married the Shivaite Rakai Pikatan from Sanjaya dynasty.
Rakai Pikatan managed to usurp Balaputra's authority over Central Java and forced the Saleidras to
flee Java for Srivijaya.
Under the reign of Samaratungga too, Jayavarman II was appointed as the governor of Indrapura in
the Mekong delta. Jayavarman later revoked his allegiance to the Sailedras and Srivijaya to form
the Khmer Empire.
Mandala of Prambanan
if the whole Prambanan temple (Shivagrha), Plaosan Temple & Sewu Temple (Manjusrigrha) has
been restored completely the shape will be like this in a Mandala Concept.

286
 Construction of
Prambanan
A temple was first built at the site around 850 CE by Rakai Pikatan and expanded extensively
by King Lokapala and Balitung Maha Sambu the Sanjaya king of the Mataram Kingdom. A
short red-paint script bearing the name "pikatan" was found on one of the finials on top of the
balustrade of Shiva temple, which confirms that King Pikatan was responsible for the
initiation of the temple construction.
The temple complex is linked to the Shivagrha inscription of 856 CE, issued by King
Lokapala, which described a Shiva temple compound that resembles Prambanan. According
to this inscription the Shiva temple was inaugurated on 12 November 856. According to this

287
inscription, the temple was built to honor Lord Shiva, and its original name was Shiva-
grha (the House of Shiva) or Shiva-laya (the Realm of Shiva).
All said and done, it is the largest Hindu temple of ancient Java, and the first building was
completed in the mid-9th century. It was inaugurated by his successor King Lokapala. Some
historians that adhere to dual dynasty theory; suggest that the construction of Prambanan
probably was meant as the Hindu Sanjaya Dynasty's answer to the
Buddhist Sailendra Dynasty's Borobudur and Sewu temples nearby. Which means to mark
the return of the Hindu Sanjaya Dynasty to power in Central Java after almost a century of
Buddhist Sailendra Dynasty domination. Nevertheless, the construction of this massive Hindu
temple did signifies a shift of the Mataram court's patronage.

Mahayana Buddhism to Shaivite Hinduism.

The statue of Shiva Mahadeva inside the garbagriha of the main

temple of prambanan.

288
 VISHNU TEMPLE
The Candi Vishnu temple is smaller than the impressive Shiva Mahadeva temple and sits just
north of it, reaching 33 m in height. Of course, we had to walk the steep stairs up to the top
plateau. And it was totally worth the climb as the temple is magnificent containing reliefs
telling the story of Lord Krishna who is the hero of the Mahabharata story.

289
290
The most impressive part of this temple is, in my opinion, the statue of a four-armed Vishnu
the Preserver in the inner chamber. It is so really big and beautifully carved.

291
292
293
 Shiv in th garbhagrih (central chamber) of
Some archaeologists propose that the statue o
the main temple was modelled afte King Balitun g, serving as a depiction of his deified self
after death. The temple compound was expanded by successive Mataram kings, such as
Daksa an Tulodon g, with the addition of hundreds o perwar temples around the chief
temple
With main prasada tower soaring up to 47 metres high, a vast walled temple complex
consists of 240 structures, Shivagrha Trimurti temple was the tallest and the grandest of its
time. Indeed, the temple complex is the largest Hindu temple in ancient Java, with no other
Javanese temples ever surpassed its scale. Prambanan served as the royal temple of the
Kingdom of Mataram, with most of the state's religious ceremonies and sacrifices being
conducted there. At the height of the kingdom, scholars estimate that hundreds
of brahmins with their disciples lived within the outer wall of the temple compound. The
urban center and the court of Mataram were located nearby, somewhere in the Prambanan
Plain.

Prambanan's architecture conforms to Hindu architectural traditions based on the Vastu

Shastra, and the temple thus reflects the Hindu conceptions of the cosmos in its design and
layout. Despite its grandeur and rich exterior ornamentation, the Javanese abandoned
Prambanan within 100 years of its completion around c. 950 CE. Although the ravages of
time and natural disasters took their toll on Prambanan, the Javanese never forgot the ruins,
and Prambanan continued to play a part in Javanese folklore. Research and the restoration of
Prambanan began in earnest in the early 20th century CE, and the temple complex was
declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1991 CE. It is today one of the most visited
historical sites in Indonesia.

History & Geography

Prambanan is located some 17 km (11 miles) northeast of the Indonesian city of Yogyakarta,
near the border between the two provinces of Yogyakarta and Central Java, on the island of
Java. The ruins themselves lie 0.5 km south of the village of Prambanan.
The period in which the Javanese constructed Prambanan and neighboring temples is
shrouded in legend and mystery. Strong cultural and religious influence arrived in what is
now present-day Indonesia from the Indian subcontinent, beginning around the 1st century
CE. This influence grew rapidly from c. 400 CE onwards. Hindu and Buddhist merchants and
traders, settled in the region, intermarried with the local population, and facilitated long-
distance trade relations between the indigenous Javanese, ancient India, and the rest of
Southeast Asia. Over the centuries, the Javanese blended the culture and religions of ancient
India with their own.

Some historians contend that Prambanan's construction began under the orders of King Rakai
Pikatan (r. 830-860 CE?) at some point between c. 840-850 CE. Rakai Pikatan oversaw the
construction and design of the main temple complex, while other structures were built soon
thereafter by later kings, including Rakai Kayuwangi (r. 850-898 CE), Balitung (r. 899-911
CE), Daksa (r. 910-919 CE), and Tulodong (r. 919-924 CE). At some point, locals diverted a
nearby river to flow past the temple complex as well. Rakai Pikatan and his successors
belonged to the Hindu Sanjaya dynasty, which was the rival of the Buddhist Sailendra
dynasty for power in the “Medang” or Mataram kingdom in central Java. It is worth noting
that the Sailendra dynasty oversaw the construction of the Buddhist temple of Borobudur. As
Borobudur is located only 19 km (12 miles) from Prambanan, some scholars interpret
Prambanan's genesis as a direct artistic, political, and religious response to that of Borobudur

294
and in turn the competitive Sailendra dynasty. It is even said that Rakai Pikatan's wife,
Princess Pramodhawardhani (fl. 820-860 CE), was the daughter of King Samaratungga (r.
812-833 CE) who may have overseen Borobudur's construction. (Despite all this, other
Javanese historians see the “Sailendra” and “Sanjaya” dynasties as one and the same family,
interpreting the religious patronage of Buddhism or Hinduism as the result of a ruler's
personal belief.)

Prambanan Complex Model-Gunawan Kartapranata (CC BY-SA)

According to ancient Khmer sources, King Jayavarman II (r. 802-835 CE), the founder of
the Khmer Empire (802-1431 CE), spent much of his life in Java, and was appointed by
Samaratungga as the governor of Indrapura, which later became the capital city of Champa
around c. 875 CE. It is said that Jayavarman visited both Borobidur as well as Prambanan,
which inspired him to build the city of Angkor Wat on a grand scale. This is quite possible as
the Sailendra and Sanjaya dynasties exerted much political and cultural influence through
their thalassocracies in what is present-day Java, Sumatra, Malaya, and southern Cambodia in
the 8th, 9th, and 10th centuries CE.

Prambanan's abandonment mirrors that of nearby Borobudur. As the center of political power
shifted from central to eastern Java under the reign of King Mpu Sindok (fl. 928 CE),
Prambanan became less important politically and culturally to the ancient Javanese. The
Sanjaya dynasty had successfully usurped power from the Sailendra dynasty, leaving the
island of Java under their near complete suzerainty. Volcanic eruptions from Mount Merapi
in the 10th century CE and countless earthquakes may have impacted Prambanan's appeal as
a place of worship and pilgrimage as well among the Hindu faithful.

Over time, Prambanan deteriorated and became surrounded by a dense jungle. The Dutch
explorer C. A. Lons reported his “rediscovery” of Prambanan in 1733 CE to Dutch colonial

295
officials, but the temple was never completely forgotten by the Javanese in their histories,
myths, and legends. A very popular Javanese legend is that of Rara Jonggrang, which is set in
Prambanan and its neighboring temples. In the legend, a Javanese princess is turned to stone
by her cruel husband. The princess is said to be beautiful image of the Hindu goddess Durga
located within the north wing of Shiva's temple at Prambanan. Restoration work began in
1885 CE, but accelerated in 1918 CE. These efforts were halted when Indonesia was invaded
in 1941 CE by the Japanese during World War II. In 1953 CE, the Temple of Shiva was
reconsecrated to Hindu believers, and Prambanan was restored once again following the 2006
CE Yogyakarta earthquake. Intermittent archaeological excavation and restoration continue
in and around Prambanan today.

Durga, Shiva Temple, Prambanan- Borobudur Buddhas are all sitting

Art & Architecture

Set in the fertile Prambanan Plain, Prambanan is but one of 30 temples built between c. 750-
950 CE in a 30 square km (11.5 square miles) area. Lying just a few kilometers to
Prambanan's north are three ancient Buddhist Temples built in the 8th century CE —
Lumbung, Bubrah, and Sewu — while 2.5 km to Prambanan's south and southeast lie the
ruins of the 9th-century CE Buddhist temples of Ratu Boko and Sojiwan, respectively. Some
3 km to Prambanan's west are also the 8th-century CE Buddhist Sari Temple, the Kalasan
Temple, which dates to c. 778 CE, and the Sambisari Temple, which dates from the 9th
century CE and is dedicated to Shiva.
Prambanan consists of six temples all situated in an elevated courtyard, which is in turn
encompassed by 224 minor temples now ruined. The greater the distance a temple is from the
main complex, the smaller it is in height and space. A small wall surrounds the smaller
temples, just as a large wall encompasses the main complex. Prambanan has a 47 m (154 ft)
tall central temple — dedicated to Shiva — which sits inside a complex of other temple
structures in a concentric mandala layout. Prambanan, in ways similar to Borobudur,

296
delineates the celestial hierarchy and transposes them to three distinct temple zones.
Horizontally and vertically, Prambanan exudes Hindu conceptions of heaven.

The largest three temples, the holiest sites within the main complex, are dedicated to the triad
of Hindu gods. Shiva's temple is the most prominent with Brahma's temple lying to the south
of Shiva's temple, and Vishnu's temple lying to the north of Shiva's temple. Directly parallel
to these magnificent temples are three smaller temples, each dedicated to mythological

297
animal figures that provide protection, companionship, and transportation to the
aforementioned gods: Garuda, a mythical winged creature, Hamsa the swan, and Nandi the
bull.

The Temple of Shiva is the most ornate of the three massive temples, containing a series of
elegant carvings along the inner wall, which depict the scenes from the ancient Indian
epic The Ramayana. This temple contains four rooms, including an inner sanctuary with a
statue of Shiva, while another chamber near the inner sanctuary contains a large statue of
Shiva's son, Ganesha. The southern room of Shiva's temple is dedicated to Batara Guru who,
according adherents of Javanese Hinduism, is an avatar of Shiva that gives prophecy,
presents, and other human abilities. There is also a statue of the sacred bull calf, gatekeeper,
and vehicle (vahana) of Shiva, Nandi, which sits in front of the Temple of Shiva. The walls
in the Temple of Brahma continue the narration of The Ramayana, while the Temple of
Vishnu is decorated with carvings retelling the epic battles of Krishna along its terrace.

Architecture of Prambanan Temple

According to UNESCO: Prambanan Temple Compounds presents the grandiose culture of
Siva art as a masterpiece of the classical period in Indonesia, and the region. The property is
an outstanding religious complex, characteristic of Siva expression of the 10th century.
Built in the 10th century, this is the largest temple compound dedicated to Shiva in
Indonesia. Rising above the centre of the last of these concentric squares are three temples
decorated with reliefs illustrating the epic of the Ramayana, dedicated to the three great
Hindu divinities (Shiva, Vishnu and Brahma) and three temples dedicated to the animals
who serve them. [Source: UNESCO]
Prambanan Temple Compounds consist of Prambanan Temple (also called Loro
Jonggrang), Sewu Temple, Bubrah Temple and Lumbung Temple. Prambanan Temple itself
is a complex consisting of 240 temples. All the mentioned temples form the Prambanan
Archaeological Park and were built during the heyday of Sailendra’s powerful dynasty in
Java in the 8th century AD. These compounds are located on the border between the two
provinces of Yogyakarta and Central Java on Java Island.
Prambanan Temple Compounds comprises of two groups of buildings which includes Loro
Jonggrang, Sewu complexes, Lumbung, Bubrah and Asu (Gana). The 508 stone temples of
various shapes and sizes are either in a complete and preserved condition or have been
retained as ruins.While Loro Jonggrang, dating from the 9th century, is a brilliant example
of Hindu religious bas-reliefs, Sewu, with its four pairs of Dwarapala giant statues, is
Indonesia’s largest Buddhist complex including the temples of Lumbung, Bubrah and Asu
(Gana temple).
The Hindu temples are decorated with reliefs illustrating the Indonesian version of the
Ramayana epic which are masterpieces of stone carvings. These are surrounded by
hundreds of shrines that have been arranged in three parts showing high levels of stone
building technology and architecture from the 8th century AD in Java. With over 500
temples, Prambanan Temple Compounds represents not only an architectural and cultural
treasure, but also a standing proof of past religious peaceful cohabitation.
Prambanan was designed as three concentric squares.

298
 The LARGER Temples

The SMALLER Temples

The east-facing complex measures about 110m (360 ft) on a side. It is dedicated to the
Trimurti - Brahma, Shiva, and Vishnu - and the temple of each god is faced by the temple
of his vehicle. Smaller shrines, a few of which have been reconstructed, are also found in

299
the complex. Shiva, the central and largest temple, measures 34m (111 ft) on a side and
47m (154 ft) high. Each of the three major temples retains its principal statue in the central
chamber (the Shiva temple also has statues in three side chambers); most of these were not
accessible in 2008, due to the ongoing repair work.

In all there are 224 temples in the entire complex. The inner square contains 16 temples, the
most significant being the 47 meters high central Siva temple flanked to the north by the
Brahma temple and to the south by the Vishnu temple. These three ancient masterpieces of
Hindu architecture are locally referred to as the Prambanan Temple or Lorojonggrang
Temple (Slender Maiden). A square platform is divided into concentric courts by square-
plane walls. In the middle of the last enceinte stand the temples dedicated to the three great
Hindu gods and three small temples dedicated to their animal vehicles (Bull for Siva, Eagle
for Brahma and Swan for Vishnu). Other minor temples were located at the entrance gates
or outside the central enceinte (four ensembles).
The Siva temple had four statues: located in the centre chamber is the Siva statue; in the
north chamber stands the Dewi Durga Mahisasuramardhini statue; in the west chamber
stands the Ganesya statue; and the south chamber contains the statue of Agastya. Inside the
Brahma temple there is Brahma statue, and in the Vishnu temple there is the Vishnu statue.
In the Vishnu temple is carved the story of Kresnayana, while the Brahma temple houses
the continuous story of the Ramayana. The temples of Siva, Vishnu and Brahma are
decorated with reliefs illustrating the Ramayana period (history of the Hindu hero Rama,
written around 300). Krĕṣṇāyana: The Krĕṣṇa Legend in Indonesia
The neighbouring Buddhist ensemble at Sewu comprises a central temple surrounded by a
multitude of minor temples. Surprisingly, it shares many design attributes with the Hindu
Loro Joggrang Temple, perhaps indicating the degree to which such temples also reflect
state policies and control. Three other temples in ruins set between Sewu and Loro Joggrang
complete the ensemble around Prambanan: Lumbuna, Burah and Asu.
Candi Vishnu

Vishnu's temple is seen here from the vicinity of Candi Garuda, the temple of Vishnu's mount
(see plan on previous page). The tripartite division of the typical Javanese temple, into
superstructure, main structure, and substructure, or head, body, and foot, is evident here. This
form is standard during both the Central Javanese (8th to 10th centuries AD) and East
Javanese (10th to 15th centuries AD) periods.

The temple's pyramidal roof and its wide base are decorated with innumerable miniature
shrines with kalasha finials; its vertical body is divided into two tall courses, each decorated
by a band of simple rectangular frames, that form an abrupt transition from the base. The
effect is to make the body seem narrow, and therefore tall, by contrast with the much wider
base, while also providing a graceful yet solid support for the massive roof.The temple's
sculptures and decorations, including its Krishna reliefs, are illustrated on the following
pages.

A worn but still impressive statue of Vishnu occupies the cella of his temple. The four-
armed god holds the usual chakra and conch in his upper hands. A club, now broken in the
middle, extends downward at the viewer's left. The now-erased lower right attribute is

300
harder to identify, but a lotus would be typical in this murti. An offering run-off channel
extends to the viewer's right from the base of the statue.

Garuda Temple

Opposite the Vishnu temple is a small temple dedicated to his Vahana or vehicle – Garuda.
Unfortunately, the temple is empty and the statue of Garuda is missing. However, visiting
these temples is almost like visiting the garage of the gods, where their vehicle are parked.

REFERENCE
1.https://rgdn.info/en/borobodur._buddiyskaya_stupa
2. See Chapter
3https://www.indomagic.com/articles/art-material-culture/architecture/architecture-of-
borobudur-temple/
4. shttps://www.britannica.com/art/Southeast-Asian-arts/Indigenous-traditions

The Vishnu Purana, translated by Horace Hayman Wilson, [1840], at sacred-texts.com

p. 217

CHAP. VIII.

Description of the sun: his chariot; its two axles: his horses. The cities of the regents of the
cardinal points. The sun's course: nature of his rays: his path along the ecliptic. Length of day
and night. Divisions of time: equinoxes and solstices, months, years, the cyclical Yuga, or
age of five years. Northern and southern declinations. Saints on the Lokáloka mountain.
Celestial paths of the Pitris, gods, Vishńu. Origin of Gangá, and separation, on the top of
Meru, into four great rivers.

PARÁŚARA.--Having thus described to you the system of the world in general, I will now
explain to you the dimensions and situations of the sun and other luminaries.

301
The chariot of the sun is nine thousand leagues in length, and the pole is of twice that
longitude 1; the axle is fifteen millions and seven hundred thousand leagues long 2; on which
is fixed a wheel with three naves, five spokes, and six peripheries, consisting of the ever-
during year; the whole constituting the circle or wheel of time 3. The chariot has another axle,
which is forty-five thousand five hundred leagues long 4.

p. 218

[paragraph continues]The two halves of the yoke are of the same length respectively as the
two axles (the longer and the shorter). The short axle, with the short yoke, are supported by
the pole-star: the end of the longer axle, to which the wheel of the car is attached, moves on
the Mánasa mountain 5. The seven horses of the sun's car are the metres of the Vedas,
Gáyatrí, Vrihatí, Ushńih, Jayatí, Trisht́ubh, Anusht́ubh, and Pankti.

The city of Indra is situated on the eastern side of the Mánasottara mountain; that of Yama on
the southern face; that of Varuńa on the west; and that of Soma on the north: named severally
Vaswokasárá, Samyamaní, Mukhyá, and Vibhávarí 6.

The glorious sun, Maitreya, darts like an arrow on his southern course, attended by the
constellations of the Zodiac. He causes the difference between day and night, and is the
divine vehicle and path of the sages who have overcome the inflictions of the world. Whilst
the sun, who is the discriminator of all hours, shines in one continent in midday, in the
opposite Dwípas, Maitreya, it will be midnight: rising and setting are at all seasons, and are
always (relatively) opposed in the different cardinal and intermediate points of the horizon.
When the sun becomes visible to any people, to them he is said to rise; when he disappears
from their

p. 219

view, that is called his setting. There is in truth neither rising nor setting of the sun, for he is
always; and these terms merely imply his presence and his disappearance.

When the sun (at midday) passes over either of the cities of the gods, on the Mánasottara
mountain (at the cardinal points), his light extends to three cities and two intermediate points:
when situated in an intermediate point, he illuminates two of the cities and three intermediate.
points (in either case one hemisphere). From the period of his rise the sun moves with
increasing rays until noon, when he proceeds towards his setting with rays diminishing (that
is, his heat increases or diminishes in proportion as he advances to, or recedes from, the
meridian of any place). The east and west quarters are so called from the sun's rising and
setting there 7. As far as the sun shines in front, so far he shines behind and on either hand,
illuminating all places except the summit of Meru, the mountain of the immortals; for when
his rays reach the court of Brahmá, which is there situated, they are repelled and driven back
by the overpowering radiance which there prevails: consequently there is always the
alternation of day and night, according as the divisions of the continent lie in the northern (or
southern) quarter, or inasmuch as they are situated north (or south) of Meru 8.

p. 220

The radiance of the solar orb, when the sun has set, is accumulated in fire, and hence fire is
visible at a greater distance by night than by day: during the latter a fourth of the rays of fire

302
blend with those of the sun, and from their union the sun shines with greater intensity by day.
Elemental light, and heat derived from the sun or from fire, blending with each other,
mutually prevail in various proportions, both by day and night. When the sun is present either
in the southern or the northern hemisphere, day or night retires into the waters, according as
they are invaded by darkness or light: it is from this cause that the waters look dark by day,
because night is within them; and they look white by night, because at the setting of the sun
the light of day takes refuge in their bosom 9.

When the sun has travelled in the centre of Pushkara a thirtieth part of the circumference of
the globe, his course is equal in time to one Muhúrtta 10; and whirling round like the
circumference of the wheel of a potter, he distributes day and night upon the earth. In the
commencement of his northern course, the sun passes to Capricornus, thence to Aquarius,
thence to Pisces, going successively from one sign of the Zodiac to another. After he has
passed through these, the sun attains his equinoctial movement (the vernal equinox), when he
makes the day and night of equal duration. Thenceforward the length of the night decreases,
and the day becomes longer, until the sun reaches the end of Gemini, when he pursues a
different direction, and, entering Cancer, begins his declension to the south. As the
circumference of a potter's

p. 221

wheel revolves most rapidly, so the sun travels rapidly on his southern journey: he flies along
his path with the velocity of wind, and traverses a great distance in a short time. In twelve
Muhúrttas he passes through thirteen lunar asterisms and a half during the day; and during the
night he passes through the same distance, only in eighteen Muhúrttas. As the centre of the
potter's wheel revolves more slowly than the circumference, so the sun in his northern path
again revolves with less rapidity, and moves over a less space of the earth in a longer time,
until, at the end of his northern route, the day is again eighteen Muhúrttas, and the night
twelve; the sun passing through half the lunar mansions by day and by night in those periods
respectively. As the lump of clay on the centre of the potter's wheel moves most slowly, so
the polar-star, which is in the centre of the zodiacal wheel, revolves very tardily, and ever
remains in the centre, as the clay continues in the centre of the wheel of the potter.

The relative length of the day or night depends upon the greater or less velocity with which
the sun revolves through the degrees between the two points of the horizon. In the solstitial
period, in which his diurnal path is quickest, his nocturnal is slowest; and in that in which he
moves quick by night, he travels slowly by day. The extent of his journey is in either case the
same; for in the course of the day and night he passes through all the signs of the Zodiac, or
six by night, and the same number by day: the length and shortness of the day are measured
by the extent of the signs; and the duration of day and night by the period which the sun takes
to pass through them 11. In his northern

p. 222

declination the sun moves quickest by night, and slowest by day; in his southern declination
the reverse is the case.

The night is called Ushá, and the day is denominated Vyusht́a, and the interval between them
is called Sandhya. On the occurrence of the awful Sandhya, the terrific fiends termed
Mandehas attempt to devour the sun; for Brahmá denounced this curse upon them, that,

303
without the power to perish, they should die every day (and revive by night), and therefore a
fierce contest occurs daily between them and the sun 12. At this season pious Brahmans
scatter water, purified by the mystical Omkára, and consecrated by the Gáyatri 13; and by
this water, as by a thunderbolt, the foul fiends are consumed. When the first oblation is
offered with solemn invocations in the morning rite 14, the thousand-rayed deity shines forth
with unclouded splendour. Omkára is Vishńu the mighty, the substance of the three Vedas,
the lord of speech; and by its enunciation those Rákshasas are destroyed. The sun is a
principal part of Vishńu, and light is his immutable essence, the active manifestation of which
is excited by the mystic syllable Om. Light effused by the utterance of Omkára becomes
radiant, and burns up entirely the Rákshasas called Mandehas. The performance of the
Sandhya (the morning) sacrifice must never therefore be delayed, for he who neglects it is
guilty of the murder of the sun. Protected thus by the Brahmans and the pigmy sages called
Bálakhilyas, the sun goes on his course to give light to the world.

p. 223

Fifteen twinklings of the eye (Nimeshas) make a Kásht́há; thirty Kásht́hás, a Kalá; thirty
Kalás, a Muhúrtta (forty-eight minutes); and thirty Muhúrttas, a day and night: the portions of
the day are longer or shorter, as has been explained; but the Sandhyá is always the same in
increase or decrease, being only one Muhúrtta 15. From the period that a line may be drawn
across the sun (or that half his orb is visible) to the expiration of three Muhúrttas (two hours
and twenty-four minutes), that interval is called Prátar (morning), forming a fifth portion of
the day. The next portion, or three Muhúrttas from morning, is termed Sangava (forenoon):
the three next Muhúrttas constitute mid-day: the afternoon comprises the next three
Muhúrttas: the three Muhúrttas following are considered as the evening: and the fifteen
Muhúrttas of the day are thus classed in five portions of three each. But the day consists of
fifteen Muhúrttas only at the equinoxes, increasing or diminishing in number in the northern
and southern declinations of the sun, when the day encroaches on the night, or the night upon
the day. The equinoxes occur in the seasons of spring and autumn, when the sun enters the
signs of Aries and Libra. When the sun enters Capricorn (the winter solstice), his northern
progress commences; and his southern when he enters Cancer (the summer solstice).

Fifteen days of thirty Muhúrttas each are called a Paksha (a lunar fortnight); two of these
make a month; and two months, a solar season; three seasons a northern or southern
declination (Ayana); and those two compose a year. Years, made up of four kinds of
months 16, are distinguished

p. 224

into five kinds; and an aggregate of all the varieties of time is termed a Yoga, or cycle. The
years are severally called Samvatsara, Parivatsara, Idvatsara, Anuvatsara, and Vatsara. This is
the time called a Yuga 17.

The mountain range that lies most to the north (in Bhárata-varsha) is called Śringaván (the
horned), from its having three principal elevations (horns or peaks), one to the north, one to
the south, and one in the centre; the last is called the equinoctial, for the sun arrives there in
the middle of the two seasons of spring and autumn, entering the equinoctial points in the
first degree of Aries and of Libra, and making day and night of equal duration, or fifteen
Muhúrttas each. When the sun, most excellent sage, is in the first degree of the lunar
mansion, Krittiká, and the moon is in the. fourth of Viśákhá, or when the sun is in the third

304
p. 225

degree of Viśákhá, and the moon is in the head of Krittiká (these positions being cotemporary
with the equinoxes), that equinoctial season is holy (and is styled the Mahávishubha, or the
great equinox) 18. At this time offerings are to be presented to the gods and to the manes, and
gifts are to be made to the Brahmans by serious persons; for such donations are productive of
happiness. Liberality at the equinoxes is always advantageous to the donor: and day and
night; seconds, minutes, and hours; intercalary months; the day of full moon (Paurnamásí);
the day of conjunction (Amávásya), when the moon rises invisible; the day when it is first
seen (Śiniválí); the day when it first disappears (Kuhú); the day when the moon is quite round
(Ráká); and the day when one digit is deficient (Anumati), are all seasons when gifts are
meritorious.

The sun is in his northern declination in the months Tapas, Tapasya, Madhu, Mádhava,
Śukra, and Śuchi; and in his southern in those of Nabhas, Nabhasya, Isha, Úrja, Sahas,
Sahasya 19.

On the Lokáloka mountain, which I have formerly described to you,

p. 226

reside the four holy protectors of the world; or Sudháman and Sankhapád, the two sons of
Kardama, and Hirańyaroman, and Ketumat 20. Unaffected by the contrasts of existence, void
of selfishness, active, and unencumbered by dependants, they take charge of the spheres,
themselves abiding on the four cardinal points of the Lokáloka mountain.

On the north of Agastya, and south of the line of the Goat, exterior to the Vaiswánara path,
lies the road of the Pitris 21. There dwell the great

p. 227

[paragraph continues]Rishis, the offerers of oblations with fire, reverencing the Vedas, after
whose injunctions creation commenced, and who were discharging the duties of ministrant
priests: for as the worlds are destroyed and renewed, they institute new rules of conduct, and
reestablish the interrupted ritual of the Vedas. Mutually descending from each other,
progenitor springing from descendant, and descendant from progenitor, in the alternating
succession of births, they repeatedly appear in different housed and races along with their
posterity, devout practices and instituted observances, residing to the south of the solar orb,
as long as the moon and stars endure 22.

The path of the gods lies to the north of the solar sphere, north of the Nágavithi 23, and south
of the seven Rishis. There dwell the Siddhas, of subdued senses, continent and pure,
undesirous of progeny, and therefore victorious over death: eighty-eight thousand of these
chaste beings tenant the regions of the sky, north of the sun, until the destruction of the
universe: they enjoy immortality, for that they are holy; exempt from covetousness and
concupiscence, love and hatred; taking no part in the procreation of living beings, and
detecting the unreality of the properties of elementary matter. By immortality is meant
existence to the end of the Kalpa: life as long as the three regions (earth, sky, and heaven) last
is called exemption from (reiterated) death 24. The consequences of acts of iniquity or piety,

305
such as Brahmanicide or an Aśwamedha, endure for a similar period, or until the end of a
Kalpa 25, when all within the interval between Dhruva and the earth is destroyed.

p. 228

The space between the seven Rishis and Dhruva 26, the third region of the sky, is the
splendid celestial path of Vishńu (Vishńupada), and the abode of those sanctified ascetics
who are cleansed from every soil, and in whom virtue and vice are annihilated. This is that
excellent place of Vishńu to which those repair in whom all sources of pain are extinct, in
consequence of the cessation of the consequences of piety or iniquity, and where they never
sorrow more. There abide Dharma, Dhruva, and other spectators of the world, radiant with
the superhuman faculties of Vishńu, acquired through religious meditation; and there are
fastened and inwoven to all that is, and all that shall ever be, animate or inanimate. The seat
of Vishńu is contemplated by the wisdom of the Yogis, identified with supreme light, as the
radiant eye of heaven. In this portion of the heavens the splendid Dhruva is stationed, and
serves for the pivot of the atmosphere. On Dhruva rest the seven great planets, and on them
depend the clouds. The rains are suspended in the clouds, and from the rains come the water
which is the nutriment and delight of all, the gods and the rest; and they, the gods, who are
the receivers of oblations, being nourished by burnt-offerings, cause the rain to fall for the
support of created beings. This sacred station of Vishńu, therefore, is the support of the three
worlds, as it is the source of rain.

From that third region of the atmosphere, or seat of Vishńu, proceeds the stream that washes
away all sin, the river Gangá, embrowned with the unguents of the nymphs of heaven, who
have sported in her waters. Having her source in the nail of the great toe of Vishńu's left foot,
Dhruva 27 receives her, and sustains her day and night devoutly on his head; and thence the
seven Rishis practise the exercises of austerity in her waters, wreathing their braided locks
with her waves. The orb of the moon, encompassed by her accumulated current, derives
augmented lustre from her contact. Falling from on high, as she issues from the moon; she
alights on the summit of Meru, and thence flows to the four

p. 229

quarters of the earth, for its purification. The Śítá, Alakanandá, Chakshu, and Bhadrá are four
branches of but one river, divided according to the regions towards which it proceeds. The
branch that is known as the Alakanandá was borne affectionately by Mahádeva, upon his
head, for more than a hundred years, and was the river which raised to heaven the sinful sons
of Sagara, by washing their ashes 28. The offences of any man who bathes in this river are
immediately expiated, and unprecedented virtue is engendered. Its waters, offered by sons to
their ancestors in faith for three years, yield to the latter rarely attainable gratification. Men of
the twice-born orders, who offer sacrifice in this river to the lord of sacrifice, Purushottama,
obtain whatever they desire, either here or in heaven. Saints who are purified from all soil by
bathing in its waters, and whose minds are intent on Keśava, acquire thereby final liberation.
This sacred stream, heard of, desired, seen, touched, bathed in, or hymned, day by day,
sanctifies all beings; and those who, even at a distance of a hundred leagues, exclaim "Gangá,
Gangá," atone for the sins committed during three previous lives. The place whence this river
proceeds, for the purification of the three worlds, is the third division of the celestial regions,
the seat of Vishńu 29.

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 Footnotes

217:1 The sun's car is 10.000 Yojanas broad, and as many deep, according to the Váyu and
Matsya. The Bhágavata makes it thirty-six hundred thousand long, and one fourth that broad.
The Linga agrees with the text.

217:2 There is no great difference in this number in other accounts. The length of this axle,
which extends from Meru to Mánasa, is nearly equal to the semidiameter of the earth, which,
according to the Matsya P., is 18.950.000 Yojanas.

217:3 The three naves are the three divisions of the day, morning, noon, and night; the five
spokes are the five cyclic years; and the six peripheries are the six seasons. The Bhágavata
explains the three naves to be three periods of the year, of four months each, and gives
twelves spokes as types of the twelve months. The Váyu, Matsya, and Bhavishya Puráńas
enter into much more detail. According to them, the parts of the wheel are the same as above
described: the body of the car is the year; its upper and lower half are the two solstices;
Dharma is its flag; Artha and Káma the pins of the yoke and axle; night is its fender;
Nimeshas form its floor; a moment is the axle-tree; an instant the pole; minutes are its
attendants; and hours its harness.

217:4 This shorter axle is, according to the Bhágavata, one fourth of the longer.

218:5 We are to understand here, both in the axle and yoke, two levers, one horizontal, the
other perpendicular. The horizontal arm of the axle has a wheel at one end; the other
extremity is connected with the perpendicular arm. To the horizontal arm of the yoke are
harnessed the horses; and its inner or right extremity is secured to the perpendicular. The
upper ends of both perpendiculars are supposed to be attached to Dhruva, the pole-star, by
two aerial cords, which are lengthened in the sun's southern course, and shortened in his
northern; and retained by which to Dhruva, as to a pivot, the wheel of the car traverses the
summit of the Mánasottara mountain on Pushkara-dwípa, which runs like a ring round the
several continents and oceans. The contrivance is commonly compared to an oil mill, and was
probably suggested by that machine as constructed in India. As the Mánasottara mountain is
but 50.000 leagues high, and Meru 84.000, whilst Dhruva is 1500.000, both levers are
inclined at obtuse angles to the nave of the wheel and each other. In images of the sun, two
equal and semicircular axles connect a central wheel with the sides of the car.

218:6 In the Linga the city of Indra is called Amarávati; and in it and the Váyu that of Varuńa
is termed Sukhá.

219:7 The terms Púrva and Apara mean properly 'before and behind;' but 'before' naturally
denotes the east, either because men, according to a text of the Vedas, spontaneously face, as
if to welcome the rising sun, or because they are enjoined by the laws so to do. When they
face the rising sun, the west is of course behind them. The same circumstance determines the
application of the term Dakshina, properly 'right,' δεξιὸς, or 'dexterum,' to the south. Uttara,
'other' or 'last,' necessarily implies the north.

219:8 This is rather obscure, but it is made out clearly enough in the commentary, and in the
parallel passages in the Váyu, Matsya, Linga, Kúrma, and Bhágavata. The sun travels round
the world, keeping Meru always on his right: to the spectator who fronts him therefore, as he
rises, Meru must be always on the north; and as the sun's rays do not penetrate beyond the

307
centre of the mountain, the regions beyond, or to the north of it, must be in darkness; whilst
those on the south of it must be in light: north and south being relative, not absolute terms,
depending upon the position of the spectator with regard to the sun and to Meru. So the
commentator: ###. p. 220 It was probably through some misapprehension of this doctrine that
Major Wilford asserted, "by Meru the Pauráńiks understand in general the north pole, but the
context of the Puráńas is against this supposition." As. Res. VIII. 286. There is no
inconsistency, however, in Meru's being absolutely in the centre of the world, and relatively
north to the inhabitants of the several portions, to all of whom the east is that quarter where
the sun first appears, and the other quarters are thereby regulated.

220:9 Similar notions are contained in the Váyu.

220:10 The sun travels at the rate of one-thirtieth of the earth's circumference in a Muhúrtta,
or 31.50.000 Yojanas; making the total 9 crores and 45 lakhs, or 9.45.00.000; according to
the Váyu, Lingo, and Matsya Puráńas.

221:11 This passage, which is somewhat at variance with the general doctrine, that the length
of the day depends upon the velocity of the sun's course, and which has not been noticed in
any other Pauráńik text, is defended by the commentator, upon the authority of the
Jyotishśástra, or astronomical writings. According to them, he asserts, the signs of the Zodiac
are of different extent. Aquarius, Pisces, and Aries are the shortest; Taurus, Capricornus, and
Gemini are something longer; Leo and Scorpio longer still; and the remaining four the
longest of all. According to the six which the sun traverses, the day or night will be the longer
or shorter. The text is, ###. The apparent contradiction may however be reconciled by
understanding the sun's slow motion, and the length of a sign, to be equivalent terms.

222:12 The same story occurs in the Váyu, with the addition that the Mandehas are three
crores in number. It seems to be an ancient legend, imperfectly preserved in some of the
Puráńas.

222:13 The sacred syllable Om has been already described (p. 1. n. 1). The Gayatrí, or holiest
verse of the Vedas, not to be uttered to ears profane, is a short prayer to the sun, identified as
the supreme, and occurs in the tenth hymn of the fourth section of the third Asht́aka of the
Sanhitá of the Rig-veda: 'We meditate on that excellent light of the divine sun: may he
illuminate our minds.' Such is the fear entertained of profaning this text, that copyists of the
Vedas not unfrequently refrain from transcribing it, both in the Sanhitá and Bháshya.

222:14 Or, in the text, with the prayer that commences with the words Súrya jyotir, 'That
which is in the sun (or light) is adorable,' &c. The whole prayer is given in Colebrooke's
account of the religious ceremonies of the Hindus. As. Res. V. 355.

223:15 But this comprehends the two Sandhyás, 'morning and evening twilight.' Two Náris,
or half a Muhúrtta before sunrise, constitute the morning Sandhyá; and the same interval after
sunset the evening. Sandhya, meaning 'junction,' is so termed as it is the juncture or interval
between darkness and light; as in the Váyu and Matsya: ###.

223:16 The four months are named in the Váyu, and are, 1. the Saura, or solar-sydereal,
consisting of the sun's passage through a sign of the Zodiac: 2. the Saumya or Chándra or
lunar month, comprehending thirty lunations or Tithis, and reckoned most usually from new
moon to new moon, though sometimes from full moon to full moon: 3. the Sávana or solar

308
month, containing thirty days of sunrise and sunset: and 4. the Nákshatra or lunar p.
224 asterismal month, which is the moon's revolution through the twenty-eight lunar
mansions.

224:17 The five years forming this Yuga, or cycle, differ only in denomination, being
composed of the months above described, with such Malamásas, or intercalary months, as
may be necessary to complete the period, according to Vriddha Garga. The cycle
comprehends, therefore, sixty solar- sydereal months of 1800 days; sixty-one solar months, or
1830 days; sixty-two lunar months, or 1860 lunations; and sixty-seven lunar-asterismal
months, or 1809 such days. Col. Warren, in his Kála Sankalitá, considers these years to be
severally cycles. "In the cycle of sixty," he observes, "are contained five cycles of twelve
years, each supposed equal to one year of the planet (Jupiter). I only mention this cycle
because I found it mentioned in some books; but I know of no nation nor tribe that reckons
time after that account. The names of the five cycles, or Yugs, are, 1. Samvatsara, 2.
Parivatsara, 3. Idvatsara, 4. Anuvatsara, 5. Udravatsara. The name of each year is determined
from the Nákshatra, in which Vrihaspati sets and rises heliacally, and they follow in the order
of the lunar months." K. S. 212. It may be reasonably doubted, however, if this view be
correct; and the only connexion between the cycle of five years and that of Vrihaspati may be
the multiplication of the former by the latter (5 x 12), so as to form the cycle of sixty years: a
cycle based, the commentator remarks, upon the conjunction (Yuga) of the sun and moon in
every sixtieth year. The original and properly Indian cycle, however, is that of five years, as
Bentley remarks. "The astronomers of this period (1181 B. C.) framed a cycle of five years
for civil and religious ceremonies." Ancient and modern Hindu Astronomy. It is in fact, as
Mr. Colebrooke states, the cycle of the Vedas, described in the Jyotish, or astronomical
sections, and specified in the institutes of Paráśara as the basis of calculation for larger
cycles. As. Res. VIII. 470.

225:18 Reference is here made apparently, though indistinctly, to those positions of the
planets which indicate, according to Bentley, the formation of the lunar mansions by Hindu
astronomers, about 1424 B. C. Hindu Astronomy, p. 3 and 4. The Váyu and Linga Puráńas
specify the positions of the other planets at the same time, or the end, according to the former,
of the Chákshusha Manwantara. At that time the sun was in Viśákhá, the moon in Krittiká,
Venus in Pushyá, Jupiter in Púrvaphalguní, Mars in Áshád́há, Budha in Dhanisht́há, Śani in
Revatí, Ketu in Ásleshá, and Ráhu in Bharaní. There are differences between some of these
and the positions cited by Bentley, but most of them are the same. He considers them to have
been observations of the occultations of the moon by the planets, in the respective lunar
mansions, 1424-5 B. C. According to the Váyu, these positions or origins of the planets are
from the Vedas: ###. The Linga, less accurately perhaps, reads ### referring it to the works
of law.

225:19 These are the names of the months which occur in the Vedas, and belong to a system
now obsolete, as was noticed by Sir Wm. Jones. As. Res. III. 258. According to the
classification of the text, they correspond severally with the lunar months Mágha, Phálguna,
Chaitra, Vaiśákha, Jyesht́ha, Áshárha, or from December to June; and with Śrávańa, Bhádra,
Áswina, Kártika, Agraháyana, and Pausha, from July to December. From this order of the
two series of the months, as occurring in the Vedas, Mr. Colebrooke infers, upon
astronomical computations, their date to be about fourteen centuries prior to the Christian era.
As. Res. VII. 283.

309
226:20 The Váyu has the same names, but ascribes a different descent to the first, making
Sudháman the son of Viraja. Sankhapád is the son of Kardama: the other two are the sons of
Parjanya and Rajas, consistently with the origin ascribed to these Lokapálas in the patriarchal
genealogies of that Puráńa (see p. 83).

226:21 Allusion is here made to some divisions of the celestial sphere which are not
described in any other part of the text. The fullest, but still in some respects a confused and
partly inaccurate account is given in the Matsya Puráńa; but a more satisfactory description
occurs in the comment on the Bhágavata, there cited from the Váyu, but not found in the
copies consulted on the present occasion. According to those details, the path (Márga) of the
sun and other planets amongst the lunar asterisms is divided into three portions or
Avasht́hánas, northern, southern, and central, called severally Airávata, Járadgava (Ajagava,
Matsya P.), and Vaiswánara. Each of these, again, is divided into three parts or Víthis: those
of the northern portion are termed Nágavithi, Gajavíthi, and Airávati; those of the centre are
Árshabhí Govíthí, and Járadgaví; and those of the south are named Ajavíthí, Mrígavithí, and
Vaiswánarí. Each of these Víthis comprises three asterisms.

Aswiní
Nágavíthi Bharańí
Krittiká
Rohiní
Gajavíthí Mrigaśiras
Ardrá
Punarvasu
Airávati Pushyá
Ásleshá
Maghá
Árshabhí Púrvaphalguní
Uttaraphalguní
Hastá
Govíthí Chitrá
Swáti
Viśákhá
Járadgaví Anurádhá
Jyesht́há
Múlá
Ajavíthi Purváshád́há
Uttaráshád́há
Śravańá
Mrigavíthí Dhanisht́há
Satábhishá
Púrva Bhádrapadá
Vaiswánarí Uttara Bhádrapadá
Revatí.

[paragraph continues]See also As. Res. IX. table of Nakshatras, 346. Agastya is Canopus; and
the line of the goat, or Ajavíthi, comprises asterisms which contain stars in Scorpio and
Sagittarius.

310
227:22 A marginal note in one MS. explains the phrase of the text, ### to signify as far as to
the moon and stars; but the Pitri yána, or path of the Pitris, lies amongst the asterisms; and,
according to the Pauráńik system of the heavens, it is not clear what could be meant by its
being bounded by the moon and stars. The path south of the solar orb is, according to the
Vedas, that of smoke or darkness.

227:23 The stars of the Nágavíthi are those of Aries and Taurus; and by the seven Rishis we
are here to understand Ursa Major.

227:24 This, according to the Vedas, is all that is to be understood of the immortality of the
gods: they perish at the period of universal dissolution.

227:25 That is, generally as affecting created beings, not individuals, whose acts influence
their several successive births.

228:26 From Ursa Major to the polar star.

228:27 The popular notion is, that Śiva or Mahádeva receives the Ganges on his head; but
this, as subsequently explained, is referred, by the Vaishńavas at least, to the descent of the
Alakanandá, or Ganges of India, not to the celestial Ganges.

229:28 Or, in other words, 'flows into the sea.' The legend here alluded to is more fully
detailed in a subsequent book.

229:29 The situation of the source of the Ganges of heaven identifies it with the milky way.

311
 Chapter 5
The Concept of the Buddhist Shiva and associated Temples in East
Java.Indonesia

Jago Temple is located in Jago Hamlet of Tumpang Village, Tumpang Subdistrict, Malang
Regency, or 22 km to the east of Malang. Because it is located in Tumpang village, the
temple is also called Tumpang Temple. Local villagers call the temple Cungkup.

According to Negarakertagama and Pararaton, the original name of this temple is Jajaghu.
Verse 41 phrase 4 of Negarakertagama describes that King Wisnuwardhana who ruled
Singasari was a Buddhist Shiva, a religious sect that combines the teachings of Hindu and
Buddhist. The teaching flourished during the ruling of Singasari Kingdom, a kingdom
located 20 km from Jago Temple. Jajaghu, which means 'greatness', is a term used for
referring a shrine.

Still according to Negarakertagama and Pararaton, Jago Temple was built between 1268 and
1280 AD, as a tribute to the 4th King of Singasari Sri Jaya Wisnuwardhana. Although the
temple built during the ruling of Singasari Kingdom, the two books mentioned that in 1359
AD Jago Temple was one of the places most frequently visited by King Hayam Wuruk of the
Majapahit Empire. The connection between Jago Temple and Singasari Kingdom can also be
traced from lotus carvings, which ramble upwards from their stems and decorate the statues’
pedestals. Such lotus motif was highly popular during Singasari Kingdom.

Important to note from temple history is the habit of past kings to restore temples erected by
their predecessors. Jago Temple had probably been restored in 1343 AD as ordered by King
Adityawarman of Melayu, who had blood relation to King Hayam Wuruk.

Today Jago Temple is still in ruined condition and yet to restore. The whole structure of the
temple is a square, 23 m x 14 m in dimension. Its roof has gone, so it is not possible to find

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out the exact height of the temple. It is estimated that the temple stood 15 m high.

Facing west, the temple sits on a 1-meter high base and three-terraced feet. Going upward,
the temple feet are getting smaller, providing a walkway on the first and second floor where
people can walk around the temple. Graba ghra (main room) is shifted slightly to the back.

This temple is pyramidal in structure with walkways and shifted rearward, a common shape
of building found during megalithic age, which is called punden berundak (pyramidal
shrines). The shape was generally applied in the construction of a shrine to worship ancestral
spirits. The shape indicates that Jago Temple was built as a shrine to worship ancestral spirits
as well. However, further research and study are still required to prove the truth of it.
Important to consider is that during the ruling of kingdoms in East Java, there are many
variations in shape and function of building. This can be related to the deviation in religious
practices which, by itself, affects the arts in holy shrines, including temple.

To go to the upper floor, there are two narrow stairs to the left and right hand side of the front
part (west). The most important and holiest floor is the highest, of which the construction is
shifted rearward.

Jago Temple is full of relief panels carved skillfully from the feet up to the walls of the
highest room. There is virtually no vacant space, because they are all decorated with various
ornaments that tell interrelated stories conveying a message of a “release”.

This has reinforced the assumption that Jago Temple was built in close relation to the death
of Sri Jaya Wisnuwardhana. In line with the religion followed by King Wisnuwardhana, i.e.

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Shiva Buddhist, reliefs on Jago Temple contain the elements of both Hindu and Buddhist
teachings.

Buddhist teaching is reflected in reliefs telling the story of Tantri Kamandaka and the story
of Kunjarakarna, which are carved on the lowest terrace. The walls on the second terrace are
carved with the next sequence of Kunjarakarna story and parts Mahabharata story that
contain Hindu teachings, Parthayajna and Arjuna Wiwaha. The third terrace is full of reliefs
telling the next sequence of Arjunawiwaha. The temple body’s walls are also carved with
Hindu stories of Krishna and Kalayawana war.

In the middle of the front yard, around 6 m from the temple’s feet, there is a big carved stone,
1 m in diameter, which resembles the shape of giant pedestal. On top of it, there is a relief of
lotus flower rambling out of its stem.

On the west side of temple front yard is the statue of eight-armed Amoghapasa in the
foreground of giant-head-shaped thrones in a position of one opposing the other. The statue’s
head is missing and the arms broken. Around 3 meters to the south of the statue is a giant
head 1 m. high. No information is available whether the objects in the temple yard are in
their original places.

This temple is located on the foot of Welirang Hill, Candi Wates village, Prigen Subdistrict,
Pasuruan Regency, around 31 km from the city of Pasuruan. The temple is relatively still
intact after frequent restorations. The second restoration of Jawi Temple was performed
between 1938 and 1941 out of its ruined condition. The work, however, was discontinued
because there are many missing stones, and was completed further between 1975 and 1980.

Verse 56 of Negarakertagama mentions that Jawi Temple was built by the last king of
Singasari Kingdom, Kertanegara, as a worship shrine for Shiva-Buddhist followers. King
Kartanegara was a Shiva-Buddhist follower. While being a worship shrine, Jawi Temple is
also a place where Kertanegara ashes are kept. This is rather strange because Jawi Temple is
located quite distant away from the center of Singasari Kingdom. It is probably because of
the fact that the people in the area were so loyal to their king and many of them were Shiva-
Buddhist followers. The assumption is founded on a reality that as Raden Wijaya,
Kertanegara’s son-in-law, fled after Kertanegara was dethroned by King Jayakatwang from
Gelang-gelang (Kediri); he had once hidden in this area before taking refuge to Madura.

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Jawi Temple occupies a large area of approximately 40 x 60 m2. The temple is encircled by a
ditch, which today has lotus flowers. The temple stands around 24.5 meters high, 14.2 m
long and 9.5 m wide. The temple is slim and high like Prambanan Temple in Central Java,
while the pointed, pyramidal roof is a combination between stupa and cube.

Facing the East, Jawi Temple has Pananggungan Mountain on its background, reinforcing
the assumption of some experts that this temple is not a shrine or pradaksina, because
worship temple usually heads towards mountains where the gods dwell. Some other experts
retain their beliefs that Jawi Temple is a place of worship. Entrance position that does not
face the mountain is considered to be resulting from Buddhist influence.

One of this temple’s unique characteristics is the use of two types of stone as its construction
materials. From the base to veranda, the temple uses stones of dark colors; the body uses
white stones, while the roof combines dark and white stones. This temple was probably built
in two period of construction. Negarakertagama mentions that in the Javanese year of 1253
(chronogram: Fire Shooting Day) Jawi Temple was struck by lighting. In the incident, the
statue of Maha Aksobaya disappeared. The disappearance of the statue had made King
Hayam Wuruk sad when the king visited the temple. A year after the incident, Jawi Temple
was rebuilt. It is in this period that the white stones were presumably applied. The use of
white stones also stimulates questions, because there are only dark-colored stones in
Welirang Mountain. The stones were probably taken from the north coasts of Java or
Madura.

The temple base sits on a shelf 2 m high engraved in relives that depict a story of a
meditating woman. The relatively narrow stairs are positioned right in front of the entrance to
graba grha (room in temple body). Detailed engravings decorate the left and right handrails

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of the stairs into veranda, while the handrails of the stairs from the veranda into temple floor
are decorated with a couple of long-eared animal figures.

The temple body is encircled by wide enough verandas. It appears that there used to be a
statue inside the temple. The door frame is plain without engravings, but reliefs of
kalamakara with a pair of fangs, lower jaw and decoration on its hair are engraved above the
door to fill the space between door top and roof base. There is a niche on each of the left and
right hand sides of the door to place a statue. Sills above each of the niche are decorated with
engravings of fanged and horned creature heads.

The inner room of temple body is currently in empty. Negarakertagama mentions that inside
the temple’s niche there was a statue of Shiva with Aksobaya on his crown. The book also
mentions that there are a number of god statues in the Shiva system of belief, such as
Nandiswara, Durga, Ganesha, Nandi, and Brahma statues. None of the statues remain in their
place. Reportedly the Durga statue is now kept in Empu Tantular Museum, Surabaya.

The outer walls of the temple body are decorated in reliefs, which to this day none can
interpret. It is probably due to the excessively thin engravings, or because there is a lacking
in supporting information such as sculptured stone or scripts. Even Negarakertagama, which
tells this temple in detail, does not mention anything about the reliefs. According to
gatekeeper of the temple, the reliefs must be read using prasawiya technique (counter-
clockwise reading), similar to that used in reading Kidal Temple reliefs. Still according to the
gatekeeper, reliefs engraved on the west side of the north wall describe the map of temple
compound and its neighbouring areas.

A narrow stream separates the temple’s backyard, which is wide and orderly arranged, from
settlement area. On the south corner of the yard, there is a ruined construction of red bricks,
which probably was a gateway or gopura. However, there is not record available concerning
its original shape and function.

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Chapter 6
Mataram where Gods and Buddha Reside- Book Rediscovery of
Borobudur by maiguch.sakura (Chapter 5)

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 http://maiguch.sakura.ne.jp/ALL-FILES/ENGLISH-PAGE/JAVA-ESSAY/html-files/E5=Mataram-
Gods-and-Buddha.html

Even those who are usually indifferent to Java may remember Borobudur, and the Java Man,
if asked what they have learnt in school about Java. The ancient monument, which is rated as
one of the finest cultural heritages of the world, had been hidden for more than one thousand
years in the depths of the jungle until it was rediscovered in the beginning of the 19th
century. It was during the time of the Napoleonic war when Java was occupied by the British
that Thomas Stamford Raffles, who was then the Lieutenant Governor of Java and its
Dependencies, heard rumours of the “mountain of statues” called Boro-bodo from local
inhabitants and he gave an order to conduct surveys to Lieutenant Colonel Ir. H. C. Cornelis
who had formerly engaged in the excavation of the Prambanan ruin that had been known
about since eighty years earlier. In his great book,The History of Java [1], published in 1817,
Raffles wrote about the whole particulars that appeared after the felling of rank tropical trees
and the removal of thick soil, as follows:
“In the district of Boro in the province of Kedu, and near to the confluence of
the rivers Elo and Praga, crowning a small hill, stands the temple of Boro Bodo,
supposed by some to have been built in the sixth, and by others in the tenth,
century of the Javan era. It is a square stone building consisting of seven ranges of
walls, each range decreasing as you ascend, till the building terminates in a kind of
dome. It occupies the whole of the upper part of a conical hill, which appears to
have been cut away so as to receive the walls, and to accommodate itself to the
figure of the whole structure. At the centre, resting on the very apex of the hill, is
the dome, of about fifty feet diameter; and in its present ruinous state, the upper
part having fallen in, only about twenty feet high. This is surrounded by a triple
circle of towers, in number seventy-two, each occupied by an image looking
outwards, and all connected by a stone casing of the hill, which externally has the
appearance of a roof.
“Descending from thence, you pass on each side of the building by steps through
five handsome gateways, conducting to five successive terraces, which surround
the hill on every side. The walls which support these terraces are covered with the
richest sculpture on both sides, but more particularly on the side which forms an
interior wall to the terrace below, and are raised so as to form a parapet on the
other side. In the exterior of these parapets, at equal distances, are niches, each
containing a naked figure sitting cross-legged, and considerably larger than life; the
total number of which is not far short of four hundred. Above each niche is a little
spire, another above each of the sides of the niche, and another upon the parapet
between the sides of the neighbouring niches. The design is regular; the
architectural and sculptural ornaments are profuse. The bas-reliefs represent a
variety of scenes, apparently mythological, and executed with considerable taste
and skill. The whole area occupied by this noble building is about six hundred and
twenty feet either way.
“The exterior line of the ground-plan, though apparently a perfect square when
viewed at a distance, is not exactly of that form, as the centre of each face, to a

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 considerable extent, projects many feet, and so as to cover as much ground as the
conical shape of the hill will admit: the same form is observed in each of the
terraces.
“The whole has the appearance of one solid building, and is about a hundred feet
high, independently of the central spire of about twenty feet, which has fallen in.
The interior consists almost entirely of the hill itself.”

Borobudur Temple in Boro District Kedu

Reproduced from: Antiquarian, Architectural, and Landscape Illustrations of the History of Java 1844/John Bastin (preface),
Plates to Raffles's History of Java, Oxford University Press, 1989 (Vol. II). This sketch was made by Ir. H. C. Cornelis who conducted the
first excavation in 1815.

This news startled the world. It was thirty years earlier than the discovery of Troy ruins by
Heinrich Schliemann that was said to be the monumental epoch in the history of archaeology.
Who had built such a magnificent structure and when? I read somewhere that among
Europeans was someone who believed their superiority to other races raised such a
nonsensical speculation that it must have been constructed by Alexander the Great when he
reached there during his eastern expedition [2], because it was hardly possible by Asians.

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 Nevertheless the wider view was such that the temple had been built by the
natives in the 8th–9th centuries when Hindu-Buddhist culture prospered there, long
before Islam propagated around the island of Java. Presently, it is commonly
understood that the founder was King Samaratungga of the Sailendra and that the
year of its completion was 824 AD, as described below.
Although Raffles’s rule was not necessarily successful and left various problems, the
Dutch appreciated his efforts for promoting the study of ancient culture of Java and followed
the survey of this and other remains, after the restoration of the East Indies to the Netherlands
in 1816. The second survey was conducted by the middle of the 19th century and, after the
emergence of photography, Borobudur became widely known in the world. A famous
naturalist, Alfred Russel Wallace, who visited the East Indies in the 1860s concluded his
paragraph on Borobudur as, “The amount of human labour and skill expended on the Great
Pyramid of Egypt sinks into insignificance when compared with that required to complete
this sculptured hill-temple in the interior of Java.” [3] Indeed, it would not be only myself
who had the same thoughts as Wallace, after visiting the two sites. While the Egyptian
pyramids were a mere stone masonry, the scenes on the bas-reliefs, which Raffles described
as “mythological”, had turned out to be not just ornaments but the pictorial explanations of
the biography of Gautama and various other sutras. This tradition of “narrative sculptures”
was inherited in the temples built shortly after then in Prambanan Plain as well as those
constructed in the 12th to 15th centuries in East Java.
Since the concept to preserve such ancient ruins as of Borobudur as cultural
heritage was yet to be common in the later 19th century, several pieces of
Buddha’s statue were presented to King Chulalongkorn of Siam (the present-day
Thailand) when he visited Java, and a tea hut was put on the tower (“central spire”,
in Raffles’s term) for sightseers, as taken in a photograph which remains to date.
The array of stone pieces in Borobudur was still significantly disordered and
irregular at that time. It was after the turn of the 20th century that proper
archaeological research commenced and the necessity of preservation was voiced.
The first large-scale restoration was conducted in 1907–11 under the direction of Ir. van
Erp, in which as many as one million stone pieces of one hundred thousand tons were
registered and rearranged. Marquis Tokugawa who visited there ten years later wrote in his
famous essay that, “The Buddhist monument even looked more precious, when I thought
over the time and effort that had been spent for the restoration.” [4] I recall this meaningful
comment by a scientist and historian whenever I visit this and other ancient remains.

The architecture of Borobudur

The structure of the temple was not a normal building but, as described by Raffles, an object
that stone pieces were layed on the surface of a rhyolitic hill covered by clay. The centre of
the dome, which was not clear in Raffles’s description, consisted of three layers of circular
terraces, the number of stupas (Raffles’s “tower”) on them being 16, 24, and 32, from the top
to the bottom, respectively (i.e. 72 in total). Regarding the dome itself as a gigantic stupa, a
pole threaded with finial rings was once added on top of the tower, but it was removed later
for the lack of historical evidence[5].

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 Cross-section of Borobudur.
Redrawn on: Karl With, Java – Brahmanische, Buddhistische und Eigenleige Architektur und Plastik auf Java ,
Filkwang Verlag. M. B. H. Haben 1. W. 1920.
Red lines to indicate the locations of reliefs have been added by the present writer.

Such a ringed pole, which can be seen in an old picture of Borobudur, can also be seen
today on the office building of West Java Government in Bandung, nicknamed “Gedung
Sate”, which is a famous building of Dutch–Javan eclectic style, built in 1924, designed by Ir.
J. Gerber, a young architect from Delft Technical Highschool. It was when I guided someone
from countryside Java during my stay in Bandung that the hungry guest fell into
disappointment, having misunderstood that Gedung Sate was not a sate-house that served
“sate”, a skewered meat that was a popular cuisine in Sunda (“gedung” means a “building”).
In reality the nickname has its origin on the side view of the ringed pole, which looks like
“sate” from the distance, while the architect must have faithfully imaged the ringed pole of a
Buddhist temple.
In the Borobudur temple, the numbers of niches on the five terraces were 104, 104, 88, 72
and 64, from the bottom to the top, respectively, and 432 in total, the sum of Buddha statues
was 504, by adding those in the 72 stupas on the upper circular terraces. Although those
sculptures are similar in both size and shape so that their difference is not easily noticeable
for amateurs, their names and the mudra have been identified in detail[6].

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 The ground plan of Borobudur Temple
Redrawn on: Stutterheim, W. F., Pictorial history of civilization in Java.
Translated by Mrs. A. C. de Winter-Keen, The Java Institute and G. Kolff & Co., Weltevreden, 1926.

It is said that one more uncompleted sculpture of Buddha was discovered during the
survey by Hartmann in 1842 in a small cell that existed in the interior of the central tower,
and aroused interest at that time, but it could have been a trick by someone to plot a big
discovery, as conjectured by Dr. N. J. Krom5.
Bas-reliefs on the outer wall of the basement and both side walls of the four corridors were
as many as 1,300 in number, and they have been interpreted to represent such sutras as
Lalitavistara, Jataka, Avadana, etc.[7] Although these sutras are certainly not at all easy to
read, at least for myself, the reliefs depicting the life of Gautama (Lalitavistara) on the panels
on the main wall of the first corridor can be followed by ordinary visitors. They begin with a
scene of Bodhisattva in the heaven and through the scenes of Maya’s conception by seeing a
white elephant in her dream, Gautama’s birth and growth, his renouncement from the world
and so on, and end with his first lecture.

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Five scenes from 120 reliefs on the first corridor-parapet (upper row) of Borobudur, showing the Gautama’s life. From the top,
[No. 13] Maya dreams a sacred dream, [No. 49] Gautama shows talent of archery, [No. 51] Gautama marries Gopa, [No. 66]
Gautama parts from his horse and attendants to go into religion, [No. 120] Gautama gives his first lecture after ascetic practices.
From: Hidenosuke Miura (Ed.),
Buddhist monument Borobudur in Java: Folder 1–3, Borobudur Publishing Society 1924 By courtesy of The
Tokugawa Art Museum Library.

Besides those exposed reliefs, 120 panels with carvings of some scenes of karma
(Mahakarmavihanga) hidden under the ground on the wall of the basement were unearthed
and photographed by Dr. J. W. Ijzerman in 1885, before the first restoration, but were buried
again, having been judged that the basement had been covered with soil, in the course of the
construction of the temple, by changing the original design, in order to reinforce the upper
structure. In fact, some of the reliefs were unfinished according to photographs taken at that
time.
In addition to those Buddha statues and the reliefs, the building of Borobudur is also
ornamented with sculptures, such as Makara, a sea-creature in Hindu mythology, being
placed at the foot of each staircase, and of the head of Kala (Kirtimukha in Sanskrit means
"Glorious face"), the god of death, which originated from Hinduism, being put upon each
gate, as well as carvings of various animals, birds and flowers on the frames on the wall and
everywhere. One cannot but admire the elaborate and sophisticated idea of the designer.
As to the attributes of the temple, there is one common view that Borobudur was not a
stupa but a representation of the tridhatu, the basement with the hidden relief being the
Kamadhatu (desire-realm), the square terraces with those of sutras being the Rupadhatu (fine-
material-realm) and the upper circular terraces being the Arupyadhatu (non-material-realm).
W. O. J. Nieuwenkamp (1874–1950), a Dutch scholar and painter, well known for his fine
sketches and woodcuts of Java and Bali, had assumed that Borobudur had represented a huge
lotus flower floating on water and drawn such a picture in 1931, judging from the ground-
plan of the temple on some unearthed artefacts depicting a lotus rosette and petals around a

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circular flower-bed, and the results of water-level surveys, which showed that the Kedu Basin
beneath the 235-metre elevation line was once a lake [8]. Although his theory was fiercely
criticised by Ir. van Erp[9], Dr. Soekmono [10], a current authority of Borobudur wrote that
Nieuwenkamp’s hypothesis should not necessarily be rejected as further geological
investigation produced evidence in favour of his idea.
The theory to consider Borobudur as a representation of mandala was raised earlier in 1925
by Prof. Seigai Ōmura, an eminent art critic and professor of Tokyo Fine Art School. With
reference to his deep knowledge on Buddhist art, he wrote in an article contributed to Prof.
Miura’s book [11] that “Borobudur is neither a vihara (temple), a caitya (tower) nor a stupa,
but a great stone construction of karma mandala, one of the four types of mandalas” and that
“this had not been perceived by scholars in the world due to their deficient understanding of
Esoteric Buddhism.” Unfortunately, his paper does not seem to have caught wide attention,
until today, because it was written in Japanese in the not for sale, limited edition book of only
200 copies printed.
Dr. Krom who engaged in the restoration in the early 1900s began the first chapter of his
great book [12] as follows:
“Namo Buddhaya! Hail Buddha! No words more suitable than these could be
found with which to begin our description of this mighty monument. How often
they must have echoed through the galleries and over the terraces of the
Barabudur! To comprehend fully the meaning of this most splendid creation of
Hindu-Javan culture, we must transport ourselves, as far as possible, into the mind
and spirit of those who, 1,100 years ago, worshipped reverently at the feet of the
Lion of the Sakya-race, the Omniscient, the Protector of the Earth in divine
majesty.”
Whilst the pilgrims in those days are supposed to have climbed the staircases,
led by monks in robes, and received lectures of sutras in front of the reliefs on each
terrace, until finally feeling refreshed when they stood on the top terrace, we have
to hire a guide in a casual shirt today, as no monks are available in this religiously
abandoned temple. Once I met a guide who had profound knowledge on
Buddhism, despite the fact that he was a Moslem, and spoke English, Dutch and
Japanese. I visited Borobudur for the first time in the mid-1980s and many more
times after that during my stay in Bandung and Bogor, to accompany my guests,
and experienced every time that I was unconsciously saying, “Namo Amitabha!”,
filled with some deep emotion, even though I was not pious in my daily life.

The sunrise at Borobudur

An eminent scholar of English literature and novelist, Tomoji Abe, wrote in his book[13], “It
is said that those who wish to visit the Buddhist remains of Borobudur ought to arrive there
before the daybreak and see the sun rising above the peak of Mt. Merapi[14] from the top of
the temple.” I do try and arrange myself to do so whenever my schedules permit. Borobudur
is located 40 km north by northwest of Yogyakarta, the principal city of Central Java. If you
stay there the previous night, you should get up at 4 o’clock in the morning with the voice of
azan (adhan) from a near-by mosque to urge the praying for Allah as the alarm to go to the
Buddhist temple. If scheduled to go straight by night train, which arrives from Jakarta or
Bandung to Yogyakarta around 3 o’clock in the morning, you must start soon after depositing

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 luggage and sipping a cup of coffee in the station or a near-by hotel. Driving in the dim light
for one hour, one arrives at Hotel Manohara near the precinct of the temple, and pays the
admittance there. It is still pitch-dark at 5 o’clock. With the aid of a torch given from the
hotel, you can sense the stone construction and find one of the four staircases that lead to the
upper terraces. On the top of the temple, if Mt. Merapi is not active and no glow is seen on its
summit, check the east direction by means of a compass and sit for a while.

The sunrise seen from the top terrace of Borobudur.

Top: 19 June 2004, 5:34’32” Bottom: ditto, 6:05’22” (West Indonesia Time). Photographed by M. Iguchi. Peaks on the left (north)
and right (south) are Mt. Merbabu and Mt. Merapi, respectively. Ash is seen trailing on the right-hand side of Merapi’s peak.

A big difference from those countries is the fact that there is almost no period of twilight in
the morning and evening in this low-altitude country. Within a matter of half an hour before

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the sunrise, the colour of the sky dramatically changes. Located at 110°2" E and 7°36" S,
while the West Indonesia standard time line is set at 105° E, the sunrise at Borobudur is
around six o’clock throughout the year, the deviation being only a few minutes, but the angle
or the position of sunrise related to the axial tilt of the earth is largely variable. Isaw the
sunrise once around the summer solstice between Mt. Merapi (2,930 m) and Mt. Merbabu
(3,142 m), the latter being located 10 km to the north, but the sunrise was shifted far to the
southern foot of Merapi in February.
When the morning mist at the circumference of the monument below clears, being radiated
by a godly sunbeam, a beautiful landscape in which palm woods are scattered in the flat
fields appears. In the southern direction is seen the mountain range of Menoreh, the skyline
of which is said to resemble the lying posture of Gunadharma, the legendary architect from
Ceylon who designed Borobudur [17]. The left-hand or the eastern side of the mountain ridge
in particular looks like the profile of a man’s face with a low nose and a small chin. To the
northwest one can view Mt. Sumbing (3,371 m), which also resembles Mt. Fuji in the
distance with Dieng Plateau in the background.

A view of Mount Menoreh from the top terrace of Borobudur Temple.

Photographed by M. Iguchi, May 2009.

If visiting Borobudur in the daytime, one must walk from the car park through
the row of souvenir shops to the main gate and buy a ticket. On entering the
approach through the grass field decorated with tropical flowers of vivid colours,
the whole view of the temple appears. The temple looks like a crown and one can
feel comfortable only up to there. On arriving at the staircase of the building, the
visitor becomes drenched in sweat all over the body by the radiant heat from the
stones scorched by the sunbeam from right overhead to such an extent that a fried
egg may be cooked on the surface.
The sunset at Borobudur is said to present a different grace, although I have not seen it.
Marquis Tokugawa wrote as follows [18]:

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 “When I had a look from the side of the tower, the red sun was about to set
behind the mountains that stood in the distance beyond palm fields. It was a
gorgeous sunset at an ancient Buddhist monument. What a quiet and tranquil scene
it was! The glory of the sunset made the lonely traveller’s loneliness even deeper.”
Another traveller, Frank Carpenter, wrote about the Buddha statues fantastically lit up at
midnight by the ray of a full moon, surrounded by dark mountains that must have been more
fantastic than his description in words[19].
The area in the periphery of Mt. Merapi extending from the Kedu Basin to the west, to the
Prambanan Plain to the south and to the Solo Plain to the east is the most fertile land in fertile
Java, thanks to the volcanic ash incessantly scattered from the volcano, and was called Bhumi
Mataram [20], or the Soil of Mother, where indigenous people inhabited ever since ancient
time. In the vicinity of Magelang, ten kilometres north of Borobudur, lies the hill of Tidar,
known as the “Nail of Java”, which according to a tradition had fixed the island of Java when
it was floating in the sea. Thus, it was reasonable that this location had been chosen as the site
to construct this holy temple.
The Borobudur temple is locally called Candi Borobudur. Although the word, candi,
derived from Candika, an alternative name of the Hindu Goddess Durga, formerly denoted
the mausoleums of kings and nobles or the temples for Hindu-Buddhism statues [21], it
became generally applied in later centuries to old religious structures built prior to the
Islamisation of Java. Let us adopt this word, candis for its plural form, in the text below.

Accounts of Borobudur in old documents

Although it was The History of Java of Stamford Raffles that aroused interest in Candi
Borobudur in the world, some descriptions on the same candi did exist in Java. In a book
published for commemorating the restoration in the late 20th century [22], two examples
were cited. One was Babad Tanah Jawi (Chronicle of the Land of Java), which recorded that
a certain Ki Mas Dana who had rebelled against King Amangkurat in vain was killed in 1709
at the Hill of Borobudur. The other was in Babad Mataram (Chronicle of Mataram) in which
it was written that Crown Prince Mancanagara of Yogyakarta who went to the forbidden
“Mountain of one thousand statues” to meet a miserable satria (warrior) who was enclosed in
a cage, died of a disease on the next day of his return. The satria was no doubt one of the
Buddha statues in the stone-basket stupa on the upper terrace of Borobudur.

Borobudur visited by a scholar in The Centhini Story

I had also learnt from the brief view on Google Books on the internet that some descriptions
on Borobudur had existed in the Serat Centhini (The Centhini Story), a book that included a
variety of knowledge on early 17th-century Java. In the copy I had recently obtained[23] in
the Taman Pintar book market in Yogyakarta was a detailed story, the abstract of which is as
follows:
“Along the way, Mas Cebolang recalled the happy times with his wives, who
were like the angels in the abode of Indra. The difficulties and loneliness he
encountered on his journeys had sharpened his desire to return to the conveniences
of life with them. It was only when he came to a forest that his heart could beat in
rhythm with the warble of birds and the sound of nature. By virtue of his
upbringing as the son of a great ascetic, his lips mumbled formulas of praise and
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gratitude towards The Almighty. Allahu Akbar! Allahu Akbar! Allahu Akbar! (The
God is great!).
“His steps were guided by faith and stopped only by a stupendous sight, for in
front of him loomed an impressive stupa. Although there were already signs of
decay due to the ravages of time, the stupa of Borobudur, since its foundation ten
centuries ago had always been able to instil feelings of adoration, peace and
security among Buddhists and non-Buddhists, with the exception of people without
faith.
“Mas Cebolang walked up the temple steps and inspected the reliefs on the
walls, which recounted tales from the Jataka stories [stories of living beings who
later became the Buddha after living according to religious guidance] and those of
noble people who traveled around looking for knowledge and life experiences. He
felt inspired when he stopped in front of a Buddha statue with its hands in the
dharmmacakra position, which denotes the Buddha instructing the people to live
according to the teachings and guidance of the Creator. The Buddha appealed to
humanity to follow his path towards nirvana [heaven].
“Likewise, Rasulullah [the Messenger of God] Muhammad ordered his followers to follow
his way of life as an example, which was none other than the implementation of the teachings
of the holy Qur’an. Tears welled up in his eyes and rolled down his cheeks. As the sun was
setting, Mas Cebolang decided to pass the night in the temple. Later, a full moon shone
brightly against a blue cloudless sky, its beauty almost perfect. And on Earth, amongst the
Buddha statues and, whilst his attendants were snoring, Mas Cebolang was deep in
contemplation.” [24]
As might be expected of a scholar who later married a daughter of the Sunan
Giri, a famous family of their cultural tradition, Mas Cebolang’s understanding of
the Borobudur reliefs was just right, despite the fact that his religious background
was Islam. The fact that he showed profound reverence to Buddha without
prejudice to the divinity of a different religion would be attributed to the
characteristic of the Javanese who had respect for their ancestors’ faith. The
condition of Borobudur at that time is supposed to have been much better than that
observed two hundred years later by Stamford Raffles and other visitors.

The origin of the name Borobudur

What was the origin of the name Borobudur? Unfortunately, no hint for answering this
question was available in those documents in Java. Apart from a speculation by Stamford
Raffles as “Great Buddha”, an authority of Javanese palaeography, Dr. Poerbatjaraka had
once proposed that “boro” would mean the Sanskrit “biara” for monastery, and “budur”, the
name of a sanctuary of the Vajradhara sect of Mahayana Buddhism, which appeared
in Nagarakertagama (or Desawarnana), a chronicle composed by Mpu Prapanca in 1365
AD. Later, Prof. de Casparis interpreted that a word, “Bhumisambhara-bhudhara” appeared
in Prasasti Karang Tengah [25], dated 842 AD, meant “The mountain of the accumulation of
virtue on the ten stages of the Bodhisattva” and that it was the original name of Candi
Borobudur [26].

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Candis that remain in Central Java
In central Java, there remains a number of candis, retaining their original superstructure,
although the majority of those built in the past, which is estimated at as many as more than
280 in number, have either completely disappeared or retained only some stone pieces [27].
In the vicinity of Borobudur, one can find two more nice candis: Candi Mendut, which
houses a large Shakyamuni Buddha Triad (or Shakyamuni Triad, i.e., Shakyamuni flanked by
two attendants) in its niche, and Candi Pawon, which is small but elegant and lovely. In the
Prambanan Plain, a group of Hindu candis, called Candi Loro Jongglang (commonly known
as Candi Prambanan), which rank with Borobudur in their scale and magnificence stand,
along with Buddhist Candi Kalasan, Candi Sewu and others. There are eight old Hindu candis
in Dieng Plateau, and some more in Gedung Songo on the slope of Mt. Ungara, although I
have not been to the latter place [28].

Historical sites in Central Java

G (Gunung)=Mountain, K (Kali)=River, C (Candi)=Temple..

A beautiful statue of Shakyamuni in Candi Mendut

Candi Mendut can be easily accessed as it is located 2.9 kilometres to the east of
Borobudur on the highway from Yogyakarta. When discovered in 1834, this candi
was buried in a jungle in such a condition that only its top part was exposed on the
ground, and many stone blocks had been taken away by near-by inhabitants for
their housing. Having been restored in 1908 by Ir. van Erp, the candi stands with a
dignified appearance in a precinct, as wide as a soccer field, surrounded by banyan
and other tropical trees. On the basement with a staircase in its front side, which
measures 24 metres wide, 28 metres deep and 3.5 metres high, a massive temple
with a floor size of 13.7 metres square towers. The pyramid-shaped roof
ornamented with small stupas has now been restored over the last few years, and
the total height is 26.4 metres, whereas the top part of the temple was still flat
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when I visited there in 2003. The whole surface of this candi is decorated with
elaborate carvings. On the three outer walls, on the left, the back and the right sides
of the building, are huge bas-reliefs of 3.5 metres wide and 2.5 metres high, which
depict eight-armed Tara, four-armed Kwannon and four-armed Tara, respectively.
On the wall of the entrance to the niche, there are beautiful reliefs of Hariti
(goddess of childbirth and children), Yaksha (demon warrior) and others, in which
the elegant “flying celestial being” appeared most attractive to me. Probably a
whole day will be necessary if you wish to see all of the building’s detail.
In the niche, one finds a big statue of Shakyamuni Buddha, which is about 3
metres tall, flanked by statues of Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara and Bodhisattva
Vajrapani, both of 2.5-metre height, on the left- and right-hand sides, respectively.
The nimbus for them looked rather small for the size of the statues. One feature
that looked interesting to me was that each of them was sitting on a chair, the
Shakyamuni hanging both legs down, the Avalokitesvara and the Vajrapani
horizontally folding their left and right legs, respectively, because most Buddha
statues, including all of those that I saw in Borobudur and elsewhere, sat cross-
legged or stood upright. I speculate that the monk who ordered these statues might
have been influenced by Hellenism in India or somewhere else. The mudra of
Shakyamuni was apparently the wheel-of-law turning mudra, whereas those of the
Avalokitesvara and the Vajrapani looked to be the blessing mudra and the earth-
touching mudra, respectively. Besides the fact that the surfaces of these sculptures
were well finished and smooth as if they were not made of a stone but a metal, I
was impressed by the beautiful face of Shakyamuni, which was rather long-shaped
with a shapely nose, not round like those in Borobudur or the giant statues of
Buddha in Nara and Kamakura, Japan.

The Shakyamuni Triad in Candi Mendut.

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 Upper part of Candi Mendut (viewed from the southeast)
Photographed by M. Iguchi, February 2007.
(The top of the upper part was unreconstructed and flat in pictures taken in June 2004.)

In the outside of the dark niche, the green leaves, the yellow aerial roots and the dark-
brown trunks of banyan trees showed a vivid contrast under the bright sunlight. It was when I
visited there for the first time that a famous tanka (short poem) by Akiko Yosano [29] came
up in my mind. She sang:

Later, I found the same impression given by Yusuke Tsurumi [30] in his old travelogue,
i.e. “If this were shown to the genius Akiko, the phrase of ‘how like a handsome man he
seems, adorned with the green of summer’ would have been produced in Mendut.”
In the Serat Centhini, there were some descriptions on the visit of Mas Cebolang to Candi
Mendut. He was so deeply moved also by this candi that he spent the night in the niche
together with the statues of Buddha and Bodhisattvas.
Relatively recently, I saw a signboard of “Mendut Monastery” outside of the precinct of
Candi Mendut and visited there with my friends. It was a cosy, modern monastery. An
entrance path lined both sides with several stone stupas of about two metres tall stretched
straight forward seen from the gate and a small temple and a monk’s quarters, both single-
storey, were situated on the left- and right-hand sides. The chief priest came to guide us after
receiving a notice from an apprentice who was cleaning the ground. About ten metres ahead
by the side of the path was a standing statue of Bodhisattva guarded by a sculpture of raksasa
(giant) and at the end of the path was a big stupa of five- to six-metre height. On the left-hand
side, there was a small hall of traditional Javanese architectural design, called pendopo, in the
middle of a lotus pond, and in the hall was enshrined a statue of cross-legged Shakyamuni,
made of white granite, with a golden halo behind, which looked rather new. According to the
chief monk, it was presented in 2002 by Rev. Ryogen Furusho of Zenyouji Temple,
Kawasaki, Japan, as written on a commemorative tablet. He told us that their denomination
was Mahayana Buddhism. He also told us with deep emotion that now the monastery had
such beautiful statues, buildings and garden and six members, whereas it had only humble
bamboo huts when he opened the monastery twenty years ago with one of his colleagues. To
my question, “Are you also taking care of Candi Mendut?”, he replied, “The candi is
maintained and cleaned by the government, but we perform rituals several times a year.” I
thought that the Shakyamuni Triad who had no pilgrims for ten centuries would be pleased
and left the monastery by offering some banknotes for incense.

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 Both Buddhism and Hinduism were, of course, brought from India. Although the
migration of Indians to Java would have commenced ever since prehistoric time, one party
who immigrated and built their own kingdom is said to be Aji Saka and his followers who
arrived around 78 AD, and the location of their settlement, Medang Kamulan, is supposed to
be somewhere around the present-day Semarang. According to tradition, they had to fight
against Negroids, whom they called “Rasaka” (wild devils), who had inhabited there, since
before the migration of Javanese, and were still in existence at that time[31]. The Indians
introduced their culture and social systems and taught letters, i.e. the Sanskrit scripts from
which Java Kawi was derived in later centuries, as well as calendar, i.e. called Saka Calendar,
in which the year of Aji Saka’s arrival or his death, 78 AD, was defined as the first year. The
fate of their kingdom is uncertain at least to me.

Sanjaya Dynasty – Records in Prasasti Canggal

The first dynasty evidently existing in Java was the Sanjaya Dynasty. The name of the first
king, Sanjaya, was recorded in a stone inscription, called Prasasti Canggal, written in Pallava
script and dated 732 AD (654 Saka), which was discovered early in 1879 at the site of a
ruined temple at Canggal in the south Kedu. Although its abstract is repeatedly cited
everywhere, let me translate the contents from the Indonesian text [32] in a faithful manner (S
= Stanza).
S1 [This is the monument for] The construction of Linga by King Sanjaya on
the mountain.
S2–6 Homage to Lord Shiva, Lord Brahma and Lord Vishnu.
S7 Java is very prosperous, rich in gold mines and much production of rice.
On this island, Shiva Temple was built for the happiness of people with the
help of residents of Kunjarakunja Village.
S8-9 The island of Java was formerly ruled by Sanna who was very wise,
fair in his actions, brave in war and generous to his subjects. On his death,
the country mourned, being sad for the loss of the protector.
S10–11 The successor of King Sanna is his son named Sanjaya who is likened to the
Sun. Power has been handed over to him not directly from King Sanna
but through the king’s elder sister, Sannaha.
S12 Prosperity, security and tranquillity [is maintained in] the country.
People can sleep in the middle of roads, do not need to be afraid of thefts and
robberies, or the occurrences of other crimes. People live all happily.

The Kunjarakunja village in this prasasti is supposed to be in the vicinity of

Sleman-Muntilan in the Kedu Basin at the west foot of Mt. Merapi.
According to a copper inscription, called Prasasti Mantyasih, left by King Balitung in 907
AD, the family line of the Sanjaya commenced by Ratu Sanjaya and the name of Balitung
himself was found in the last, eighth place[33]. Sanjaya’s name bore a royal title as Rakai
Mataram Sang Ratu Sanjaya and, hence, the kingdom was called the kingdom of
Mataram [34] in later times.

Sailendra Dynasty – Records in Prasasti Kalasan

With regard to the Sailendra Dynasty, which had presumably existed around the same age,
mention was found in a stone inscription, called Prasasti Kalasan, discovered at a Buddhist
temple, Candi Kalasan, in the Prambanan Plain, leading to a presumption that the dynasty

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was prosperous to such an extent to be able to have such a fine temple. The translation of the
content of the inscription from the Indonesian text is as follows [35]:

S1 Prayer and homages to Arya Tara, hopefully the devotees can achieve their goals.
S2–3 Teachers of the king of Sailendra asked Maharaja Dyah Pancapana Panangkaran to co
temple, and several houses for the priests who are versed in the knowledge of Mahaya
S4-6 The three high tax officers [36] received orders to make Candi Tara and houses for pr
the Sailendra”, for the benefit of the teachers of the king of Sailendra. In the year Saka
made offerings.
S7-9 Kalasan Village was awarded. The three high tax officers, the prosecutor of the villag
king’s successors of the Sailendra Dynasty, by the successors of three high tax officer
the temple shall be preserved forever for the happiness of all people.
S11–12 Thanks to the construction of the monastery, everyone is expected to gain more know
The noble Kariyana Panangkaran repeated his request to all kings who will follow to
The “Candi Tara” must be no other than Candi Kalasan and the ruling king of the
Sailendra is regarded to be King Wisnu (alias Dharmatunga) who was mentioned in a
contemporary inscription, left in Ligor [38], Malay Peninsula, as “a brave killer of enemies”.
The name of King Indra, the successor of King Wisnu, appeared in a stone inscription,
named Prasasti Kelurak, dated 782 AD, discovered in Kelurak village in the Prambanan
Plain, which mentioned that “Sri Sanggrama Dhananjaya [the throne name of Indra] gave an
order to construct a sacred Buddhist temple to house the statue of Manjusri who held the
wisdom of Buddha, dharma [law] and sangha [priests]” [39]. The temple is regarded as Candi
Sewu in the Prambanan Plain.
In this connection, I may add that there is a proverb in Japan, “If three persons
gather, they can produce an idea comparable to that of Manjusri.” To my shame, I
have never thought about the true meaning, but the proverb may be better corrected
as “One must rely upon the three treasures (Buddha, dharma and sangha) to attain
the wisdom of Manjusri”, although no mention was found in dictionaries I have
ever checked. In fact, the wisdom of Manjusri could not be obtained even if three
mediocre persons gathered together.

The construction of Candi Borobudur

With regard to the construction of Candi Borobudur, a hint was available in the
aforementioned Prasasti Karang Tengah, dated 824 AD. Although the inscription, which
consisted of two parts written in Sanskrit and Old Javanese, was partially damaged, the
contents were interpreted by Dr. de Casparis. In the first part, it was written in Sanskrit, that
(1) Pramodawardhani, daughter of Samaratungga (reigned 812–33 AD), built a Jinalaya
(Buddhist temple) and placed a beautiful statue in Saka 746 (824 AD), which shines as if the
moon descended on the earth, and that (2) the establishment of a Jinamandira (Buddhist
temple) called Srimad Venuvana (Sublime Bamboo-Grove) is expected to earn the reward of
accomplishing the tenth stage of Bodhisattva’s career to become a Budda and, as long as gods
reside on Mount Meru and the sun shines in the sky for the life of thousands of inhabitants,
the temple is hopefully full of the virtue of Buddha; while in the second part of Old Javanese
language was read that (3) Rakai Patapan and his wife had donated rice fields (for a temple)
and villagers were invited as witnesses [40].

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 Although the names of the three temples were implicit in this inscription, Dr. de Casparis
concluded with reference to the records in other inscriptions that (1) Candi Jinalaya built by
Pramodawardhani was Candi Pawon dedicated to King Indra; that (2) Candi Jinamandira was
Candi Borobudur completed by Samaratungga; and that (3) Rakai Patapan was another name
of King Garung of the Sanjaya and the temple that received a donation from him was Candi
Mendut built by King Indra [41].

The Sanjaya and the Sailendra dynasties

Then, how were the Sanjaya and the Sailendra families related? By sorting out the kings’
names in “Balitung’s list”, Dr. N. J. Krom proposed a theory that the main dynasty in Java at
that time was Sanjaya, but two persons from the Sailendra had reigned, but a single-dynasty
theory in which all kings appearing also in Prasasti Kalasan, Prasasti Kelurak and other
inscriptions belonged to one family was proposed, bringing about a lot of arguments[42]. In
the 1950s, Dr. de Casparis had extensively studied this problem and launched the two-
dynasty theory in which the Sailendra was a powerful family independent from the
Sanjaya. [43]
Later, in 1963, a stone inscription, which was suggestive of the origin of the Sailendra was
discovered in Sojomerto, Kabupaten Pekalongan [44]. This inscription written in Old Malay
and dated 725 AD refereed to a certain adherent of Siwa, named Dapunta Selendra and
mentioned that the names of his father, mother and wife were Santanu, Bhadrawati and
Sampula, respectively [45]. “Selendra” must be the Malay spelling of Sanscrit “Sailendra”,
and the fact that the language used was Old Malay suggested that the founder of the family
might have come from Sumatra. Note that the Malay language that formed the basis of the
modern Indonesian language originated from the area around the east part of Sumatra and the
Strait of Malacca.
While Dr. de Casparis’s two-dynasty theory was monumental, the single-dynasty theory
voiced by another famous palaeographer, Dr. Poerbatjaraka, and others still receives support
from some researchers as questions are cast on the two-dynasty theory even in recent
publications [46]. Personally, I should like to accept Dr. de Casparis’s theory (See Table 1).
The throne of the Sanjaya Kingdom was succeeded, after Rakai Balitung, by
Daksa (910–19), Tulodong (919–21), Dyah Wawa (924–8) and Mpu Sindok (928–
9). In 928 AD, Mpu Sindok moved the home of the kingdom to the bank of
Brantas River in East Java, by abandoning the land of Central Java, and founded
the new capital at Medang, the location being assumed to be the area of the
present-day Jombang. Thus, the Mataram Kingdom that prospered in Central Java
for two centuries disappeared.
King Samaratungga of the Sailendra married Princess Tara of the Sriwijaya Kingdom,
which contemporarily flourished in Sumatra (Prasasti Nalanda, undermentioned). In his time,
the Sailendra Kingdom had not only ruled the central part of Java Island but had relations
with South and Southeast Asia, as a statue of Bodhisattva was presented to Borobudur from
Bengal in 782 AD and a high-priest of Ceylon visited Java ten years later on the occasion of
the inauguration of a temple [47]. To the question why the Sailendra were able to construct
such a stupendous temple as Borobudur at the time of Samaratungga, I would assume that, in
addition to the greatness of the king himself, it had largely owed to the wealth of his wife’s
country, which was extremely prosperous from sea-trade.

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 The unification of Sanjaya and Sailendra kingdoms
According to Dr. de Casparis [48], the Sailendra and the Sanjaya kingdoms were virtually
united when Pramodawardhani got married to Rakai Pikatan, the then crown prince of
Sanjaya, around 832 when her father Samaratungga retired. Prince Balaputradewa, the
younger brother of Pramodawardhani, who was still an infant at that time, later insisted the
continuation of the Sailendra’s lineage in Java and resisted against his sister and her husband,
but eventually moved to the Sriwijaya Kingdom, his mother’s country in Sumatra, and
succeeded the throne of the kingdom. Apparently, he seems to have held the title of
Sailendra, as it was described in the stone inscription in Nalanda, India, that stated, that “In
860 AD, King Balaputra of Sailendra had built a monastery and King Dewapala of Bengala
had donated five villages for its maintenance. Balaputra was the son of Samaragrawira
(Samaratungga) who was the grandson of ‘The decoration of the Sailendra’ and his mother,
Tara, daughter of Dharmasetu (King of Sriwijaya), who was as beautiful as Goddess
Tara.” [49]
Rakai Pikatan ascended to the throne in 838 AD, several years after his marriage with
Pramodawardhani, and constructed a group of Hindu temples, represented by Candi Loro
Jonggrang, in Prambanan, the details of which having been written in Prasasti Siwagrha
erected by his son, Balitung, in 856 AD[50]. That Rakai Pikatan did not exclude Buddhism
can be understood from the fact that a fine Buddhist temple, Candi Plaosan, in the
neighbourhood, was built by Sri Kahulunan (the royal title of Pramodawardhani) in
cooperation with her husband, as recorded in Prasasti Sri Kahulunnan [51].
Table 1 The genealogies of the Sanjaya and the Sailendra families
(Based on Dr. de Casparis’s Two-Dynasty Theory)

Sanjaya Sailendra
Ratu Sanjaya (c. 732–760) Selendra (c. 725?)*
｜ ｜
Rakai Panangkaran (c. 760–780) Bhanu (c. 752–775)
｜ ｜
Rakai Panunggalan (c. 780–800) Vishnu (Dharmatunga) (c. 775–782)
｜ ｜
Rakai Warak (c. 800–819) Indra (Sangramadhanamjaya) (c. 782–812)
｜ ｜
Rakai Garung (c. 819–838) Samaratungga (c. 8l2–832)
｜ (Married to Princess Tara, Sriwijaya)*
｜ ｜
｜ Pramodawardhani (married to Rakai Pikatan)
｜ Balaputra (moved to Sriwijaya)*
Rakai Pikatan (c. 838–851)
｜
Rakai Kayuwangi (c. 851–882)
｜
Rakai Balitung (c. 898–910)*

From: G. E. Hall, A History of South-East Asia 4th Ed. Macmillan Education 1981.
( ): The period of reign in AD, (*): Added by this writer (M. Iguchi)

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 As to the reason of the marriage between the Sanjaya’s Prince Pikatan and Sailendra’s
Princess Pramodawardhani, we often see such a view that it was for political convenience in
that, for instance, “Samaratungga pursued peace and wished to be able to concentrate in the
construction of Borobudur”[52]. According to the view of Dr. de Casparis et al. [53], the
Sailendra was in a superior position over the Sanjaya and the latter was almost a vassal
country at that time. I would like to imagine, romantically, that Pramodawardhani had fallen
in love with Pikatan who attended on her father and that the father gave permission for the
couple to marry. Pramodawardhani must have been an active woman as her father relied on
her support for the building of temples and probably other matters. At least, she must not
have been a sort of just graceful and modest princess who obeyed her parents to go marry
someone who was not of her taste.

Sima, an enigmatic queen in the Books of Tang

The age when the Sanjaya and the Sailendra prospered in Java corresponds to the era of the
Tang Dynasty in China. In the Old Book of Tang (舊唐書, or Old History of the Tang
Dynasty) [54], completed in the mid-10th century, there were some accounts on “Ka-ling
Country (訶陵國)” situated on an island in the southern sea. The book mentioned the
geographical position that “The east is Bali, the west is Dva-pa-tan, the north is Chenla
[Cambodia], the south faces ocean” [55], the kingdom’s outline that “they make their castle
with hardwood, make multi-storeyed palaces roofed with the bark of hemp-palm. The king
sits in it, the whole floor of which is made of ivory”, the culture and customs that “they do
not use chopsticks to eat but take foods by fingers. They have letters and good knowledge of
calendar. They make wine from the [stem of] palm flower (…)”, and referred to their
despatch of embassies in 640, 768, 769, 815 and 818 AD, including monks in 815 AD in
particular. In the New Book of Tang (新唐書, or New History of the Tang Dynasty )[56] issued
one century later, the following accounts were added. “The seat of the king is in She-po (闍婆).
The founder, Ki-yen (吉延), moved to the east from Pa-lu-ka-si (婆露伽斯). In this region there are
twenty-four small countries, all of them serve as vassals. (…) On the summer-solstice, a
gnomon of 8 feet high, if erected vertically, casts a shadow of 2 feet 4 inches (2.4 feet) long
on the south side. (…) In Shangyuan Period [674–5 AD], the country people assigned a
female, named Sima (悉莫), to the throne. Her rule was just and things dropped on the road
were not taken up. (…)” The name of the country, Ka-ling, alternatively pronounced as Ho-
ling, also appeared in Buddhism books, one example being Legends of the teaching of Secret
Mandala by Konghai, in which the author received a lecture from Huiguo together with a
monk from Kalinga named “Benhong” .
The old and the new books of Tang have been of interest to scholars ever since the late
19th century [57], and what country corresponded to Ka-ling and “who was Queen Sima and
who was Ki-yen who moved the capital to the east” became big issues. By applying “Ka-
ling” to Kalinga, the country’s association with India was argued, but it was no more than a
speculation. As to the geographical position, it was pointed out that the incidental angle of the
sunbeam, written in the New Book of Tang, indicated 6°8' N that did not fall in Java
Island[58]. Today, however, the capital of Ka-ling (or Kalinga) is considered to have existed
somewhere around the present-day Semarang, or Pekalongan (where the Prasasti Sojomerto
was discovered), or Keling Village in Kabupaten Jepara [59].

The lineage of the Sima, the Sanjaya and other families found in history
books written in West Java

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I was aware of the fact that Sanjaya was a person who moved from Galuh Kingdom, in West
Java, to Central Java, which I had read somewhere. Looking again into the Sejarah Bogor
(History of Bogor) by Prof. Saleh Danasasmita[60], I found some accounts on the
relationship between the Sanjaya’s lineage and the Kalinga, which was as follows.
“King Mandiminyak, the 5th king of Galuh Kingdom, married Parwati, a
daughter of Queen Sima of Kalinga. He had a son named Sanna. Between Sanna
and Sannaha, a granddaughter of Sima, Sanjaya was born. Sanjaya was adopted as
a son-in-law by his father’s friend, Tarusabawa, the first king of the Sunda
kingdom, married to the latter’s daughter, Tejakancana, and became the 2nd king
of Sunda. His real father, Sanna, was ousted from the throne in 716 AD by his half-
brother (same father and different mother) and fled to Kalinga, the country of his
wife’s grandmother. Although Sanjaya had revenged on his father’s sworn enemy
and simultaneously assumed the crown of Galuh (the 5th), he abdicated the throne
in favour of his son, Tamperan (also called Rakeyan Panaraban) in 723 AD and
became the King of North Kalinga, as a rightful successor. He married Sudiwara, a
daughter of King Dewasinga of South Kalinga (Bumi Sambara) and Panangkaran
was born between them, etc.”
Unfortunately, the source of the documents was not given for this citation. I have
remembered a book entitled Pustaka rajya rajya i bhumi Nusantara (meaning,The Book of
Kings in the Land of Archipelago. Hereinafter, The Book of Kings, for short) [61], compiled
in the 18th century in West Java, and took up the file of its photocopy from my bookshelf. To
my surprise, many facts about the Sanjaya family and its relation to Kalinga were written in it
in significant detail. Let me summarise the corresponding part and translate from Indonesian
language, because no direct reference to this book has been found in books and articles that I
have surveyed.
“In Sumatra, Sriwijaya Kingdom had gained the hegemony by 613 Saka
(691/692 AD) and was dominant over other countries. While Sriwijaya had a pact
with Sunda Kingdom of West Java, signed between the former’s King Jayanasa
and the latter’s King Tarusabawa in 607 Saka (686 AD) and ambassadors were
exchanged between them, they were always envious of the Keling Kingdom, which
was very fertile and rich.
“In the Keling Kingdom, Prabu Kartikeyasingha had died in Mt. Mahameru [62] and his
wife, Dewi Sima was on the throne. The kingdom had a friendly relationship with China,
having sent an embassy with priests and astrologers in 570 Saka (648/649 AD) during the
reign of King Kartikeyasingha. and another embassy in 578 Saka (666/667 AD). Before then,
Kartikeyasingha’s father had sent embassies to China in 554 Saka (652/653 AD) and 562
Saka (640/641 AD). The founder of the Keling originated from the south Bharata (India).
“Dewi Sima was an elegant and charming woman unrivalled in Java, a perfect
beauty like a heavenly maiden. Sri Jayanasa of Sriwijaya had fallen in love with
Sima, but his love was not realised, because Sima disliked him to such an extent
that she would kill herself, if marrying the man was inevitable. Notwithstanding,
Jayanasa persistently approached and distressed Sima. Apart from her hatred, the
religions were different between the kings of Sriwijaya and Java, as they followed
the Mahayana Buddhism and the Saura [a fact of Hinduism], respectively. It was

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also known that Sriwijaya had plundered the gold and diamonds from Melayu [a
kingdom in Sumatra] whom they had subjugated.
“In 608 Saka (686/697 AD), the king of Sriwijaya attacked Java, but in vain,
because the Chinese Empire, Bakulampra Kingdom, Hujung Mendini Kingdom
and other Indian countries supported Java. Then, the king of Sriwijaya ordered
Javanese merchant ships berthed in the ports of Palembang and Bangka to return
home, robbing their properties. In addition, the king gave orders to pirates to attack
the Javanese on the sea.
“Sunda Kingdom was not agreeable with the ambition of the king of Sriwijaya
and asked him for calmness and reconsideration.
“According to the history, Sriwijaya Kingdom conquered the regional kingdom
of Sanghyang Hujung and created a sanctuary there.
“Below is the narration of a great poet. Dewi Sima and Prabu Kartikeyasingha
had children, two of them being Dewi Parwati (daughter) and Nalayana (son).
Dewi Parwati married to Sang Mandiminyak, the king of Galuh, and they had a
daughter named Dewi Sannaha. Mandiminyak married also Pwah Rababu and had
a son named Sang Senna (alias Sang Bratasennawa). Senna married Sannaha and a
boy named Rakryan Sanjaya was born between them. Senna was ousted from the
throne by Purbasora.
“Sanjaya conquered King Purbasora of Galuh and became the king of Galuh.
Sanjaya had already ruled Indraprahasta Kingdom [the present-day Cirebon]. It
was because Indraprahasta was supporting Galuh, as Purbasora’s wife was a
daughter of the Indraprahasta, and, in fact, the army that defeated King Senna was
the troops of Indraprahasta, led by Purbasora himself. By the assault of Sanjaya,
the king of Indraprahasta, Purbasora and his wife, astrologers, ministers and
officers were killed.
“Moreover, Sanjaya advanced his army towards the east and subjugated many
kingdoms in Central and East Java. Then, he attacked many countries in Sumatra,
including Melayu, Sriwijaya and Barus. After then, he turned to the north.
Sanjaya’s campaign lasted for three years.
“In 645 Saka (732/733 AD), Sanjaya became the king of Medang in the Soil of
Mataram (Medang i bhumi Mataram). Sanjaya was succeeded by his son,
Panangkarana. His wife was a woman of the Selendra. Then, the Selendra became
a powerful kingdom. The land of Central Java was divided and the northern and
southern parts became the territories of the Sanjaya and the Selendra,
respectively.”
The year of Queen Sima’s coronation, 674/675 AD exactly coincides with the Shangyuan
Period (674–5) recorded in the New Book of Tang. The years of sending embassies to China
in the West Java chronicle do not agree with those in the Old Book of Tang, but I would
refrain from arguing the reason, rather conjecture that the former document, edited in the later
century on the basis of fragmental records and oral traditions, had inevitable errors. That
“Keling”, “Selendra” and “Senna” denote the same words as Kalinga, Sailendra and Sanna,
respectively, is undoubtful.The fact that the parents of Sanjaya, Sanna and Sannaha, were

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both son and daughter of the same father, Mandiminyak, born from different mothers,
Rababu and Parwati, is noteworthy. Although a marriage between a half-brother and a half-
sister is hardly thinkable nowadays, from both ethic and genetic viewpoints, some cases were
there in old days also in Japan and elsewhere in the world [63].
Next, I wished to check the famous Carita Parahiyangan ( The Story of Parahiyangan),
written on lontar strips around the 16th century by an anonymous author, but the text I had
obtained by courtesy of an authority through my friend in Bandung was still in Old
Sundanese, which was hardly readable by myself. Then, I asked a student of Sundanese
Literature Department of Pajajaran University to translate it into modern Indonesian, and
found some accounts on the life of Sena (Sanna), such as follows [64]:
“Pwah Rababu, a daughter of the Lord of Kendan had once a coitus with Lord
Makadria, as her father told, but later married to Rahiang Sempakwaja, who
became the Governor of Galungun, and gave birth to two sons, Purbasora and
Demunawan. One day, when she went to Galuh, she was seduced by
Mandiminyak, the youngest brother of her husband, who had succeeded the throne
of Galuh, and after months delivered a male baby who was named Salah. Having
been told by her husband to give the baby away to Mandiminyak, she took him to
Galuh. Mandiminyak said, “Oh, this is my son!”, but ordered his retainer to put the
baby in a vase and carried it to the field. When the retainer left the vase and
returned, a sign shone from the field to the sky, but the baby was still alive. He was
renamed Sang Sena. Sena succeeded the throne of Galuh, after his father, but seven
years later he was expelled by Purbasora and fled to Mt. Merapi [Central Java].”
From this description, it has become evident that Purbasora and Sanna (Sena)
were half-brothers from different mothers and that the expatriation of the latter by
the former was a sort of family discord. With regard to the transfer of power from
Sanna to Sanjaya, the clause in Prasasti Canggal that it was done “not directly from
King Sanna but through the king’s elder sister, Sannaha” was quite ambiguous, but
now it could be alternatively interpreted as “through the king’s consort, Sannaha”
or “through Sanjaya’s mother, Sannaha”. It might have been probable that the
status of Sannaha who was the legitimate child from the legal wife of
Mandiminyak was higher than that of Sanna who was an illegitimate child from the
wife of Mandiminyak’s brother.
Among the facts that Sanjaya conquered many countries in Java Island as well as Melayu
and China (?), also written in Carita Parahiyangan, a line that he “waged war against Keling
and defeated Sang Sriwijaya” (Sang=a respectful title) has provoked a thought in my mind.
Although Kalinga had rejected the approach of Sriwijaya in the era of Queen Sima (according
to The Book of Kings), was Kalinga under the rule of Sriwijaya at the time of the queen’s
great-grandchild?
Although Sanjaya was a great king in West Java, Carita Parahiyangan mentioned that he
was estranged by Kuku (alias Seuweukarma), his father’s half-brother and Purbasora’s
younger brother, who became the king of Kuningan, as well as other local rulers, as a killer of
a family member, suggesting that this could be the major reason of Sanjaya’s move to Central
Java.
The description in The Book of Kings that “Panangkaran (the son of Sanjaya who was born
after his father’s move to Central Java) took a woman of the Sailendra to wife and, then, the

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Sailendra became a powerful kingdom” told that a marital relationship was formed between
the two families, although who the woman was was not written. This could be the reason, or
one of the reasons, why Panangkaran was so cooperative with the Sailendra in the
construction and the maintenance of Buddhist temples and probably in other matters.
The phrase, “King of Medang in the Soil of Mataram (Rajya Medang i bhumi Mataram)”
in The Book of Kings has appeared on some stone monuments, giving the Mataram Kingdom
founded by Sanjaya another name, “Medang Kingdom”. Because later kings occasionally
moved their capital (e.g. Rakai Pikatan to Mamrati and Dyah Balitung to Poh Pitu), however,
Medang Kingdom may be more precise to be applied for the whole period of the Sanjaya
Dynasty[65].
Another description in the same book that the area of Central Java was divided into the
northern and southern parts and shared by the Sanjaya and the Sailendra, respectively, is
probably noteworthy. Whether this book was refereed or not is unknown; this demarcation is
written in general books and textbooks for secondary high-school in Indonesia [66], along
with the fact that “while Candi Gedung Songo on the mountainside of Ungaran in the
northern part of Central Java and groups of candis in Dieng Plateau were built by the
Sanjaya, many candis in the Kedu Basin and Prambanan Plain were built by the Sailendra”.
One remarkable exception is a group of candis in Prambanan, represented by Candi Lolo
Jonggrang, which is comparable with Candi Borobudur in its scale and magnificence (to be
undermentioned).
The name of Sudiwara, daughter of the king of South Kalinga, Dewasinga, whom Sanjaya
took as his wife in Central Java, mentioned in The History of Bogor, was found in a stone
inscription, dated 760 AD, discovered in Dinoyo near the present-day Malang. In addition to
the fact that “the centre of the kingdom existed in Kanjuruhan”, it was written that “once,
there was a just and powerful king named Dewasinga. This monument is to commemorate the
construction of a temple, by his son, Gajayana, to enshrine the new statue of Agastya to
replace the old rotten piece”.[67]
The fact that Gajayana had established himself in this district must correspond to the
“transfer of the kingdom” written in the New Book of Tang, and Gajayana himself is regarded
as Ki-yen. The fact that the two events, i.e. the transfer of the kingdom by Ki-yen in the late
8th century and the enthronement of Queen Sima in the late 7th century, are written in
chronologically reverse order in the New Book of Tang must be heeded, as it is generally said
the records in this New Book are frequently confused, while those in the Old Book of
Tang are not.
Extracting the names of kings, consorts, princes and princesses appearing in above
documents and adding some more names found in some articles[68] on Babad Galuh (Galuh
Chronicle), I have drawn a genealogical chart that includes the families of Sanjaya, Queen
Sima and others.

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 The reason of Gajayana’s move to East Java has not been concluded. If one was to assume
that he was expelled from Central Java by Sanjaya, the husband of his sister, Sudiwara, the
question of why their relationship was so bad has to be answered. I would prefer to think that,
in such a circumstance that the Buddhist Sailendra gained power and Sanjaya’s son,
Panangkaran, was the supporter of Buddhism, Gajayana had decided to explore a new land
for Hinduism in East Java.From the New Book of Tang, Kalinga seems to have continually
sent ambassadors to China after Gajayana’s move to East Java. As to the question why the
same book lacked accounts on the Sanjaya and the Sailendra dynasties, I can only speculate
that the Chinese had no information, having received no diplomatic mission. In any event I
would assume that the existence of Kalinga in Central Java had ended by the move to the east
by Gajayana.

Consideration on Borobudur
Let us stop the review of the difficult history and return to Borobudur. From the records of
stone inscriptions, the construction of Borobudur is considered to have required forty-two
years, ever since it was commenced by King Indra in 782 and completed by King
Samaratungga in 824. Although priests and architects might have been invited from Sriwijaya
and India, the majority of inhabitants at that time would have been Javanese as inferred from
the sculptures that ornamented the temple. The features of Buddha statues looks to have
portrayed the gentle, round faces of Javanese men, and the appearance and gesture of people
on the reliefs depicted their characteristics. In Journeys to Java, Marquis Tokugawa cited a
comment of Mr. Hidenosuke Miura, then an assistant professor, from Tokyo Fine Art School,
who he incidentally met there, “It is interesting, isn’t it? The life of Javanese people depicted
here of more than one thousand years ago is not so much different from the life of today’s
Javanese.”
Prof. Miura’s Javanese Buddhist Remains – Boroboedoer [69], published in 1925, with
photographs of all reliefs and statues of Borobudur, is regarded as a rival of the
aforementioned book of Dr. Krom as complete image recording of Borobudur. When I saw
the book in the Tokugawa Reimeikai Library, I was much surprised by the sharpness of the
reliefs in the photographs taken only ten years after the temple’s first restoration. When such
photographs are compared with the real sculptures that we see today, we can notice how
seriously erosion has progressed on the stone surfaces after exposure to air. The condition

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looks to have worsened during the last quarter-century, ever since I saw them for the first
time, as they have suffered from acid rain. It is said that the whole Borobudur temple was
originally covered with plaster and coloured. A humble researcher of polymer chemistry, I
wondered whether it could not be possible to protect them with a thin layer of some silicone
varnish even from now. When I had the honour of accompanying the late Mr. Yoshinobu
Tokugawa, an expert of art history and archaeology, to Borobudur, he told me, “It is a
difficult issue as if you did so would mean that you would spoil the object. One could say the
fact that the ruins were excavated itself was the beginning of destruction!” I had also thought
that it could not be impossible for modern technology to put a huge roof to cover the whole
temple, as was done for the Wimbledon court and some baseball fields, but it would not
match the original concept conceived by King Indra and Rev. Gunadharma twelve hundred
years ago. The making of replicas of historical relics is a common practice, but it can be only
applied to some limited number of components, such as statues and reliefs, not to the whole
gigantic monument. After all, I thought that photographs, especially those taken in early days,
would be of immense value as records for the future. With the current imaging technology, to
create three-dimensional images of all statues and reliefs or the image of the whole of
Borobudur would not be difficult.
There was a tragic episode in the book of Prof. Miura in that “To publish his new theory,
the manuscript, the photographic plates and other materials were brought to a printing
company in Kanda-Mitoshiro Street [in Tokyo] and the book was just ready to be turned to
the binding process, when the Great Kwanto Earthquake [1 September 1923] occurred and
everything was reduced to ash.[70]” Probably, a backup copy of the manuscript must have
been safe in a different place.It is said that the social structure in Java around the 8th–10th
centuries was not of such feudalistic type as in Western Europe in which the land and the
military service were interlinked. In Java, in exchange for receiving services, the kings gave
lands to religious organisations, high officials and royal family members, and granted rights
to collect taxes and to operate industrial and commercial activities. No slave system had
existed and farmers had a duty to serve for a certain number of days in agricultural off-
seasons. Although they were often recruited as non-skilled labourers for the construction of
temples, they would have served themselves with a pious mind. Professional architects and
sculptors who were indispensable for the construction of Borobudur and other temples were
probably exempted from other duties and formed artisan groups [71].
Nevertheless, whether the whole design of Borobudur was imaged and drafted up by the
legendary architect, Gunadharma, alone is an open question, while, if it were today, a project
team of one hundred selected members of Buddhism scholars, architects and artists would be
organised and several thousand sheets of drawings would be prepared with full use of
computer graphics. At that time when even a sheet of paper was yet to be produced [72], it is
hard to imagine how the master architect was able to notify the details of his design to his
engineers and artists. The generation of his staff and labourers must have altered during the
construction period of some forty years. In Europe, there are many churches and cathedrals
that were built in several hundred-year periods, but their construction is considered to have
been the continuation of much simpler works compared with that of Borobudur.
As a Buddhist monument, Dunghuang (敦煌) in China is much better known in Japan,
apparently because NHK has spent an enormous amount of money and persistently broadcast
the film, apart from a famous novel by Yasushi Inoue [73] and fine sketches by Ikuo
Hirayama[74]. Statues and paintings of Buddha installed in several thousand caves of
Dunghuang from the 4th to the 11th century are no doubt valuable for the study on the
diffusion of Buddhism on the northern route, but all those relics are the kind of things that
had been arbitrarily and sporadically brought there by unspecified people. When I had a

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chance to visit Dunghuang, I was impressed that, in terms of the artistic value, the remains
are inferior to the temple of Borobudur, which had been built according to a single concept at
one time.

Dieng Plateau
Before visiting Prambanan, let me report on the situation of Dieng Plateau. It was
twenty years ago that I went there for the first time. From Yogyakarta, my party
took a route to the north to Tumanggung and, by turning to the left, passed the col
between two mountains, Sumbing and Sundro, which both showed their beautiful
conical forms. We stopped at Wonosowo and stayed overnight in a small losmen
(tavern). It was cool but so cold on the mountainside town of 2,000-metre elevation
from the sea-level that I had to request a pail of hot water to take a mandi (shower).
Next morning, we drove off again to Dieng Plateau located twenty kilometres to
the north, above 200 metres, on a winding road that was much steeper and sharper
than that over the Hakone Pass in Japan or probably the famous Hanguguan in
China. The hills on both sides were well cultivated and I was told that various
vegetables grown there were transported far away to the market of Yogyakarta.
There were some greenhouses to grow mushrooms, too. While I was thinking over
the efforts of the authorities who had constructed this metallised road a hundred
years ago and the hard labour of farmers, the car brought us to Dieng of 2,200-
metre elevation from the sea-level. The circumstance of the tableland of 1
kilometre east–west and 1.5 kilometres north–south with gentle undulations was
dreary, where the vegetation was quite shabby, some cypress trees with dark-green
needles only on their top parts standing to and fro. I was told that to see morning
frost, or even thin ice, was not rare in dry seasons. In the middle of the plateau was
a small lake, which was turbid with a white colour produced by sulphur, reminding
me that the place was an old caldera. On a small hill was an experimental
geothermal power station, which emitted white steam together with the smell of
sulphur. Just for information, Indonesia is now the second leading geothermal-
power-producing country after the United States of America, while the abundant
geothermal resources are little used in Japan due to various regulations.
Next day, we first visited several Hindu temples, named Candi Arjuna, Candi
Semar, etc., named in a later century, located in the northern part of the plateau.
They were masonry works with a basement of some ten metres square and ten to
fifteen metres tall, the roofs of which had not been restored. The inside of the
niches were empty, as statues had been removed to some museums. They were said
to have been constructed around 670–730 AD in the early period of the Sanjaya
Dynasty, and the carvings on the walls were far less sophisticated than those of
candis built later in Kedu Basin and Prambanan Plain. Candi Sembadra in the
western part and Candi Bima in the southern part of the tableland were said to be
the constructions built in the beginning of the 13th century, suggesting that

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Hinduism was maintained by some local lord after the move of the Sanjaya
Dynasty to East Java, although the make of those candis was simple.
Walking around Dieng Plateau, I really wondered why ancient people had chosen this
remote highland as the site of their worship, by providing footpaths with several thousand
steps from the foot, from four directions. The name of the place, Dieng, was derived from the
Sanskrit Dihyang, which meant the abode of the gods. In an old Javanese manuscript,Tantu
Panggelaran [75], was told a mythical story, which follows.

A myth on the birth of Java Island

“Bhatara Guru [Lord Shiva] created the island of Java together with his wife,
Bhatari Parameswari [Durga] and provided Mount Dihyang [Dieng], but the island
was drifting on the sea. Shiva ordered the gods to move the sacred mountain,
Mahameru, from Jambudipa [India] and put it on Java as a weight to stabilise it.
Visnu and Brahma transformed themselves into a long serpent and a huge turtle,
respectively, and the latter carried Mount Mahameru on his back, while the former
put himself around to bind it. When Mahameru was placed on the western part of
Java, the island was unbalanced and tilted. During the process of moving
Mahameru eastwards, the mountain broke apart and six more mountains, i.e,
Kantong, Wilis, Kampud, Kawi, Arjuna, and Kemukus, were formed along the
route.”
Mt. Mahameru, alternatively called Mt. Semeru, located to the east of the
present-day Malang as the highest peak in Java (3,666 m), is still a sacred
mountain, especially for Tenggerese, an ethnic group who live around the area and
have worshipped Shiva ever since the Majapahit time. Note that Semeru is
equivalent to the Chinese Xumishan (須彌山) or the Japanese Miyaukau-zan (or
Myōkō-zan, 妙高山). When I spoke about Mt. Semeru to my old friend, a textile
engineer and scholar of Japanese history as well as a mountaineer who had
conquered many high peaks in the world, he pointed out that Semeru would lead to
“Sumera”, an archaic Japanese word for emperor. According to his theory, the
Sanskrit word, “Semeru”, for “the supreme being”, originating in ancient Indian
philosophy prior to the birth of Hinduism and Buddhism, must have been
introduced in Japan in the unknown past and applied to “emperor”.

Prambanan
Now let us go to Prambanan. If one takes the main road from Yogyakarta towards
Solo for twenty kilometres in an east by northeast direction, a group of Candi Loro
Jonggrang appears on the left-hand side like towers. As mentioned above, these
temples built in the mid-9th century had been embedded under the soil and
vegetation, like Borobudur, until their existence was reported in 1733 by C. A.
Lons of VOC. Although Baron van Imhoff, who served as the governor-general of
the Dutch East Indies (1743–50) and known as the founder of the Buitenzorg
estate, had once visited there in the mid-18th century, the first cleaning operation

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 was conducted much later in 1807 by Ir. H. C. Cornelis under Governor-General
Engelveld. Stamford Raffles who saw the ruins six years later wrote under the
heading of ‘Chandi’ Lolo Jongglang (or Temples of Lolo Jonggrang):
“These lie directly in front (north) of the village of Brambanan and about two hundred and
fifty yards from the road, whence they are visible, in the form of large hillocks of fallen
masses of stone, surmounted, and in some instances covered, with a profusion of trees and
herbage of all descriptions. In the present dilapidated state of these venerable buildings, I
found it very difficult to obtain a correct plan or description of their original disposition,
extent, or even of their number and figure…”[76]

The big temple at Prambanan

Reproduced from: Antiquarian, Architectural, and Landscape Illustrations of the History of Java 1844 (John Bastin (preface),
Plates to Raffles's History of Java, Oxford University Press, 1989).
This sketch was made by Ir. H. C. Cornelis who conducted the cleaning operation in 1807.

Although an archaeological survey was commenced at last in 1885 by Dr. J. W. Ijzerman,

the original form of the buildings was still completely unknown. After the turn of the 20th
century, a study was followed by such famous scholars as Drs. van Erp and de Haan and the
restoration was started in 1937. After the interruption during the Second World War, the
central Candi Siwa was rebuilt in 1953, four years after the independence of Indonesia. The
efforts of restoration were persistently continued and it was in the 1990s that all eight candis
in the central area were reconstructed into the present forms.

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 Entering the gate of the Prambanan Archaeological Park and walking about one
hundred metres forwards, one will see some stone blocks of black colour on the
ground that are a few metres lower than the surroundings, and notice that many
small structures had stood around there in the past. The outer precinct of 222metres
square, elevated about two metres from the peripheral ground is the place where
224 small candis used to be arrayed surrounding the inner precinct of one hundred
metres square. Although many of them have been rebuilt into the shape of candis,
others retain only their basement with numerous stone pieces miserably scattered at
random. Passing through the front gate and entering in the inner precinct, everyone
is overwhelmed by huge candis centred by the largest Candi Siwa. Candi Siwa has
a main hall twenty metres high with a tall pyramidal roof of over twenty metres
standing dignifiedly on a basement of thirty-four metres square and five metres in
height, hence, the total height being forty-seven metres.

A bird’s-eye view of Candi Lolo Jonggrang Temple Complex from Google Earth.
1: Shiva, 2: Visnu, 3: Brahma, 4: Nandi, 5: Angsa, 6: Garuda, 7: Apit.
The names of candi, from: Dwi Marno Sukandar et al., Guide to the Prambanan Temple, Yogya ADV 1991.

The majestic appearance ornamented with several hundred bell-shaped ratna (jewels) on the
parapet of the gallery (or corridor) and the roof and various fine bas-reliefs on the outer and
inner walls of the whole building, as well as large Kala heads, cannot be depicted by my pen.
Seven other candis are more or less similar in shape and also fully ornamented with
sculptures, although they are smaller in size.The figure of the candis with a gently pointed
roof was said to represent Mount Semeru, but how people were able to reconstruct such a
beautifully shaped tower full of ornaments from dispersed stone pieces was my big question.
According to a contemporary report[77], it was done by trial and error, by sorting out and
studying the shape of scattered blocks and building various parts one by one on the ground.
Supposing that it must have been equivalent to having solved a huge, intricate three-
dimensional jigsaw puzzle, I pay my deep respect not only to the work of ancient architects

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who had originally built these exquisite temples, but also the time and effort of all the people
who were involved in their reconstruction, whenever I visit Prambanan.

Reconstruction drawing of Candi Siwa elaborated for the operation commenced in 1937.
From: V. R. van Romondt, “De wederopbouw van den Çiwa Tempel te Prmbanan”, Djawa No.3, 20, 1940.

Candi Lolo Jonggrang temple complex

If one ascends five metres on the staircase at the front (east) of the basement, passes the gate
with a Kala head on its top, and ascends three metres more, you find a large niche of about
eight metres square in which a statue of Lord Shiva (Shiva Mahadewa) with four arms, three
metres tall, that has been given the name of Candi Siwa, stands. The statue is said to represent
King Rakai Pikatan who had built the Candi Loro Jonggrang [78]. On that account, the
intrepid face looks to be that of a human rather than that of the Supreme Deity. Turning
around the gallery of the same candi, one finds three more niches of a little smaller sizes (ca.
five metres square) in the south, the west and the north sides of the main hall, which
accommodate statues of Mahaguru (Shiva’s ascetic form as a great teacher), Ganesha

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(Shiva’s elephant-headed son and the god of wisdom and prudence) [79] and Durga (Shiva’s
consort in her destructive form). The statue of Durga is believed to be the figure of Loro
Jonggrang, a legendary princess who was transformed into stone, which gave the name of
Candi Lolo Jonggrang to the group of candis in this precinct. The goddess of war, the eight-
handed Durga, stands on the Nandi (ox) by pulling up the ox’s tail with her front-side right
hand, pressing the head of Asura with her front-side left hand, and holding bow, arrow, sword
and other weapons with her six other arms. Let me cite the description by Marquis Tokugawa
in his Journeys to Java:
“Perhaps, this statue is one of the masterpieces. Her pose is not such that will
lead a viewer into a pious feeling, but is rather erotic. Although it was carved from
a cold stone, she looked quite soft, as if warm blood streamed underneath her skin.
I thought that the sculptor would have wished to express the carving, not as a
goddess, but as a human. Perhaps Javanese people, having their own optimistic
thoughts conceived through their easy lifestyle in the tropics, might consider a god,
or a goddess, as a close existence to people, rather than putting him, or her, aside in
a remote place. In any case, it was quite wondrous to imagine the vitality and
efforts of an ancient artist who had made such a marvellous work with a chisel,
whether the artist was motivated by his religion or by his dedication to art.”

The statue of Durga.

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If the statue of Shiva depicted Rakai Pikatan, I believe that this Durga must have been
modelled after Pramodawardhani and feel attracted by her not necessarily very beautiful but
charming face and her voluptuous figure, whenever I visit there.In the gallery, which
surrounds the main hall, one finds forty-seven reliefs of Ramayana [80] panelled around the
inner wall of the parapet (See an example of reliefs in the front-cover), and the carvings of
Lokapalas (the guardian of the world) of eight divine forms[81] placed on the eight sides of
the main hall wall to protect the temple from evils. The fact that those Lokapalas sat cross-
legged and posed various mudras was interesting and I thought these might have been the
images of sculptors who had engaged in the sculpturing of Buddha statues in Buddhist
candis. The word, Lokapala, reminds one of Dyah Lokapala (or Mpu Lokapala), the original
name of Rakai Balitung, son of Pikatan and Pramodawardhani, who succeeded the throne
after his father’s abdication. Whether the statues are related to the prince is uncertain, at least
to my knowledge.

If you leave the main hall and look at the temple again from outside, you will see, all
around the outer wall of the parapet, interesting panels in the middle of which is a lion who
sits facing outward in a small niche and on both sides of it unique motifs called “Prambanan
motifs”. The motif has a symmetrical divine tree in the middle, a pair of birds flying on the
upper parts and a pair of various animals, such as kinara-kinari (male and female avians with
human upper body), deer, hares, mice, etc. On the upper part of the main hall wall, there are
fine sculptures of “Apsara Trios” as well as celestial beings who are dancing and playing
instruments.
The works of sculptures at Candi Lolo Jonggrang looked distinguished among many of
those in other candis, including Candi Mendut and Candi Borobudur. I supposed that
probably the artisans who had previously engaged in the sculpturing at Borobudur and other
temples had improved their skill and joyfully worked again in this new grand temple. The
masterpiece of masterpieces is said to be one of the “Apsara Trio” that “cannot but fascinate
anyone who sees their amorous figures. An episode has it that, in the early 20th century, an
American millionaire offered one hundred million dollars, but was unquestionably rejected
by the Dutch government of the East Indies.”[82] Unfortunately, because the erosion of stone
has progressed in Prambanan as in other remains, such sharp carvings as in photographs
taken a century ago [83] can hardly be seen today.

A view of the upper part of the wall of Candi Siwa, Prambanan with Apsara Trio (middle),
Makara (top-left) and Ratuna (top-right).

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 Examples of the so-called “Prambanan-Motif”
on the lower part of the wall of Candi Siwa depicting hares (left) and foxes (right).

A piece of contemporary sculpture, which strongly caught my eye during my recent visit to
the British Museum, London, was a stone figure of Kinari, of ca. 25 cm height, displayed in
the Southeast Asia section and labelled as collected by Sir Stamford Raffles in the Shiva
Temple, Prambanan. It was especially interesting because I was only familiar with Kinara or
Kinari carved in the bas-relief of the temple’s wall. Unfortunately, the place in the temple
where this stand-alone sculpture was found was not specified. Among several other
sculptures of the same age was a statue of Brahma (Trimurti, to be exact [84]) of ca. 40 cm
height, with three faces looking in the front, left and right directions, although where it
originated was unknown.

Stone figure of Kinari (female human upper body avian) of the 9th –10th centuries Java, from Shiva Temple,
Prambanan, collected by Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles and donated by his executor,
Rev. William Charles Raffles Flint, to the British Museum.

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A statue of Brahma (Trimurti) from 10th-century Java, donated by H. I. Daniell in 1861 to the British Museum.

In Serat Centhini, it was written that Mas Cebolang and his four students visited
Prambanan, guided by the village chief, Ki Harsono, and saw the eight candi in the
Prambanan complex as well as Candi Sewu, which was located near-by. To Mas Cebolang’s
question, why the surface of Lolo Jonggrang’s statue was so smooth, Ki Harsono answered,
“It is made of brass, not of stone.” Mas Cebolang commented, “All candi are splendid and
statues are marvellous. They are damaged to a certain extent, but Candi Loro Jonggrang is
still fine.” Was it true that the original statue was made of brass? The one that we see today is
a stone statue, as far as I know.
In any case, Mas Cebolang’s comment assures us that the condition of
Prambanan in the early 17th century was still good and was not as bad as that of
200 years later when the candi was cleaned by Ir. Cornelis, although there was no
description on the shape and height or whether the upper part was similar to that
restored in the 20th century. It was interesting to read that Ki Harsono was engaged
in the conservation of those candis. Probably, he would have considered those
candis as important heritage from his ancestors, even though their religion had
already been changed from Hindu/Buddhism to Islam. With regard to the fact that
incense was burnt and was diffusing smells in the niches of candis, Ki Harsono
explained that a number of pilgrims visited there to pray for fortune.
Candi Loro Jonggrang is no doubt the only large-scale monument that the Sanjaya
Dynasty left in the Soil of Mataram. How was it possible during the reign of Rakai Pikatan,
while other Hindu candis they had built earlier on Dieng Plateau, the slope of Mt. Ungaran

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(Gedung Songo) and later in the southern part of the Prambanan Plain (i.e. Candi Baron,
Candi Ijo, etc.) were smaller and simpler than many Buddhist temples built by the Sailendra,
viz. Candi Borobudur and Candi Mendut in the Kedu Basin and Candi Kalasan and Candi
Sewu in the Prambanan Plain? As one of the reasons, I would assume that Rakai Pikatan
owed much to the wealth of the Sailendra inherited by his wife, Pramodawardhani. Another
possible reason would have been related to the conflict between different religions. In the
historical novel, Arok Dedes [85] by Pramoedya Ananta Toer, a story on the coup d’etat of
Ken Arok, a young man of low birth, against the Governor of Tumapel in 13th-century East
Java, the great writer told as the voice of Shivaist Teacher, Dan Hyan Lohgawe:
“What happened to Mataram? How many [Hindu] temples were pulled down by
the army of Mahayana Sailendra? Those holy stones were stripped of their honour.
They were used as the base for their stupa shrines…”
Another remarkable candi in the Prambanan Archaeological Park is the aforementioned
Candi Sewu, located in the northern part of the park and is accessible by a non-rail trolley,
which goes around the interior of the park. This Buddhist monument is a temple complex of a
significantly large scale consisting of the main temple, which has been roughly restored, and
many small buildings, which are still in broken states. One interesting object is a pair of large
stone-made gate guardians (Skt. dwarapala), represented by raksasas, who each has a big
belly and holds a truncheon and a lasso in his hands as weapons against enemies of
Buddhists. Guardian gods in Buddhist temples are said to have originated in Gandhara, India,
where Hercules of the Greek myth was introduced. It is interesting that the god was imaged
differently in other countries, as carved as muscled wrestlers by Japanese sculptors, e.g.
Unkei and his disciples in the Kamakura Period (1192–1333), the most famous ones being in
the south-gate of Todaiji Temple in Nara. The common weapons of Japanese guardians are
also a truncheon and a lasso of different design from those of Java.[86]

A pair of statues of raksasas at the gate of Candi Plaosan, in Prambanan Plain, built in the mid-9th century
by Sri Kahulunan (alias Pramodhawardhani). Photographed by M. Iguchi, June 2008.

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A pair of wooden statues of Niou or Kongou Rikishi (lit. Herculean-strength wrestler) at the Great South Gate of Toudaiji Temple,
Nara, Japan. According to records, the large statues of 8.4-metres tall were made in 1196 AD within 69 days
by a group of sculptors; the open-mouthed one (left) by Unkei and Kaikei and the close-mouthed one (right)
by Joukaku and Tankei, both presumably under the direction of the master sculptor, Unkei.

In the same park, one can also see Candi Lumbung and Candi Buburuh, but in disastrously
broken forms. The famous Candi Kalasan and Candi Plaosan are located outside of the
Archaeological Park.

Istana Ratu Boko, a stone castle

On a hilltop, about three kilometres to the south of Candi Loro Jonggrang, there
are the remains of Candi Boko, alternatively called Istana Ratu Boko. While the
name may suggest a temple or a palace, I thought they were more like a castle or a
fort built on a mountain. Some five hundred metres ahead on a slope from a near-
by car park, a solid stone gate with guardrooms on both sides appeared, and on the
inside ground of two to three hectares were the ruins of a palace, a Buddhist
temple, a stage for rituals, a bathing pool and other facilities. When looking down
from a teahouse for tourists, the temples of Candi Loro Jonggrang were seen like
towers about 200 metres below in the distance on the flat, green ground.

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 Gates of Istana Ratu Boko viewed from the Crematorial Temple.

This was the place where Prince Balaputradewa of Sailendra who was not agreeable with
the extinction of his dynasty in Java after the marriage of his elder sister, Pramodawardhani,
to Rakai Pikatan of Sanjaya, had entrenched himself. The war situation having not been
favourable to him, Balaputra escaped to Sriwijaya, Sumatra, either being defeated or
reconciled, as mentioned before. In the early part of the aforementioned Prasasti Siwagrha, it
was written that, after the war, Rakai Pikatan had deplored the spilling of blood on this soil
and mourned for the souls of the deceased, and soon after then, he retired in the name of
Jatiningrat [87]. No record is available, though, Pramodawardhani is supposed to have stayed
in Java without accompanying her younger brother to Sumatra.
The name of Ratu Boko appears in the Loro Jonggrang Legend, but the story has
no bearing on the people involved in this incident.
To my knowledge, Candi Boko was the only stone castle built at that time in Java. As
recorded in the Old Book of Tang, as “they make their castle with hard wood”, other castles
must have decayed under the climate of tropical rainforest, even if teak wood, the most
durable wood, abundantly available at that time, were used.

The decline of Mataram and the move of the dynasty to East Java
After the Sanjaya and Sailendra kingdoms declined and Mpu Sindok of the
Sanjaya Dynasty moved the capital to East Java (928 AD), Candi Borobudur and
Candi Loro Jonggrang, as well as other candis, in Central Java became forgotten,
buried under the soil. Although there was a speculation that Borobudur would have
been covered by Buddhists who were afraid of the destruction by Moslems, it was
unlikely because the propagation of Islam around this area was later in the 15th
century.
With regard to the move of the kingdom to East Java, Dr. van Bemmelen, a
volcanist and geologist who worked in Java before the Second World War, had
pointed out two possible reasons in a theory based on his geological research. One
was the blockade of their outer port by the silted sand. Geographically, the island

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of Java, which is wide from east to west and narrow from north to south, is
latitudinally divided by a mountainous backbone and no break exists in the middle
part. In ancient times, people tended to inhabit the fertile southern part and built
their kingdoms, as the land of the northern part was geologically young and
frequently vacillated, but they had to go north to the shore of the Java Sea for their
trading with Asia, because the Indian Ocean with high waves was unsuitable for
their vessels. Since the route via Bengawan Solo, which led to the present-day
Gresik in East Java, was too long, the kingdoms of Mataram crossed over the col to
the west of Mts. Merapi and Merbabu and utilised Kali Garang (River Garung),
which originated from Mt. Ungaran and ran to the present-day Semarang.
According to Dr. van Bemmelen’s study, the coastline on the Java Sea at that time
ran four kilometres south to that of today and a good natural port was available by
the side of a small island, which became the present-day hill of Berkota. Mt.
Ungaran was very active at that time and a large amount of volcanic ash carried
down by Kali Garung was not dredgeable by the civil engineering technology of
those days.
Another possible reason in Dr. van Bemmelen’s theory was a volcanic disaster by Mt.
Merapi, which frequently explodes up until today. Regarding the disaster in Saka 928 (1006
AD) mentioned in the stone inscription of Pucangan[88], left by King Airlangga, Dr Kern,
the first decipherer, had assumed that it was a devastation of war (an attack by Sriwijaya), but
Dr. van Bemmelen thought it was a natural disaster and his presumption was supported by
Dr. C. C. Berg. While the move of the kingdom by Mpu Sindok in 928 AD and the year in
the inscription in 1006 differs by three-quarters of a century, the possibility that large
volcanic eruptions had also occurred before is not deniable.
Let me add an episode of Dr. van Bemmelen’s that I read in books [89]. During the last
world war, when Prof. H. Tanakadate heard of the fall of Singapore in Saigon where he was
visiting for a different mission, he immediately flew to Singapore to protect the Raffles
Museum and the Botanical Garden from the hands of Japanese armies, by arbitrarily
appointing himself the director, nine months before Marquis Tokugawa arrived as the
supreme advisor to the occupation army. Soon after the occupation of Java, he rushed there
and ordered to restore the activity of all universities and research institutions that were
captured by Japanese armies. One of the institutions was the Merapi Volcanic Observatory.
In his tight schedule, he spared a few days and climbed Mt. Merapi together with Dr. van
Bemmelen, a volcanist friend of his, whom he had freed from a military prison, and had a lot
of scientific discussion with the latter. The idea of Dr. van Bemmelen was introduced in Prof.
Tanakadate’s book, but the full paper I read was found in a journal published in 1956. [90]
Besides such geological reasons as indicated by Dr. van Bemmelen, religious conflict
might have been one factor that drove the kingdom eastwards. In Pramoedya Ananta
Toer’s Arok Dedes, mentioned above, Reverend Dan Hyan Lohgawe also narrated:
“One of the reasons the kingdom moved east, and then east again, was to escape
from the influence of Yoga, Tantri and Buddhism. Forgive us, Oh Lord, that the
greatness of Prambanan was not enough to fight off the wicked influence. Kalasan
gave them protection. Then, King Balitung moved Mataram eastwards. Mpu
Sindok moved it east again. In those days, the eastern area was still clean, free of
all such influences…”

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 After Mpu Sindok opened his Isyana Dynasty in Medang in 928, the tradition of
Hindu-Buddhism was succeeded by the Kediri Dynasty (1050–1222) and the
Singasari Dynasty (1222–92) but, in terms of the construction of large religious
monuments, the era of building Candi Loro Jonggrang at Prambanan was the
climax. In the period of the Majapahit Kingdom (established in 1293), fine cities
with good urban designs were developed and candis and other facilities were
constructed with precisely manufactured bricks, the traditional culture became
matured into Javan culture that produced new types of literary works and stage
plays, as well as some history books. In the 15th century, the Islamic Demak
Kingdom rose into power in north Central Java and encroached the territory of
Majapahit, leading to the demise of the latter kingdom. It was after Panembahan
Senapati became the sultan and founded the New Mataram Kingdom in 1584 with
its capital in Pajang (near the present-day Solo) that the gorgeous flower of
Javanese culture began to blossom.

Notes for Chapter 5

[1] T. S. Raffles, The History of Java, Vol. II, London 1817 (Reprint with an introduction by John Bastin,
Oxford University Press, Singapore 1988).
[2] Among Minangkabau (an ethnic group in Sumatra), there is a Tambo (tradition) that their ancestors
originated from Maharadja Diraja, one of the three sons of Iskandar (Alexander the Great) who came by boat to
their land, while his two other brothers, Maharadja Alif and Maharadja Diradja, went to, and became the kings
of, the Land of Sunset and the Land of Sunrise, located to the east and the west, respectively. Claire
Holt, Culture and Politics in Indonesia, Equinox Publishing 1972.
[3] Alfred R. Wallace, The Malay Archipelago (1869), Oxford University Press, Singapore 1985.
[4] Marquis Tokugawa (translated by M. Iguchi), Journeys to Java, ITB Press, Bandung 2004/Marquis
Tokugawa (diterjemahkan oleh Ririn Anggraeni dan Apriyanti Isanasari), Perdjalanan Moenoedjoe Jawa,
Penerbit ITB 2006 (徳川義親 「じゃがたら紀行」, 郷土出版社 1931 (十字屋書店 1943, 中公文庫 1975).
[5] Cited in: Daigoro Chihara, The architecture of Borobudur, Hara-Shobo 1970 (千原大五郎「ボロブ ドールの建築」, 原書
房 1970).
[6] On the main wall of the basement to the 3rd Terrace, East side=Akshobhya/Earth-touching mudra, South
side=Ratnasambhava/Blessing mudra, West side=Amithaba/ Contemplation mudra, North
side=Amoghasiddhi /Fearlessness bestowing mudra. On the main wall of the 4th Terrace, All sides=Vairocana-
Buddha/Dharma-exposing mudra. On the three Circular Terraces, all in the stupas=Shakyamuni/Wheel-of-law
turning mudra.
[7] Mahakarmavihanga (Basement 160), Lalitavistara (Corridor I-Main wall-Top 120), Jataka and Avadana
(Corridor I-Main wall-Bottom 120, Corridor I-parapet-Top 372, II-Bottom 128, Corridor II-Parapet 100),
Gandavyuha (Corridor II-Main wall 128, Corridor III-Main wall 88-Parapet 88, Corridor IV-Parapet 84),
Bhadracari (Corridor IV-Main 72). Figures denote the number of panels (Hidenosuke Miura (Ed), An
interpretation of Buddhist monument Borobudur in Java (三浦秀之助撰, 「闍婆佛蹟ボロブヅウル解説」, ボロブヅウル刋行會 1925).
The biography of Gautama (Lalitavistara) is explained e.g. in E. Oey, A. Cherian (Ed.), J. Miksic
(text), Borobudur: Golden Tales of the Buddhas, Periplus 1990.
[8] B. W. Carpenter, W. O. J. Nieuwenkamp: First European Artist in Bali, Periplus 1997.
[9] Th. Van Elp, “Nieuwenkamp's Nieuwe kijk op den Boroboedoer”, Nederlandsch-Indie Oud & Nieuw, Vol
16, No.8, December 1931.
[10] R. Soekmono, Candi Borobudur A Monument of Mankind, The Unesco Press, Paris and Van Gorcum,
Assen/Amsterdam 1976.

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[11] Seigai Ōmura, “Borobudur is a mandala”, [Hidenosuke Miura (Ed.), An interpretation of Buddhist
monument Borobudur in Java (Main Part-Chapter 11) , Borobudur Publishing Society 1925] (大村西崖「ボロブヅウル
は曼荼羅なり」 [三浦秀之助「闍婆佛蹟ボロブヅウル解説 (本論・第拾一章)」, ボロブヅウル刋行會 1925].
Other three mandalas are Maha mandala, Samaya mandala and Dharma mandala. This paragraph is new in this
English edition, not in the Japanese edition published earlier in October 2013.
[12] N. J. Krom, Archaeological Description of Barabudur, Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague 1927 (Reprint, Gyan
Publishing House, New Delhi 1986).
[13] Tomoji Abe, The islands of fire, Sogensha 1944 (阿部知二「火の島－ジャワ・バリ島の記」, 創元社 1944).
[14] An active volcano to the east of Borobudur, 2, 968 m.
[15] One of the finest essays written by Sei Shonagon (ca. 966–1025), a court lady, in the Heian Era, Japan.
English translation from: Arthur Waley, The Pillow Book of Sei Shonagon, Tuttle 2011 (First published by
George Allen & Unwin, London 1928).
[16] Trial translation by the present writer. “Tanka” is a Japanese, traditional short poem of thirty-one syllables,
written not only by high-class people but also by such commoners as soldiers and farmers, ever since the late
7th century. Shin-kokin-shu ( lit. New collective volume of past and present tanka) completed in 1216, in which
Rev. Ji-en’s above poem was No. 33 of the 1586 total number. Mt. Fuji was still emitting smoke in Rev. Ji-en’s
time (1155–1225) after the great eruption in 864 AD.
[17] I. G. N. Anom (Ed.), The Restoration of Borobudur, United Nations Educational 2006. No literature is
shown. Probably it was an oral tradition.
[18] Marquis Tokugawa (Footnote 4).
[19] Frank B. Carpenter, Java and the East Indies, Doubleday, Page & Scott Co., Garden City, New York 1926.
[20] “Mataram” is a Sanskrit word from which the English “mother” originated. “Vande Mataram”, the name of
a song, sung by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay in 1882 and became a national song (not the national anthem)
of India meaning “Oh, the land of mother”. The origin in Java will be mentioned below.
[21] R. Soekmono, The Javanese Candi: Function and Meaning, Brill, 1995.
[22] I. G. N Anom (Ed.), The Restoration of Borobudur, United Nations Educational 2006.
[23] Translation to Indonesian from Javanese. Ranggasutrasna (Ki Ngabei), Ranggasutrasna (Raden Ngabei.),
Paku Buwana IV (Sunan of Surakarta), Darusuprapta, Tim Penyadur,Centhini, Tambangraras – Amongraga
Jilid １, Balai Pustaka (1999). Serat Centhini is a story of three children (two sons and one daughter, and their
spouses) of Sunan Giri Prapen, who travelled around Java, when their palace in Giri in East Java was attacked
by Sultan Agung Hanyokusumo in the beginning of the 17th century. The book, compiled in the court of Solo in
1815, included the details of various places where they visited and the words of conversations with scholars
whom they met during their journeys.
[24] This abstract text from: Suwito Santoso, Kestity Pringgoharjono, The Centhini story: The Javanese journey
of life: based on the original Serat Centhini , Marshall Cavendish, 2006.
[25] “Prasasti” is the local word for a “historic inscription”. Most candis discovered in Java were the
monuments to commemorate the inauguration of temples and other structures.
[26] Also, R. Soekmono, Javanese Candi – Function and Meaning, Brill, Leiden 1995.
[27] Veronique Degroot, Candi, Space and Landscape: A Study on the Distribution, Orientation and Spatial
Organization of Central Javanese Temple Remains , Sidestone Press, 2010.
[28] On the hillside of Mt. Lawu (3, 265 m) to the east of Solo, two candis remain, Candi Sukuh and Candi
Ceto, built in the 15th century in the Majapahit period. (They will be mentioned in Chapter 6.)
[29] Akiko (1878–1942), a passionate female novelist and poet, married to her fellow writer, Tekkan Yosano.
The original tanka reads, “Kamakura ya, Mihotoke naredo Shakamuni (Shakyamuni) wa, Binan ni ohasu
Natsukodachi kana.”
The English translation from the homepage of Koutokuin Temple:
http://www.kotoku-in.jp/en/about/grounds_info.html.
[30] Yusuke Tsurumi, Nanyo-Yuuki ( Pleasure travels around the southern ocean), Dainihon-Yubenkai 1917.
[31] Thomas S. Raffles (Footnote 1).
[32] Sumantri, Yeni Kurniawati, Summary of course material: Sejarah Indonesia Kuno (History of Ancient
Indonesia) , Faculty of Social Science, Indonesia University of Education, 1977 (?).
http://file.upi.edu/Direktori/FPIPS/JUR._PEND._SEJARAH/197706022003122-
YENI_KURNIAWATI_SUMANTRI/Bahan_ajar_SIK.pdf
[33] The eight names were: Sanjaya, Panangkaran, Panunggalan, Garung, Pikatan, Kayuwangi, Watuhumalang,
Watukura (=Balitung). In Prasasti Wanua Tengah III, dated 908 AD (one year after the date of Prasasti
Mantyasih), discovered in the 1980s, thirteen names including the eight names in Prasasti Mantyasih were
found.
[34] To distinguish from the “New” Mataram Kingdom established after the Islamisation of Java, in the 16th
century and persists to date, it is often called the “Old” Mataram Kingdom.

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[35] Slamet Muljana, Sriwijaya, PT LKiS Pelangi Aksara, 2006. The English translation by the present author
(M. I). Stanza 10 is missing in the reffered book. Since S 11-12 contains four sentences, it may have been the
misprint of S 10-12.
[36] The original words were “pangkur, tawan and tirip”. Interpreted from a clause in Prasasti Muncang, dated
866 Saka (944 AD), “[this district] is no longer visited by the group of officials from the taxation office that
consists of three primary tax collectors, Pangkur, Tawan, and Tirip;…” (Ref: Siti Maziyah, “Daerah otonom
pada masa Kerajaan Mataram kuna: Tinjauan berdasar kedudukan dan fungsinya”, Paramita Vol. 20, No. 2,
July 2010).
[37] Unknown to the present writer (M. I.).
[38] This was described in Face B of Ligor Inscription (dated 775 AD). In Face A, it was written that “King of
Sriwijaya, who is the king of kings, built a Buddhist temple named Trisamaya caitya. Source: Slamet
Muljana, Sriwijaya, PT LKiS Pelangi Aksara, 2006.
[39] Slamet Muljana, Sriwijaya, PT LKiS Pelangi Aksara, 2006. The English translation by the present author
(M. I).
[40] Slamet Muljana, Sriwijaya, PT LKiS Pelangi Aksara, 2006.
[41] R. Soekmono (Footnote 21).
[42] E.g. Slamet Muljana, Sriwijaya, PT LKiS Pelangi Aksara, 2006; the two Sailendra persons whom Dr. Krom
considered to have reigned were Panangkaran and Indra Sangramadhanamjaya, but the former was actually the
son of Sanjaya.
[43] G. E. Hall, A History of South-East Asia 4th Ed., MacMillan Education 1981; Slamet Muljana, Sriwijaya,
PT LKiS Pelangi Aksara, 2006; Veronique Degroot, Candi, Space and Landscape: A Study on the Distribution,
Orientation and Spatial Organization of Central Javanese Temple Remains , Sidestone Press, 2010.
[44] Kabupaten: an administrative district corresponding to a county or prefecture.
[45] Timothy P. Barnard, Contesting Malayness: Malay identity across boundaries, NUS Press, 2004.
[46] E.g. Bo-Kyung Kim, Indefinite boundaries: Reconsidering the relationship between Borobudur and Loro
Jonggrong in Central Java, ProQuest, 2007.
[47] R. Soekmono, J. G. de Casparis, Jacques Dumarcay, Ping Amranand , Borobudur: Prayer in stone,
Archipelago Press, Singapore 1990.
[48] E.g. Bo-Kyung Kim, Indefinite boundaries: Reconsidering the relationship between Borobudur and Loro
Jonggrong in Central Java , UCLA ProQuest, 2007.
[49] Slamet Muljana, Sriwijaya, PT LKiS Pelangi Aksara, 2006.
[50] R. Soekmono (Footnote 21).
[51] R. Soekmono, Pengantar sejarah kebudayaan Indonesia 2, Kanisius-Yogyakarta, 2002.
[52] Paul Michel Munoz, Early Kingdoms of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula , Didier
Millet, 2006.
[53] R. Soekmono et al. (Footnote 47).
[54] Nagoya University, Jiu Tang Shu [Book of Tang] Vol. 197, Legends147, South/SouthwestBarbarians, 945
AD (舊唐書卷一百九十七・列傳第一百四十七・南蠻/西南蠻 945 AD),
http://toyoshi.lit.nagoya-u.ac.jp/maruha/kanseki/jiutangshu197.html
[55] Dva-pa-tan is unknown. A theory assumes that it was “Bali” (F. Stroliczka, in: Royal Asiatic Society of
Great Britain and Ireland. Straits Branch, Miscellaneous papers relating to Indo-China and Indian archipelago,
Vol. I , Trubner 1887), but it conflicts with the geographical location of the latter.
[56] Nagoya University, Tang Shu [The New Book of Tang] Vol. 222－ 1/2, Legends 147, Foreign Countries 2)
1060 AD (新唐書卷二百二十二下・列傳第一百四十七下・南蠻下),
http://toyoshi.lit.nagoya-u.ac.jp/maruha/kanseki/xintangshu222c.html.
[57] W. P. Groeneveldt, “Notes on the Malay Archipelago and Malacca”, in: Royal Asiatic Society of Great
Britain and Ireland. Straits Branch, Miscellaneous papers relating to Indo-China and Indian archipelago:
reprinted for the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. Second Series, Vol. I , Trubner, 1887.
[58] I-Tsing; J. Takakusu (trans.), A Record of the Buddhist Religion as Practised in India and the Malay
Archipelago (A. D. 671 –695), Clarendon Press, London, 1896. In his note, the translator obtained 6°8' N from:
If one assume the incidental angle of the sun beam the summer-solstice = 23.5°, and the latitude = x, 23.5 + x =
arctan (2.4/8). Then, x = 6°8'. The translator did not believe that Kalinga existed in the outside of Java, however.
[59] E.g. A. M. Sardiman, Sejarah 2 – SMA Kelas XI Program Ilmu Sosial, Quadra, Bogor 2007 (A high-school
textbook).
[60] Saleh Danasasmita, Sejarah Bogor, Pemerintah Daerah Kotamadya DT II Bogor, 1983.
[61] The source book was edited in the 18th century by the Committee of Pangeran Wangsakerta, in the court of
Cirebon, and written on lontar (palm leaves). The modern transcription, Atja, Edi Suhardi Ekajati, Pustaka
rajya-rajya i bhumi Nusantara Vol. I – 1, Bagian Proyek Penelitian dan Pengkajian Kebudayaan Sunda
(Sundanologi), Direktorat Jenderal Kebudayaan, Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan, 1987, was a rare,

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limited edition, but this writer had incidentally found in the library of Museum Negeri Jawa Barat – Sri Baduga,
when I was looking for literature on the pre-Tarumanagara history of West Java, and was given a special favour
to copy a part (the translation into the modern Indonesian language).
[62] If Mount Mahameru (Gunung Mahameru) is regarded as today’s Mt. Semeru, it is supposed that Kalinga
had ruled up to the east part of Java Island or the king went on a campaign up to that far.
[63] In Japan, for instance, Emperor Youmei married Princess Anahobenohashihito, his half-sister from a
different mother, and Prince Shoutoku (574–622) was born between them.
[64] Carita Parahiyangan is a lontar document on the history of the Sunda Kingdom, written by an anonymous
author in the 16th century. The source text from: Atja, Carita Parahiyangan: Naskah Titilar Karuhun Urang
Sunda. Jajasan Kebudajaan Nusalarang , Bandung 1968. Later, its English translation was found on the
internet:
<sundanesecorner.org/2010/12/08/the-story-of-parahiyangan/>
[65] One prasasti in which “Medang i Bhumi Mataram” was Prasasti Sanggurah (846 Saka). This prasasti is also
called “Minto Stone”, because during the British occupation of Java in the early 19th century, it was presented
to Lord Minto by Stamford Raffles (and still held by the Minto Family). As to Mamrati and Po Pitu, records
were found in the following prasasti.
[66] Nana Nurliana, Sudarini, Sejarah SMP/MTs Kls VII (KTSP), Grasindo, etc.
[67] R. Soekmono (Footnote 21).
[68] Sketsalaku, Galuh Karangkamulyan, 18 June 2010 http://sketsalaku.wordpress.com/2010/06/18/4/ (A
summary of the Galuh Chronicle).
[69] Hidenosuke Miura (Ed.), Buddhist monument Borobudur in Java: Folder 1–3, Borobudur Publishing
Society 1924 (三浦秀之助撰, 「闍婆仏蹟ボロブヅウル第 1-3 帙 」, ボロブヅウル刊行会 1924); Hidenosuke Miura (Ed), An
interpretation of Buddhist monument Borobudur in Java (三浦秀之助撰, 「闍婆佛蹟ボロブヅウル解説」, ボロブヅウル刋行會 1925.
[70] Jushiro Takeda (Ed.), Jagatara episodes – Footnotes of Japanese in the Dutch East Indies, Tsurukawa-
insatshujo 1968 (武田重四郎編「ジャガタラ閑話－蘭印時代邦人の足跡」, つるかわ印刷所 1968).
[71] R. Soekmono et al. (Footnote 47).
[72] Daluang , a kind of bark-paper prepared from the bark of “paper mulberry” might have been available
(See Chapter 6).
[73] Yasushi Inoue, Dunghuang, Koudansha 1959 (井上靖「敦煌」, 講談社 1959).
[74] Yukio Hirayama, The road to Dunfuan – A sketchbook of Yukio Hirayana, Tokuma-shoten 1988 (平山郁夫「敦
煌への道－平山郁夫素描集」, 徳間書店 1988); Yukio Hirayama,The road to Dunfuan – A sketchbook of Yukio Hirayana,
Tokuma-shoten 1988.
[75] “Tantu Panggelaran: Keberadaan Pulau Jawa Pada Zaman Purbakala (Tantu Panggelaran The Creation of
Java Island in Ancient Times)” http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pembicaraan:Tantu_Panggelaran
[76] Thomas S. Raffles (Footnote 1).
[77] V. R. Romondt, “De wederopbouw van den Civa Tempel”, Djawa No.3, 20, 1940.
[78] D. Chihara, Hindu-Buddhist Architecture in Southeast Asia, Brill Academic Publishers 1996. According to
some Internet articles, there seems to be a theory that the model of this statue is King Balitung, but his time was
much later. It must be a speculation with no evidence.
[79] Ganesha is well known, adopted for the emblem of Bandung Institute of Technology.
[80] The story continues in the thirty panels in Candi Brahma.
[81] East: Indra 2x, Southeast: Agni 2x, South: Yama 2x, Southwest: Nairrta and Surya, West: Varuna 2x,
Northwest: Vayu 2x, North: Kuvera and Soma, Northeast: Isana 2x. Ref: Bijdragen tot de taal-, land- en
volkenkunde: Volume 148, Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde (Netherlands) 1992
(books.google.com).
[82] Yusuke Tsurumi, Nanyo-Yuuki ( Pleasure travels around the southern ocean), Dainihon-Yubenkai 1917.
[83] E.g. Karl With, Java – Brahmanische, Buddhistische und Eigenleige Architektur und Plastik auf Java ,
Filkwang Verlag. M. B. H. Haben 1. W. 1920.
[84] This paragraph and the relevant pictures are new in this English edition. The three-faced "Brahma" written
on the figure's panel is not precise but must be a "Trimurti", or a triad of Brahma the creator, Vishnu the
preserver and Shiva the destroyer.
[85] Pramoedya Ananta Toer, Arok Dedes, Hasta Mitra, 1999. English translation by Max Lane, Arok of Java,
Horizon Books 2007.
[86] The figure comparing the Javanese and Japanese guardians is new in this English edition.
[87] Slamet Muljana, Sriwijaya, PT LKiS Pelangi Aksara, 2006.
[88] Prasasti Pucangan, dated 1041, has a nickname, “Calcutta Stone”, because it was carried away to India by
Stamford Raffles and held in the Asiatic Museum, Calcutta.

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[89] Hidezo Tanakadate, The Seizure of Southern Cultural Institutions, Jidai-sha, Tokyo 1944 (田中館秀三「南方文化施
設の接収」, 時代社 1944); Tanakadate Hidezo’s Achievements Publishing Group, Tanakadate Hidezo’s
Achievements and Memoirs, Sekai-Bunko, Tokyo 1975 (田中館秀三業績刊行会編「田中館秀三—業績と追憶」, 世界文庫 1975).
[90] Rein W. van Bemmelen, “The influence of geologic events on human history (an example from central
Java)”, Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk Nederlands Geologisch Mijnbouwkundig Genootschap , Geologische
Serie, 20–36, 1956.

Mystery of the TRIAD of the Chapter 7

Borobudur

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The aesthetic and technical mastery of Borobudur, and also its sheer size, has evoked the
sense of grandeur and pride for Indonesians. Just like Angkor Wat for Cambodia, Borobudur
has become a powerful symbol for Indonesia — to testify for its past greatness. Indonesia's
first President Sukarno made a point of showing the site to foreign dignitaries.
The Suharto regime — realized its important symbolic and economic meanings — diligently
embarked on a massive project to restore the monument with the help from UNESCO. Many
museums in Indonesia contain a scale model replica of Borobudur. The monument has
become almost an icon, grouped with the wayang puppet play and gamelan music into a
vague classical Javanese past from which Indonesians are to draw inspiration.
Several archaeological relics taken from Borobudur or its replica have been displayed in
some museums in Indonesia and abroad. Other than Karmawibhangga Museum within
Borobudur temple ground, some museums boast to host relics of Borobudur, such
as Indonesian National Museum in Jakarta, Tropenmuseum in Amsterdam, British
Museum in London, and Thai National Museum in Bangkok. Louvre museum in
Paris, Malaysian National Museum in Kuala Lumpur, and Museum of World Religions in
New Taipei also displayed the replica of Borobudur. The monument has drawn global
attention to the classical Buddhist civilization of ancient Java.
The rediscovery and reconstruction of Borobudur has been hailed by Indonesian Buddhists as
the sign of the Buddhist revival in Indonesia. In 1934, Narada Thera, a missionary monk
from Sri Lanka, visited Indonesia for the first time as part of his journey to spread the
Dharma in Southeast Asia. This opportunity was used by a few local Buddhists to revive
Buddhism in Indonesia. A Bodhi Tree planting ceremony was held in Southeastern side of
Borobudur on 10 March 1934 under the blessing of Narada Thera, and some Upasakas were
ordained as monks. Once a year, thousands of Buddhist from Indonesia and neighboring
countries flock to Borobudur to commemorate national Waisak celebration.
The emblem of Central Java province and Magelang Regency bears the image of Borobudur.
It has become the symbol of Central Java, and also Indonesia on a wider scale. Borobudur has
become the name of several establishments, such as Borobudur University, Borobudur
Hotel in Central Jakarta, and several Indonesian restaurants abroad. Borobudur has appeared
on Rupiah banknotes and stamps and in numbers of books, publications, documentaries and
Indonesian tourism promotion materials. The monument has become one of the main tourism
attraction in Indonesia, vital for generating local economy in the region surrounding the
temple. The tourism sector of the city of Yogyakarta for example, flourishes partly because of
its proximity to Borobudur and Prambanan temples.

Behind the splendor of the great temple built by Syailendra dynasty on the 8th century AD
which is also known as one of the 7 wonders of the world. Till this day, the Borobudur
temple was still leaves some big question marks about its existence. The temple has been
described in a number of ways. Its basic structure resembles that of a pyramid, yet it has been
also referred to as a caitya (shrine), a stupa (reliquary), and a sacred mountain. In fact, the
name Śailendra literally means “Lord of the Mountain.” While the temple exhibits
characteristics of all these architectural configurations, its overall plan is that of a three-
dimensional mandala—a diagram of the cosmos used for meditation—and it is in that sense
where the richest understanding of the monument occurs.

Moving past the base and through the four galleries, the devotee emerges onto the three upper
terraces, encountering 72 stupas each containing a three-dimensional sculpture of a seated

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Buddha within a stone latticework. At the temple’s apex sits the large central stupa, a symbol
of the enlightened mind.

Positioning of the 3 Hindu Buddhist Mandirs/Stupas

During the restoration in the early 20th century, it was discovered that three Buddhist temples
in the region, Borobudur, Pawon and Mendut, are positioned along a straight line. A ritual
relationship between the three temples must have existed, although the exact ritual process is
unknown.

Geography & History

The period in which the Javanese constructed Borobudur is shrouded in legend and mystery.
No records pertaining to its construction or purpose exist, and dating the temple is based on
artistic comparisons of reliefs and inscriptions found in Indonesia and elsewhere throughout
Southeast Asia. Strong cultural and religious influenced arrived in what is now present-day
Indonesia from the Indian subcontinent beginning around the 1st century CE. This influence
grew rapidly from c. 400 CE onwards. Hindu and Buddhist merchants and traders settled in
the region, intermarried with the local population, and facilitated long-distance trading
relations between the indigenous Javanese and ancient India. Over the centuries, the Javanese
blended the culture and religions of ancient India with their own.

The name "Borobudur" itself is the subject of intense scholarly debate and is a lingering
mystery. Some scholars contend that the name stems from the Sanskrit Vihara Buddha Uhr or
the "Buddhist Monastery on a Hill," while others, in turn, argue that Budur is nothing more
than a Javanese place name. A stone tablet dating from 842 CE makes mention of
Bhumisambharabhudara or the "Mountain of Virtues of Ten Stages of the Boddhisattva." It is
probable that the name "Borobudur" could be related to "Bharabhudara."

Modern historians have all disagreed amongst each other as to the political and cultural
events that led to Borobudur's construction as well. It is possible that the Hindu Sanjaya
dynasty initially began construction of a Shivaite temple on the spot where Borobudur now
sits around c. 775 CE and that they were unable to complete their temple as they were driven
out of the area by the Sailendra dynasty. (It should be noted, however, that other Javanese
historians see the Sailendra and Sanjaya dynasties as one and the same family and that
religious patronage simply changed as a result of personal belief. The general consensus is
that there were two rival dynasties supporting different faiths.)

Ancient Indian Ship/Borobudur Model

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Archaeological and scholarly consensus places the end of Borobudur's construction around c.
800-825 CE. King Samaratungga (r. c. 790-835 CE?) is traditionally regarded as the Javanese
king who oversaw the completion of Borobudur's construction. Buddhist kings, like
Samaratungga, were the rivals of the Hindu Sanjaya dynasty for power within the Mataram
kingdom in central Java. The Hindu Javanese under the Sanjaya dynasty
constructed Prambanan - Indonesia's largest Hindu temple, located some 19 km (12 miles) to
the west of Borobudur- in the same century as Borobudur, and it is entirely possible that
Prambanan's construction was a political and cultural response to that of Borobudur.

What is known is that Buddhists made pilgrimages and took part in Buddhist rituals at
Borobudur during the early medieval period until the temple was abandoned at some point
during the 1400s CE. The root causes for the abandonment of Borobudur are moreover
debated, and the reasons why the temple was ultimately abandoned remains unknown. It is
known that in the 10th or 11th century CE, the capital of the Mataram Kingdom moved
eastwards away from Borobudur due to volcanic eruptions, which may have diminished
Borobudur as a center of pilgrimage. Although Arab, Persian, and Gujarati traders brought
Islam to what is present-day Indonesia as early as the 8th and 9th centuries CE, the
acceleration of Javanese conversion to Islam began to increase rapidly only in the 15th
century CE. As the Javanese population accepted Islam en masse, it makes sense that
Borobudur would lessen in importance. Over the following centuries, earthquakes, volcanic
eruption, and rainforest growth hid Borobudur from the Javanese, rendering it inaccessible.
There is evidence, nonetheless, that Borobudur never left the collective cultural
consciousness of the Javanese people. Even after their conversion to Islam, later Javanese
stories and myths expressed the temple's association with mystery and negative energies.

In 1814, the Lieutenant Governor-General Thomas Stamford Raffles (1781-1826 CE) who
oversaw the brief British occupation of the Dutch East Indes permitted the Dutch explorer
Hermann Cornelius (1774-1833 CE) to organize an expedition to find and locate Borobudur,
which he did successfully the same year. In the years following Borobudur's rediscovery, the
government of the Dutch East Indies commissioned and permitted archaeological studies of
the temple, but looting was a major problem in the 19th and early 20th century CE. Experts
recommended that Borobudur be left intact in situ, and the first restoration efforts lasted from
1907 to 1911 CE. Today, Borobudur is once again a site of Buddhist pilgrimage and a major
tourist destination in Southeast Asia, but Indonesian officials remain worried about damage
caused by the foot traffic at the temple, as well as lingering environmental and security
issues.

Art & Architecture

Borobudur is made up of three different monuments: the main temple at Borobudur and
two smaller temples located to the east of the main temple. The two smaller temples are the
Pawon Temple and the Mendut Temple, the latter of which contains a large sculpture of
Buddha surrounded by two Bodhisattvas. The Borobudur Temple Compounds consists of
three monuments: namely the Borobudur Temple and two smaller temples situatued to the
east on a straight axis to Borobudur. The two temples are Mendut Temple, whose depiction
of Buddha is represented by a formidable monolith accompanied by two Bodhisattvas, and
Pawon Temple, a smaller temple whose inner space does not reveal which deity might have
been the object of worship. Those three monuments represent phases in the attainment of
Nirvana.

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Borobudur is an impressive and monumental ancient Buddhist structure that can only be
rivaled in Southeast Asia by Angkot Wat in Cambodia, the Buddhist temples of Bagan in
Myanmar (Burma), the Hindu temples of Mỹ Sơn in Vietnam, and the ruins of Sukhothai in
Thailand. Borobudur's design is a mix of Javanese style and Gupta dynasty architecture,
reflecting the blend of indigenous and Indian aesthetics in ancient Java. Over 500 statues of
Buddha are positioned around Borobudur, and Borobudur contains roughly 3,000 bas-relief
sculptures. These sculptures are all unique in that they depict the Buddha's teachings, life, and
personal wisdom. When taken all together, Borobudur can claim to have the largest amount
of Buddhist sculptures of any single site in the world today. It is known that in ancient times,
sculptors decorated and adorned the temples' various galleries before everything was covered
with paint and stucco. This method has helped better preserve these sculptures for over a
thousand years.
It is estimated that over 1.6 million blocks of andesite - a volcanic rock - were used in
Borobudur's construction. These rocks were cut and joined in a method that did not employ
any mortar. Borobudur is made up of three different monuments: the main temple at
Borobudur and two smaller temples located to the east of the main temple. The two smaller
temples are the Pawon Temple and the Mendut Temple, the latter of which contains a
large sculpture of Buddha surrounded by two Bodhisattvas. Collectively, Borobudur, Pawon,
and Mendut symbolize the path the individual takes in attaining Nirvana. All three temples lie
in a straight line as well. Another Buddhist temple - Ngawen, which dates from the 8th
century CE, is located just 10 km (6 miles) from the main temple at Borobudur. A ruined
Hindu temple, the Banon Temple, lies just several meters north of Pawon.

The main temple structure at Borobudur is constructed on three levels with a pyramid-shaped
base replete with five square terraces, the trunk of a cone with three circular shaped
platforms, and on the upper level, a grand monumental stupa. Fine reliefs form part of the
walls of the temples and cover an area of approximately 2,520 m2 (27,125 square feet). 72
stupas each with a statue of the Buddha inside are found around Borobudur's circular
platforms. This allocation and delineation of space conforms to the Buddhist conception of
the universe. In Buddhist cosmology, the universe is divided into three spheres known
as arupadhatu, rupadhatu, and kamadhatu. Arupadhatu is here represented by the three
platforms and large stupa, the rupadhatu is represented by the five terraces, and
the kamadhatu is represented by the temple's base.
TEMPLE TRIAD-Straight-line arrangement of Borobudur, Pawon, and Mendut Temples

Yogyakarta is home to several other spectacular temples, which would be perfect to complete
your temple tour. Some nearby temples around Borobudur one can explore are Mendut
Temple, Ngawen Temple, and Pawon Temple.

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Mendut Temple is located around three kilometers from Borobudur. This Buddhist temple
was built around the same era as Borobudur in the reign of the Syailendra Dynasty. The
temple has three Buddha Statues facing each other and the walls are graced with neatly
carved reliefs. Around 5 km before Mendut Temple if you are traveling from Yogyakarta you
will find Ngawen Temple. Same as Borobudur and Mendut Temple, Ngawen is a Buddhist
Temple and built in the same era.

To the east around 1750 meters from Borobudur Temple, lays Pawon Temple. It is actually
situated between Borobudur and Mendut Temple in Brojonalan Village, Borobudur District.
The temple is recognized to be the storage of the King Indra’s weapon known as Vajranala
shaped like lightning.

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To explain the additions or extensions at Borabudur and Mendut by successive
Shailendra rulers, possibly without exception, which have come to light during restoration
activities at those temples, one needs to understand that religious merit of the royal zealot did
increase to a great extent from the building of a stupa. Indeed for every spectator the sacred
construction work would be an incentive to join the creed while it would help the initiate in
his meditations aiming at the attainment of the Bodhi. Furthermore, the “accumulation of
religious merit” which the monarch earned through the construction of a magnificent temple
would also benefit his realm — “the thriving State of the Shailendras” as it is designated in
the inscriptions of the period. This topographical relationship looks hardly casual, as probably
a processional way ran along the line in ancient times (the path is still partly mimicked by the
modern road from Borobodur to Pawon up to the river Pogo).

Borobudur Temple (Biggest Buddha’s temple in the world)

Borobudur, is a 9th-century Mahayana Buddhist Temple in Magelang, Central Java,
Indonesia. The monument consists of nine stacked platforms, six square and three circular,
topped by a central dome. The temple is decorated with 2,672 relief panels and 504 Buddha
statues. The central dome is surrounded by 72 Buddha statues, each seated inside a perforated
stupa. It is the world’s largest Buddhist temple, as well as one of the greatest Buddhist
monuments in the world.
Built in the 9th century during the reign of the Sailendra Dynasty, the temple was designed in
Javanese Buddhist architecture, which blends the Indonesian indigenous cult of ancestor
worship and the Buddhist concept of attaining Nirvana. The temple also demonstrates the
influences of Gupta art that reflects India’s influence on the region, yet there are enough
indigenous scenes and elements incorporated to make Borobudur uniquely Indonesian. The
monument is both a shrine to the Lord Buddha and a place for Buddhist pilgrimage. The
journey for pilgrims begins at the base of the monument and follows a path around the

366
monument and ascends to the top through three levels symbolic of Buddhist cosmology:
Kāmadhātu (the world of desire), Rupadhatu (the world of forms) and Arupadhatu (the world
of formlessness). The monument guides pilgrims through an extensive system of stairways
and corridors with 1,460 narrative relief panels on the walls and the balustrades. Borobudur
has the largest and most complete ensemble of Buddhist reliefs in the world.

Chandi MENDUT and Chandi PAVON supplement the temple complex. They were built
during the reign of King Indra (782–812 AD) of the Shailendra dynasty. The whole temple
complex symbolizes the way of a spiritual seeker from the mundane life to the Divine life, to
the state of Buddha. In old times a big road led from Borobudur eastern entrance to Chandi
Mendut, passing through Chandi Pavon. Along the entire road there were walls with
numerous towers, niches, and sculptures.
 Chandi Mendut,
 Chandi Pavon,
 the famous Borobudur temple complex.

Pawon Temple
Pawon temple (known locally as Candi Pawon) is a Buddhist temple located between two
other Buddhist temples, approximately 1,150 metres away from Mendut and 1,750 metres
away from Borobudur.
, Pawon is connected with the other two temples, all of which were built during the Sailendra
dynasty (8th–9th centuries). Examines the detail and style of its carving this temple is slightly
older than Borobudur.
The three temples were located on a straight line, suggesting there was a symbolic meaning
that binds these temples.

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“Between Mendut and Borobudur stands Pawon temple, a jewel of Javanese temple
architecture. Most probably, this temple served to purify the mind prior to ascending
Borobudur.”

The original name of this Buddhist shrine is uncertain. Pawon literally means “kitchen” in
Javanese language, which is derived from the root word awu or dust. The connection to the
word “dust” also suggests that this temple was probably built as a tomb or mortuary temple
for a king. Pawon from the word Per-awu-an (place that contains dust), a temple that houses
the dust of cremated king. However who was the personage that entombed here is still
unknown. Local people name this temple as “Bajranalan” based on the name of the village.
Bajranalan is derived from the sanskrit word Vajra (thunder or also a Buddhist ceremonial
tool) and Anala (fire, flame). Due to its small size, Pavon resembles a memorial monument.
When the temple was found, it was in a very poor condition. Themes of decorative reliefs in
Pavon include the “heavenly tree”, vessels with gifts, bearded dwarfs spilling necklaces, rings
and jewels from boxes. Such themes are explained by the fact that Chandi Pavon is dedicated
to the deity of wealth Kubera, who was usually depicted at entrances to temples.
Inner premises of the temple are trimmed with dark volcanic stone. Although no statues have
been preserved in Chandi Pavon, it is possible to ascertain by outer wall reliefs that the
temple once was dedicated to Kubera – the generous lord of luck and wealth. There are also
extant images of Kalpataru – the mythical tree of desires in Hindu and Buddhist traditions.
The desires ingrained in righteous thoughts and true faith will be fulfilled.

In the contemporary era during the full moon in May or June, Buddhists in Indonesia observe
Vesak annual ritual by walking from Mendut passing through Pawon and ends at Borobudur.

As it has been mentioned above, between Chandi Mendut and Borobudur there is the small
Chandi Pavon,

Mendut Temple
Mendut temple is a ninth-century Buddhist temple, located in Mendut village, Mungkid sub-
district, Magelang Regency, Central Java, Indonesia. The temple is located about three
kilometres east from Borobudur. Mendut, Borobudur and Pawon, all of which are Buddhist
temples, are located in one straight line. There is a mutual religious relationship between the
three temples, although the exact ritual process is unknown.

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Borobodur was once the center of religious rituals of Mahayana Buddhism, which was
corroborated by the existence of other temples with Mahayana Buddhism around it. Studies
conducted on the location of Borobudur and the other temples surrounding it shows that the
three temples are positioned along a single straight line, which was organized during the
construction of Mendut Temple. It is also shown that the imaginary line connecting the three
temples is linked to Mount Merapi.Studies on the temples surrounding Borobudur show a
similarity with regard to the period of construction, which is the era of Mataram Kuno
(Ancient Mataram), as well as their religious affiliation, that is, Mahayana Buddhism, which
excludes Banon Temple as it is filled with statues of Hindu Gods . These studies led to an
interpretation that Borobudur Temple is highly associated with Pawon and Mendut Temples
located in the east. The association between Borobudur and the two surrounding temples also
identifies that the three temples were the centers for religious rituals in the past.
Geographically, Ngawen Temple is located in the east of Borobudur Temple. However, no
study has been conducted revealing the association between Borobudur, Pawon, Mendut, and
Ngawen Temples in the past. To further observe the association between the four temples,
this study will focus on their location, religion, ornaments, and statues. The author believes
that this research would provide a new interpretation of Borobudur and the surrounding
Buddhist temples as monuments for sacred procession in the past and as a world heritage in
the future.Field observation of the four temples, namely Borobudur, Pawon, Mendut, and
Ngawen was conducted.

The temple possesses several meanings related to the belief of Mahayana Buddhism.
Moreover, in the past, Borobudur had served as the center of other sacred buildings
surrounding it . Within a distance of 5 km around the temple, there are three other temples
affiliated with Mahayana Buddhism, among which are Pawon Temple (1,150 m from
Borobudur) and Mendut (2,900 m). Borobudur, Pawon, and Mendut Temples are located in
the west of Elo River, and Ngawen is, in fact, located in the east side of the river,which is, in
turn, 4 km away from Borobudur .According to previous studies, Borobudur, Pawon, and
Mendut Temples are positioned on a straight line and they form a triadic of sacred buildings
affiliated to Mahayana Buddhism. However the imaginary axis connecting the three temples
is not a straight line, and it is interpreted that they were the centers of religious rituals and
processions in the past. Furthermore, it is suggested that the three temples were closely
associated with Mount Merapi. Nevertheless, further examination of the map shows an
addition temple called Ngawen Temple, from which a parallel imaginary axis can also be
drawn, connecting it to the other three temples. Thus, on the basis of this fact, it can be
interpreted that, in the past, the procession of the religious rituals might begin in Ngawen
Temple and end in Borobudur.

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The layout of Chandi Mendut is traditional. It is a temple with a deity figure placed on a
pedestal, intended for ritual processions. The walls contain thematic reliefs with scenes from
Buddhist parables. The reliefs contain well-preserved images of Bodhisattvas. Inside Chandi
Mendut itself there are three statues: Gautama Buddha in the middle, Bodhisattva
Avalokiteśvara on the left, and a non-identified Bodhisattva on the right (there is an
assumption that it is a statue of Vajrapani).

The most unusual thing is that Shakyamuni Buddha is sitting in a “European” or “royal” pose
with his both feet put on the lotus pedestal and his knees widely parted, without any traces of
clothes. Bodhisattvas are sitting in traditional poses with one foot under their body and the
other foot lowered.In traditional Buddhist iconography the image of the body part relating to

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genitals is always hidden by either a pose (asana) or pleats on the clothes (when Buddha is
standing or lying). Hence, for adherents of canonical Buddhism the aforesaid depiction of
Buddha is probably somewhat shocking.

Religious associations of Borobudur Temple with other nearby temples: Two major
schools, namely Mahayana and Hinayana (Theravada), are found in Buddhism.Mahayana
Buddhism is described as the “great vehicle”, in which a holy man stays on the Earth, rather
than going to heaven, in order to be able to help. Moreover, in Mahayana Buddhism, it is
believed that a savior visits the Earth in the future, whereas Hinayana Buddhism or
Theravada is described as a “small vehicle”, in which the Buddha is merely the Buddha
himself, without the presence of Bodhisattva. Discussions on structures built during the
Hindu–Buddhist era are highly associated with religious context. Revealing the religious
background of a structure requires an observation of the components of the building.
According to Soekmono (2005), temples in Indonesia can be classified in two major groups,
namely Hindu and Buddhist temples. One of the main features of Buddhist temples is the
existence of the stupas. A stupa is a bell-shaped structure of the shrine, which is a unique
feature of Buddhist temples. Nevertheless, to explore more about the religious affiliation of a
specific structure, we need to focus on the statues, reliefs, sketches, and other ornaments of
structures.

The most important argument for the coherence of Barabudur, Mendut and Pawon in my
view is the fact — which Van Erp discovered by chance — that the three of them had been
lain out along one straight line: 15Pawon on the right shore of the Progo River, 1750 m
East of Barabudur, and Mendut 1150 m further East, on the left shore of the Elo River, just
upstream from its junction with the Progo.16
Van Erp considered this fact and, as it were, the logically deducible.

a. for the west, the beginning of the western staircase at Barabudur;

b. for the Suryaloka, the bhavagra ― the top level of the Akanistha Heaven;
c. for the east, Candi Mendut; and
d. for the zenith, Candi Pawon.

TRIAD

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Borobudur stands in the geographical center of the island of Java, fifteen miles from
Yogyakarta, on a plateau that is the caldera of an ancient volcano ringed by the Menoreh
mountains. Two sets of twin volcanoes – Merapi and Merbabu to the northeast, Sumbing and
Sindoro to the northwest – stand sentinel across the plains. Merapi, the "fire mountain," is
active. A legend is told of a heavenly architect who built Borobudur in a single day and laid a
curse on anyone who dared ascend his holy shrine. According to Asian art historian, Jan
Fontein: "There is a mountain south of Borobudur that when viewed from the monument
looks very much like the profile of a man; the nose, lips and chin are clearly delineated. The
story goes that the ridge depicts Gunadharma, the architect of Borobudur, who is believed to
keep watch over his creation through the ages."

There were only two fleeting references to Borobudur in historical reports of the 18th
century. The first recorded visitor to Borobudur was a rebel who fled to the mountain called
Bara-Budur in 1709 after leading an attempt to usurp the throne from the Sultan of Matara.
The Sultan sent troops who surrounded the mountain, captured him and sent him to be
executed.
The next documented visitor to the monument was the heir apparent of Yogyakarta, a defiant
young prince who had a reputation for rebellious and depraved behavior. In 1758, he set out
to visit the "mountain of a thousand statues" against the advice of a prophecy that royalty
who climbed the mountain would die. When he did not return to court, the king sent his men
to bring back the wayward son. He was found vomiting blood and soon after died.

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But records revealed no consensus on the meaning of the name "Borobudur." Two
alternatives were proposed based on Javanese manuscripts from 842 AD: "the mountain of
the accumulation of virtue on the ten stages of the Bodhisattva," or "the mountain which is
terraced in successive stages." Sir Thomas Raffles, the British governor of Indonesia
responsible for the excavation of Borobudur in 1814, thought that "boro" might mean "great"
and "budur" might correspond to the more modern Javanese word "buda," interpreted as "The
Great Buddha." One Javanese expert indicated that "boro" is related to the word for
"monastery," and "budur" is a place name. This would suggest that Borobudur means
"Monastery of Budur."Fortunately, because of the native tolerance of religious diversity,
many of the monuments of Java were simply abandoned rather than destroyed or defaced,
and a cloud of mystery and superstition descended on Borobudur.

The first study on Borobudur was conducted during the Dutch East Indies era by Van Erp and
N. J. Kroom,2 which coincided with the temple’s restoration project. Based on the similarities
with regard to the architectural style and ornamentation of the three temples it indicated an
association between Borobudur Temple and two other temples located nearby, namely Pawon
Temple and Mendut Temple. They seem to have been built in the same period, that is, the
Sailendra dynasty era. The next study was conducted by J. L. Moens in the 1950s 3 connected
the three temples with Banon Temple, a Hindu temple located near Pawon Temple.
Furthermore, it shows that Borobudur, Pawon, and Mendut Temples were all ritual centers of
Mahayana Buddhism, whereas Banon Temple was a place for the followers of Siwa-
Siddhanta. Another study conducted by IGN Anom imaginarily connected Borobudur,
Pawon, and Mendut Temples,showing that the three temples were built along a straight line

Association of the positioning of Borobudur Temple with the four nearby temples

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Borobudur Temple is located in the west of Elo River. The temple possesses several
meanings related to the belief of Mahayana Buddhism. Moreover, in the past, Borobudur had
served as the center of other sacred buildings surrounding it.. Within a distance of 5 km
around the temple, there are three other temples affiliated with Mahayana Buddhism, among
which are Pawon Temple (1,150 m from Borobudur) and Mendut (2,900 m) . Borobudur,
Pawon and Mendut Temples are located in the west of Elo River, and Ngawen is, in fact,
located in the east side of the river, which is, in turn, 4 km away from Borobudur . According
to previous studies, Borobudur, Pawon, and Mendut Temples are positioned on a straight line
and they form a triadic (a group of three) of sacred buildings affiliated to Mahayana
Buddhism.

However, according to Totok Roesmanto , the imaginary axis connecting the three temples is
not a straight line, and it is interpreted that they were the centers of religious rituals and
processions in the past. Furthermore, it is suggested that the three temples were closely
associated with Mount Merapi. Nevertheless, further examination of the map shows an
addition temple called Ngawen Temple, from which a parallel imaginary axis can also be
drawn, connecting it to the other three temples.Thus, on the basis of this fact, it can be
interpreted that, in the past, the procession of the religious rituals might begin in Ngawen
Temple and end in Borobudur.

Discussions on structures built during the Hindu–Buddhist era are highly associated with
religious context. Revealing the religious background of a structure requires an observation
of the components of the building. Temples in Indonesia can be classified in two major
groups, namely Hindu and Buddhist temples. One of the mainfeatures of Buddhist temples is
the existence of the stupas. A stupa is a bell-shaped structure of the shrine, which is a unique
feature of Buddhist temples. Nevertheless, to explore more about the religious affiliation of a
specific structure, we need to focus on the statues, reliefs, sketches, and other ornaments of
structures.

Bodobodur and Merapi Volcano: Borobudur was mysteriously abandoned by the 1500s,
when the center of Javan life shifted to the East and Islam arrived on the island in the 13th
and 14th centuries. Perhaps Mount Merapi had erupted, choking the rice lands with layers of
volcanic ash. Whatever the cause, the population moved to East Java in a mass exodus, and
Borobudur was left behind, its meaning lost in time. Some scholars believe that famine
caused by an eruption of Mount Merapi forced the inhabitants of Central Java to leave their
lands behind in search of a new place to live. When people once again inhabited this area, the
glory of Borobudur was buried by ash from Mount Merapi.

Mountain peaks, according to Buddhist thought, are the place where contact with divine
truth may take place. There are 129 volcanoes in Indonesia and smoke can be seen emerging
from the mountaintop at least 300 days a year. Mount Merapi, which stands at about 9,551
feet (2,911 meters) tall, lies in one of the world's most densely populated areas and
dominates the landscape immediately north of the major city of Yogyakarta, on the island of
Java.It is a stratovolcano being the youngest and southernmost of a volcanic chain
extending north and northwest, to the Mount Ungaran volcano. The name Merapi could be
loosely translated as "Mountain of Fire" from the Javanese combined words "Meru,"
meaning "mountain," and "api," meaning "fire."Tectonically, Merapi is situated at the
subduction zone where the Indo-Australian Plate is sliding beneath the Eurasian Plate. It is
part of the Pacific Ring of Fire – a section of fault lines and volcanoes stretching from the
western coast of South America, Alaska through Japan and Southeast Asia.

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Merapi has been active for about 10,000 years. The volcano's biggest and most devastating
eruptions occurred in 1006 and 1930. The eruption of 1006 was so bad that many believe the
existing Hindu kingdom in the area was destroyed, as it spread ash over all of central Java.
During the 1930 eruption more than 1,300 people were killed."The material has to travel 30
miles [48 km] to get to the surface; there has to be enough propellant force to push them all
that way and out.Merapi is the poster child for unstable lava domes," Wunderman said. "The
dome on Merapi rests on a steep, unstable environment, and it is easy for pieces to break off
and do damage; for example, hot gases can be released and form a superheated, high speed
cloud that rolls down the mountain. The volcano is considered sacred by some local people
who believe a supernatural kingdom exists atop Merapi, according to Indhanesia.com, an
informational website about Indonesia. Every year a priest climbs to the top to make an
offering.
1.5.7
1.5.8 Creation
Merapi is very important to Javanese, especially those living around its crater. As such, there
are many myths and beliefs attached to Merapi. Although most nearby villages have their
own myths about the creation of Mount Merapi, they have numerous commonalities. It is
believed that when the gods had just created the Earth, Java was unbalanced because of the
placement of Mount Jamurdipo on the west end of the island. In order to assure balance, the
gods (generally represented by Batara Guru) ordered the mountain to be moved to the centre
of Java. However, two armourers, Empu Rama and Empu Permadi, were already forging a
sacred keris at the site where Mount Jamurdipo was to be moved. The gods warned them that
they would be moving a mountain there, and that they should leave; Empu Rama and Empu
Permadi ignored that warning. In anger, the gods buried Empu Rama and Empu Permadi
under Mount Jamurdipo; their spirits later became the rulers of all mystical beings in the area.
In memory of them, Mount Jamurdipo was later renamed Mount Merapi, which means "fire
of Rama and Permadi."
1.5.9
1.5.10 Spirit Kraton of Merapi
The Javanese believe that the Earth is not only populated by human beings, but also by spirits
(makhluk halus). Villages near Merapi believe that one of the palaces (in Javanese kraton)
used by the rulers of the spirit kingdom lies inside Merapi, ruled by Empu Rama and Empu
Permadi. This palace is said to be a spiritual counterpart to the Yogyakarta Sultanate,
complete with roads, soldiers, princes, vehicles, and domesticated animals. Besides the rulers,
the palace is said to also be populated by the spirits of ancestors who died as righteous
people. The spirits of these ancestors are said to live in the palace as royal servants ( abdi
dalem), occasionally visiting their descendants in dreams to give prophecies or warnings.
1.5.11
1.5.12 Spirits of Merapi
To keep the volcano quiet and to appease the spirits of the mountain, the Javanese regularly
bring offerings on the anniversary of the sultan of Yogyakarta's coronation. For Yogyakarta
Sultanate, Merapi holds a significant cosmological symbolism, because it forms a sacred
north-south axis line between Merapi peak and Southern Ocean (Indian Ocean). The sacred
axis is signified by Merapi peak in the north, the Tugu Yogyakarta monument near
Yogyakarta main train station, the axis runs along Malioboro street to Northern Alun-alun
(square) across Keraton Yogyakarta (sultan palace), Southern Alun-alun, all the way to
Bantul and finally reach Samas and Parangkusumo beach on the estuary of Opak river and
Southern Ocean. This sacred axis connected the hyangs or spirits of mountain revered since

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ancient times—often identified as "Mbah Petruk" by Javanese people—The Sultan of
Yogyakarta as the leader of the Javanese kingdom, and Nyi Roro Kidul as the queen of the
Southern Ocean, the female ocean deity revered by Javanese people and also mythical
consort of Javanese kings.
1.5.13
1.5.14 Abandonment Borobodur lies 28 KM away from the
mountain. No one knows what happened to the culture that built the
monument. Perhaps Merapi had erupted, choking the rice lands with
layers of volcanic ash. Whatever the cause, the population moved to
East Java in a mass exodus, and Borobudur was left behind, its
meaning lost in time. Borobudur lay hidden for centuries under
layers of volcanic ash and jungle growth. The facts behind its
abandonment remain a mystery. It is not known when active use of
the monument and Buddhist pilgrimage to it ceased. Sometime
between 928 and 1006, King Mpu Sindok moved the capital of
the Medang Kingdom to the region of East Java after a series of
volcanic eruptions; it is not certain whether this influenced the
abandonment, but several sources mention this as the most likely
period of abandonment. The monument is mentioned vaguely as
late as c. 1365, in Mpu Prapanca's Nagarakretagama, written during
the Majapahit era and mentioning "the vihara in Budur".Soekmono
(1976) also mentions the popular belief that the temples were
disbanded when the population converted to Islam in the 15th
century.

The monument was not forgotten completely, though folk stories gradually shifted from its
past glory into more superstitious beliefs associated with bad luck and misery. Two old
Javanese chronicles (babad) from the 18th century mention cases of bad luck associated with
the monument. According to the Babad Tanah Jawi (or the History of Java), the monument
was a fatal factor for Mas Dana, a rebel who revolted against Pakubuwono I, the king
of Mataram in 1709. It was mentioned that the "Redi Borobudur" hill was besieged and the
insurgents were defeated and sentenced to death by the king. In the Babad Mataram (or
the History of the Mataram Kingdom)4 , the monument was associated with the misfortune of
Prince Monconagoro, the crown prince of the Yogyakarta Sultanate in 1757. In spite of a
taboo against visiting the monument, "he took what is written as the knight who was captured
in a cage (a statue in one of the perforated stupas)". Upon returning to his palace, he fell ill
and died one day later.

During the Britiash administration from 1811 to 1816, Lieutenant Governor-General Thomas
Stamford Raffles was appointed governor who took great interest in the history of Java. On
an inspection tour to Semarang in 1814, he was informed about a big monument deep in a
jungle near the village of Bumisegoro. He was not able to see the site himself, but
sent Hermann Cornelius , a Dutch engineer who, among other antiquity explorations had
uncovered the Sewu complex in 1806–07, to investigate. In two months, Cornelius and his
200 men cut down trees, burned down vegetation and dug away the earth to reveal the
monument. Due to the danger of collapse, he could not unearth all galleries. He reported his
findings to Raffles, including various drawings. Although Raffles mentioned the discovery

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and hard work by Cornelius and his men in only a few sentences, he has been credited with
the monument's rediscovery, as the one who had brought it to the world's attention.

Christiaan Lodewijk Hartmann, the Resident of the Kedu region, continued Cornelius's work,
and in 1835, the whole complex was finally unearthed. His interest in Borobudur was more
personal than official. Hartmann did not write any reports of his activities, in particular, the
alleged story that he discovered the large statue of Buddha in the main stupa. In 1842,
Hartmann investigated the main dome, although what he discovered is unknown and the main
stupa remains empty.

The Dutch East Indies government then commissioned Frans Carel Wilsen, a Dutch
engineering official, who studied the monument and drew hundreds of relief sketches. Jan
Frederik Gerrit Brumund was also appointed to make a detailed study of the monument,
which was completed in 1859. The government intended to publish an article based on
Brumund's study supplemented by Wilsen's drawings, but Brumund refused to cooperate. The
government then commissioned another scholar, Conradus Leemans, who compiled
a monograph based on Brumund's and Wilsen's sources. In 1873, the first monograph of the
detailed study of Borobudur was published, followed by its French translation a year later.
The first photograph of the monument was taken in 1872 by the Dutch-
Flemish engraver Isidore van Kinsbergen.
Appreciation of the site developed slowly, and it served for some time largely as a source of
souvenirs and income for "souvenir hunters" and thieves. In 1882, the chief inspector of
cultural artifacts recommended that Borobudur be entirely disassembled with the relocation
of reliefs into museums due to the unstable condition of the monument. As a result, the
government appointed Willem Pieter Groeneveldt, curator of the archaeological collection of
the Batavian Society of Arts and Sciences,[38] to undertake a thorough investigation of the site
and to assess the actual condition of the complex; his report found that these fears were
unjustified and recommended it be left intact.

Borobudur was considered as the source of souvenirs, and parts of its sculptures were looted,
some even with colonial-government consent. It is said that in 1896 King
Chulalongkorn of Siam visited Java and requested and was allowed to take home eight
cartloads of sculptures taken from Borobudur. These include thirty pieces taken from a
number of relief panels, five buddha images, two lions, one gargoyle, several kala motifs
from the stairs and gateways, and a guardian statue (dvarapala). Several of these artifacts,
most notably the lions, dvarapala, kala, makara and giant waterspouts are now on display in
the Java Art room in The National Museum in Bangkok.
1.5.15
1.5.16 Restoration
Borobudur attracted attention in 1885, when the Dutch engineer Jan Willem
IJzerman Chairman of the Archaeological Society in Yogyakarta, made a discovery about the
hidden foot. Photographs that reveal reliefs on the hidden foot were made in 1890–1891. The
discovery led the Dutch East Indies government to take steps to safeguard the monument. In
1900, the government set up a commission consisting of three officials to assess the
monument: Jan Lourens Andries Brandes, an art historian, Theodoor van Erp [nl], a Dutch
army engineer officer, and Benjamin Willem van de Kamer, a construction engineer from the
Department of Public Works.
In 1902, the commission submitted a threefold plan of proposal to the government. First, the
immediate dangers should be avoided by resetting the corners, removing stones that
endangered the adjacent parts, strengthening the first balustrades and restoring several niches,

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archways, stupas and the main dome. Second, after fencing off the courtyards, proper
maintenance should be provided and drainage should be improved by restoring floors and
spouts. Third, all loose stones should be removed, the monument cleared up to the first
balustrades, disfigured stones removed and the main dome restored. The total cost was
estimated at that time around 48,800 Dutch guilders.

The restoration then was carried out between 1907 and 1911, using the principles
of anastylosis and led by Theodor van Erp. The first seven months of restoration were
occupied with excavating the grounds around the monument to find missing Buddha heads
and panel stones. Van Erp dismantled and rebuilt the upper three circular platforms and
stupas. Along the way, Van Erp discovered more things he could do to improve the
monument; he submitted another proposal, which was approved with the additional cost of
34,600 guilders. At first glance, Borobudur had been restored to its old glory. Van Erp went
further by carefully reconstructing the chattra (three-tiered parasol) pinnacle on top of the
main stupa. However, he later dismantled the chattra, citing that there were not enough
original stones used in reconstructing the pinnacle, which means that the original design of
Borobudur's pinnacle is actually unknown. The dismantled chattra now is stored
in Karmawibhangga Museum, a few hundred meters north from Borobudur.
Due to the limited budget, the restoration had been primarily focused on cleaning the
sculptures, and Van Erp did not solve the drainage problem. Within fifteen years, the gallery
walls were sagging, and the reliefs showed signs of new cracks and deterioration. Van Erp
used concrete from which alkali salts and calcium hydroxide leached and were transported
into the rest of the construction. This caused some problems, so that a further thorough
renovation was urgently needed.

...nature takes a toll

But during the 19th century, as Borobudur's past became more clear, its future grew much
less certain. The climate of Java is particularly ruthless to man-made structures. In the words
of Professor Soekmono, former head of the Archeological Service of Indonesia: "For over a
thousand years, the rigours of the tropical climate have probed the latent weaknesses of the
edifice. Sudden changes of heat and cold between day and night, where temperatures may
vary by 40 degrees Fahrenheit in twenty-four hours, cause stones to crack. But the worst
havoc has been caused by the heavy rains, over eighty inches a year on average, with
torrential downpours of up to half an inch in five minutes. They overwhelmed the inadequate
drainage system, percolating down into the central core where they washed away the earth
and weakened the foundations."

"Moisture on the stones had also corroded many of the beautifully carved reliefs and favored
the growth of disfiguring patches of mosses and lichens. The terrace walls sagged and tilted
at crazy angles and the floors sloped inwards. Had the lower terrace walls collapsed, the
whole colossal structure would have come tumbling down in a great slithering avalanche of
earth and masonry."

Nature itself was destroying the monument, literally tearing Borobudur apart. Despite
repeated efforts at restoration throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, major decay and
structural disintegration plainly threatened Borobudur with inevitable and irreparable
collapse. Several interesting suggestions for protection of the monument were made during
that time. One of the preservationists suggested that Borobudur be covered by a giant
umbrella to keep the rain off. Another proposal was to demolish the entire edifice and deposit

378
the reliefs in a museum.

In 1907, Theodore Van Erp, a Dutch engineering officer, led a major restoration project. He
rebuilt the crumbling stupas and heaving floors of the upper terraces, cleaning the sculptures
of moss and lichen. But after four years, the limited funds were exhausted before work could
begin on the lower galleries, and the basic problem of drainage had not been solved. Carvings
were rapidly disintegrating; walls were crumbling. By 1948, when the Republic of Indonesia
came into existence, Borobudur was on the brink of ruin. According to Soekmono,
5
"Deterioration was so widespread all over the monument that no partial restoration could
effectively ensure its safeguard. Since the Indonesian people were determined to pass on the
best of their cultural heritage to forthcoming generations, drastic but deliberate action was
called for in the form of a gigantic project." But it would be several decades before attention
would again turn to Borobudur.

Little is known about the early history of Borobudur except that it was built some time
between AD 750 and 850, during the Sailendra Dynasty. A huge workforce must have been
required to hew, transport and carve the 60,000 cubic metres of stone in constructing the
temple, but the details remain as vague as the monument's name, which possibly derives from
the Sanskrit words ‘Vihara Buddha Uhr’, meaning Monastery on the Hill’.

Specially made pic by Artist Ms. Kerry Penny of UK for the author’s Book Celestial Mysteries of the
Borobudur Stupa

The three temples at Borobodur belong to the Mahayana Buddhism. The details of the cults
practised are unsure, but a relationship certainly existed between the temples and the
proclaimed divine nature of the kings who ordered their construction. In this connection, a
possible, symbolic relationship between the three monuments was investigated in details by
Moens. In this controversial but anyhow scholarly work, the idea is that the temples were
connected by a “magical birth” ritual, in which the monarch’s consecration occurred both as
the Buddha and as King. Moens proposed a ritual based on an analogy with the sun path in
the sky in one day, and thus endowed with three main “stations”: east, zenith, and west. To
these steps corresponded for the west, the beginning of the western staircase at Borobudur;
for the east, Mendut; and for the zenith, Pawon.

Role of the moon: It is worth mentioning that the role of the moon is quite relevant in
Buddhism, since festivals and recurrences associated with Buddha's life are timed by the full
moon. As is well known, in the course of a 18,6 years cycle the maximal declination of the

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 Moon in her monthly cycle undergoes a slow variation from a minimum to a maximum, equal
to the obliquity of the ecliptic minus/plus the obliquity of the earth-moon plane (=5° 9')
with respect to the ecliptic. This leads to a minor standstill at declination and a
maximal standstill at declination . In 800 AD the obliquity of the ecliptic was about 9'
greater than today so =23° 39' and the two standstills correspond to declinations 28° 48' and
to 18° 30' respectively. The last matches impressively well the orientation of Pawon, while
the first is not far (less than two degrees in declination, corresponding to less than 2 degrees
also in azimuth) from that of Mendut (parallax corrections are negligible at these latitudes).

Since the minor standstill of the Moon is always mimicked by the sun two times a
year, it is impossible to distinguish it from a solar orientation in the case of a single
building. However, the coincidence of two buildings possibly related to the two
standstills is, to say the last, impressive. In this respect it is important to remember that
precise azimuths for the major standstills of the Moon are very difficult to individuate, and
major standstills lunar orientations should always be understood as aimed to the full moon
closest to the solstice, which always attains a declination close to the extremal one in the
years of the standstills. The choice of orientation to the extrema of the moon might thus have
arisen from calendrical reasons.6

Moens: Confirmed that the temple triad of Barabudur, Mendut and Pawon dates from the
period of the Shailendra dynasty, 1,3 which in close cooperation with the kings of the Sanjaya
dynasty dominated Central Java for nearly two centuries, is no longer liable to doubt since the
explorations of Van Erp and Krom. In his extensive Barabudur-monograph, Van Erp called
the three temples “...a triad that according to (their) architecture and ornamentation derive
from the same time period.” 7This observation of course concerns the style of the temples as
we are familiar with today, that is to say following the renovations and extensions which
must have been executed by the end of the ninth century when Shailendra hegemony in Java
came to an end.

1.6 CHAPTER 8
1.7 BOROBUDUR AS A CENTER OF AN ANCIENT LAKE
2 FEATURING MY OWN THOUGHTS AND THE EDITED VERSION OF THE ERUDITE RESEARCH ON BOROBUDUR
PALEOLAKE AND THE CRADLE OF CIVILIZATION A BY DHANI IRWANTO, 18 OCTOBER 2015

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2.1
2.2 IT IS COMMONLY ACKNOWLEDGED THAT BOROBUDUR WAS CONSTRUCTED BETWEEN
750 AND 850 BY THE SHAILENDRA DYNASTY’S RULERS. THE NAME IS TRACED
BACK TO THE SANSKRIT VIHARA BUDDHA UR, WHICH TRANSLATES AS “THE
BUDDHIST TEMPLE ON THE MOUNTAIN,” ALTHOUGH ITS EXACT MEANING IS
DISPUTED.
The temple was eventually ‘forgotten’ as evidence points to the fact that Borobudur was
abandoned after the fourteenth century with the decline of the Buddhist and Hindu kingdoms
in Java and the conversion of the islanders to Islam. After its abandonment, the massive
pyramid temple remained hidden for centuries under layers of volcanic ash and jungle
growth, like many other pyramids across the planet. However, scholars have still not agreed
upon the exact cause of its abandonment.One theory suggests religion had something to do
with its abandonment. Theories argue that the temple was abandoned because much of the
population was converted to Islam during the 15th century. Another hypothesis suggests the
abandonment was due to a famine caused by a volcanic eruption (in the year 1006), which
forced the inhabitants to abandon their lands and the monument.

Borobudur was rediscovered in 1814 by Thomas Stamford Raffles, the British governor of
Java. When Raffles had heard about the ancient monument’s possible existence, he sent
Dutch engineer H.C. Cornellius to investigate the area.Cornellius and his men spotted the
ancient pyramid temple. Cornellius and his 200 men cut trees, burned vegetation, and dug to
clear the monument for the next two months. Due to the dangers of collapse, they could not
explore the galleries. Cornellius would eventually report his findings to Raffles, including
several drawings. Raffles is credited with focusing the world’s attention on the monument.It
wasn’t until 1835 that the temple was completely excavated.

3 BOROBUDUR WAS BUILT ON A BEDROCK HILL, 265 M (869 FT) ABOVE SEA LEVEL
AND 15 M (49 FT) ABOVE THE FLOOR OF A DRIED-OUT PALEOLAKE. THE LAKE'S
EXISTENCE

381
In 1931, the Dutch artist and student of Hindu and Buddhist architecture, W.O.J.
Nieuwenkamp, formulated a theory that the Kedu plain was a lake. Borobudur represented
a lotus flower floating in it.Lotus flowers are present in nearly all Buddhist works of art,
essentially always serving as a throne for Buddha or stupas. The temple’s architecture
suggests a lotus design, where the Buddha positions in Borobudur symbolize the Lotus
Sutra, present in several Mahāyāna texts. Three circular platforms at the top of the
1
monument represent a lotus leaf.

They know about the temple, but not its past environment when the temple was built. The
history and past environment of Borobudur temple could be developed as additional
tourist attractions to make them stay longer in that area. Geological condition and the
evidences of an ancient lake could be developed as tourist objects. It is very interesting
and could be developed to educate visitors in geo-archeology. The aim of this research is
to develop archeological (temple) tourism based on geology and past environment.
Although many researches on geo-archeology have been done, the results which relate to
tourism are still not widely applied yet. The methods used are secondary data analysis and
a field survey to investigate the potential of tourist stop sites. The potential tourist
attractions were determined by geomorphology, lithology outcrops, stratigraphy,
environment, and accessibility. The result is ten stop sites which could be used to describe
the paleoenvironment in Borobudur based on geosciences. These tourist objects could
explain the environment in the past related to the temple reliefs and ancient human
activities.2

The ninth-century world-heritage Buddhist monument of Borobudur (Java, Indonesia)

stands above the floor of a dried-out palaeolake, but it remains uncertain as to whether it
was ever constructed on a lake shore. Here we reveal through new chronological and
palaeoenvironmental data on the extant sediment record of the area that Borobudur
intentionally stood by an existing lake. For the first time, evidence of this conjunction
validates quite literally the debated cosmological interpretation of the edifice as an
aquatic lotus symbol upon which Buddha is seated. The fluctuating life history of the lake
spanned at least 20 000 years.

The generally accepted belief regarding the 9th century world-heritage Buddhist temple
of Borobudur (Java, Indonesia) is that it stands above the floor of a dried-out palaeolake
but was never constructed on a lake shore. Here we reveal through new chronological and
palaeoenvironmental data on the extant sediment record of the area that Borobudur
intentionally stood by an existing lake. Evidence of this conjunction validates the debated
cosmological interpretation of the edifice as an aquatic lotus symbol upon which Buddha
is seated. The fluctuating life history of the lake spanned at least 20,000 years. Borobudur
temple stood by a lake: chronostratigraphic evidence and historical implications.3

Borobudur Paleolake and the Cradle of Civilization

The Serayu River begins on Mount Sundoro and flows westwards through the Wonosobo-
Purwokerto plain, until it reaches the Indian Ocean in the neighborhood of Cilacap. The
Progo River is the main watercourse of historical Central Java. Unlike the other rivers
that originate from the Central depression of Java and run east or westwards, the Progo

382
River flows directly from north to south. Its source is located high on Mount Sundoro,
while its main tributary, the Elo River, takes its source on Mt Merbabu.

The Progo Valley hosts a large number of Dharmist and Buddhist temples dated from the
8th to the 9th century. Because of this, the Progo Valley is considered the cradle of classic
Indonesian civilization. The temples in the region include as follow.
Borobudur: The gigantic 8th century stone mandala Buddhist monument was built by the
Sailendras.

1. Mendut: The 8th century Buddhist temple is housing three large stone statues of
Vairocana, Avalokiteshvara, and Vajrapani.
2. Pawon: The small 8th century Buddhist temple near the bank of Progo River is
located between Mendut and Borobudur.
3. Ngawen: The 8th century Buddhist temple is located about 5 kilometers east of
Mendut temple.
4. Banon: The ruins of a Dharmist temple; located several hundred meters north of
Pawon temple. However, no significant remains of the temple have survived, thus,
its reconstruction is impossible. Only the statues of Shiva, Vishnu, Agastya, and
Ganesha have been discovered, which are now displayed at the National Museum
of Indonesia, Jakarta.
5. Canggal: also known as Candi Gunung Wukir. One of the oldest Dharmist
temples in the area. The temple is located in the Muntilan area, near the temple a
Canggal inscription connected with Sri Sanjaya, the king of Medang Kingdom
was discovered.
6. Gunung Sari: The ruins of a Dharmist temple on top of a hill, located near Candi
Gunung Wukir, on the outskirts of Muntilan.
7. Umbul: in Grabag, Magelang; it served as a bathing and resting place for the kings
of Mataram.

383
Figure 1. Distribution of temples in central Java

More than 300 temple remains were once visible in Central Java, scattered all over
the region. Today, however, a large part of these ruins has vanished. Some of them were
used as stone quarries to build new houses, mosques or bridges. Others were simply
victims of the ravages of time or were buried under residues from human activities. The
situation is scarcely better for the majority of the remaining sites: many former temples
have been reduced to a few dozen stones scattered in a field or along a road. On the other
hand, certain buildings were relatively well preserved and anastylosis granted them a new
life. Restored from top to bottom, these temples are now waiting to be visited and
admired.

384
3.1 BOROBUDUR TEMPLE
3.2

Figure 2. Borobudur Temple

The main temple is a stupa built in three tiers around a hill which was a natural center: a
pyramidal base with five concentric square terraces, the trunk of a cone with three
circular platforms and, at the top, a monumental stupa. The walls and balustrades are
decorated with fine low reliefs, covering a total surface area of 2,520 m 2. Around the
circular platforms are 72 openwork stupas, each containing a statue of the Buddha.

The vertical division of Borobudur Temple into base, body, and superstructure perfectly
accords with the conception of the Universe in Buddhist cosmology. It is believed that the
universe is divided into three superimposing spheres, kamadhatu, rupadhatu,
and arupadhatu, representing respectively the sphere of desires where we are bound to
our desires, the sphere of forms where we abandon our desires but are still bound to name
and form, and the sphere of formlessness where there is no longer either name or form. At
Borobudur Temple, the kamadhatu is represented by the base, the rupadhatu by the five
square terraces, and the arupadhatu by the three circular platforms as well as the big
stupa. The whole structure shows a unique blending of the very central ideas of ancestor
worship, related to the idea of a terraced mountain, combined with the Buddhist concept
of attaining Nirvana.

The Temple should also be seen as an outstanding dynastic monument of the Sailendra
Dynasty that ruled Java for around five centuries until the 10th century.
The Borobudur Temple Compounds consists of three monuments: namely the Borobudur
Temple and two smaller temples situated to the east on a straight axis to Borobudur. The
two temples are Mendut Temple, whose depiction of Buddha is represented by a
formidable monolith accompanied by two Bodhisattvas, and Pawon Temple, a smaller
temple whose inner space does not reveal which deity might have been the object of
worship. Those three monuments represent phases in the attainment of Nirvana.
The temple was used as a Buddhist temple from its construction until sometime between
the 10th and 15th centuries when it was abandoned. Since its re-discovery in the 19th

385
 century and restoration in the 20th century, it has been brought back into a Buddhist
archaeological site.

Borobudur was mentioned in Serat Centhini, a twelve volume compilation of Javanese

tales and teachings, written in verse and published in 1814. Worldwide knowledge of its
existence was sparked in 1814 by Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, then the British ruler of
Java, who was advised of its location by native Indonesians. Borobudur has since been
preserved through several restorations. The largest restoration project was undertaken
between 1975 and 1982 by the Indonesian government and UNESCO, following which
the monument was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Borobudur is still used for pilgrimage; once a year, Buddhists in Indonesia celebrate
Vesak at the monument, and Borobudur is Indonesia’s single most visited tourist
attraction.

3.3
3.4 LAKE IN THE EMBLEM OF THE MAGELANG REGENCY/COAT OF ARMS

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----
3.5 1.HTTPS://EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG/WIKI/LAKE_BOROBUDUR#:~:TEXT=LAKE
%20BOROBUDUR%20IS,1)%3A%209%E2%80%9350.
3.6

2..The Ancient Borobudur Lake, History, and Its Evidences to Develop Geo-
archeotourism in ,Indonesia, Indonesian Journal on Geoscience 6(1),Helmy
Murwanto,
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/332324135_The_Ancient_Borobudur_Lake_Hi
story_and_Its_Evidences_to_Develop_Geo-archeotourism_in_Indonesia

386
4 3.BOROBUDUR MONUMENT (JAVA, INDONESIA) STOOD BY A NATURAL LAKE:
CHRONOSTRATIGRAPHIC EVIDENCE AND HISTORICAL IMPLICATIONS,H.
MURWANTO, Y. GUNNELL, S. SUHARSONO

https://doi.org/10.1191/0959683604hl721rr
The Holocene 14(3):459-463

Ooooo00000000000000ooooooooooooo00000000000000ooooooooooooo000000000000000
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387
 Syncretic temples at the Indonesian Abhayagiri Wihara (Ratu boko)

From the 8th to the early 10th century the region around mounts Merapi and Sumbing in
central Java was the centre of powerful Indianised kingdoms. One such site, Ratu Boko, was
transformed into a Javanese replica of the Abhayagiri-vihāra, a well-known Buddhist
monastery in Sri Lanka. Shortly afterwards, the Sinhalese influence showed elements of
Hindu and Vajrayāna traditions revealing from the archaeological remains that it was not
merely a copy of a Sri Lankan model but a testimony of Javanese civilisation and history.
The archaeological remains of Ratu Boko: From Sri Lankan Buddhism to
Hinduism,Véronique
Degroot,https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13639810600652196

Abhayagiri Vihāra was a major monastery site of Theravada and Vajrayana Buddhism that
was situated in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka.

It is one of the most extensive ruins in the world and one of the most
sacred Buddhist pilgrimage cities in the nation. Historically it was a great monastic centre as
well as a royal capital, with magnificent monasteries rising to many stories, roofed with gilt
bronze or tiles of burnt clay glazed in brilliant colours. To the north of the city, encircled by
great walls and containing elaborate bathing ponds, carved balustrades and moonstones,
stood "Abhayagiri", one of seventeen such religious units in Anuradhapura and the largest of
its five major viharas. One of the focal points of the complex is an ancient stupa,
the Abhayagiri Dagaba. Surrounding the humped dagaba, Abhayagiri Vihara was a seat of
the Northern Monastery, or Uttara Vihara and the original custodian of the Tooth relic in the
island.

388
The term "Abhayagiri Vihara" refers not only to the complex of monastic buildings, but also
to a fraternity of Buddhist monks, or Sangha, which maintained its own historical records,
traditions and way of life. Founded in the 2nd century BC, it had grown into an international
institution by the 1st century AD, attracting scholars from all over the world and
encompassing all shades of Buddhist philosophy. Its influence can be traced to other parts of
the world, through branches established elsewhere. Thus, the Abhayagiri Vihara developed as
a great institution vis-a-vis the Mahavihara and the Jetavana Buddhist monastic sects in the
ancient Sri Lankan capital of Anuradhapura.

Speculation about the Story of Ratu Boko abound.

The ruins above the plains of Ratu Boko hold questions that are difficult to answer. The
multi-part complex makes people who come here speculated about the true function of
the site. One of the clues that can be used is the legend of Ratu Boko (The Disappearing
King) who shelters the place.

A Dutch archaeologist named N.J. Chrome tries to find the truth over the famous Legend
of Ratu Boko, figuring out whether the story is inspired by a real-life kingdom. Krom
wrote based an inscription with a name called Nagari used by a family named Sailendra
found in the palace site. Krom also writes that the ruins of Ratu Boko are found in a bush
area with two quarries where there are stones used to build temples in the lowlands.
Some people doubt if ever there is a palace that stood on the plain. Or in other words,
they doubt the historical truth of the story from Ratu Boko. One of the main arguments
about the idea is the fact that the bedrock beneath the site is a very porous limestone, so
water will not last long there. A palace for a kingdom of Mataram must have hundreds of
people living there. In the 1950s, before the site was acquired by the Republic of
Indonesia, only a few peasant families lived on the plateau. The main problem faced by
them is only one: the lack of water.
It is impossible for a palace to survive on Ratu Boko’s site unless its people bring water
up the hill. It’s hard to imagine it’s possible to do, given the plateau itself is at 100
meters above Opak River. As we can see, it makes more sense if the royal palace lay
between the plain and the river, perhaps near the site now known as Watu Gudik.
Even so, there is another interesting possibility: the assumption that the site of Ratu
Boko is part of a vast palace complex. In this way, the royal activity may be performed
on the lower plains, and the plains above are used for special people and rituals. Legend
of Ratu Boko may not be wrong, only the legend is not complete.

389
The question of the real function of the court of Ratu Boko brings many other
speculations about it. Not only the palace, Ratu Boko also allegedly used as a monastery,
fortress, to the place of meditation for kings in the past. Even so, the mystery remains the
answer kept by the past.
The Mystery of Ratu Boko-The "Stork King" Palace Discovered in the Late 19th Century
Named after the legendary King Boko, mentioned in Loro Jonggrang folklore, the 16 hectares
sites is located on a plateau, about 3 kilometers from Prambanan temple complex in
Yogyakarta.It consists of temples, paseban (square stone structures), pendopo (audience hall),
miniature temples, kaputren and a bathing place.
A Dutch researcher Van Boeckholtz was the first to discover the ruins of Ratu Boko in
1790.However, serious research about the temple were done a hundred years after. According
to archaeologists, Ratu Boko Temple served as Kraton, religious place and cave.The large
stone gates are impressive, the first gate has three entrances, and the second gate has five
entrances. The shape of these entrances is known as Paduraksa and is a traditional Javanese
construction. Not far from the gates there is a limestone Batu Putih temple, the name means
‘white stone’.
This structure consists of two levels which measures 26 metres square. The centre is a deep
square hole. It is speculated that this would have been a crematorium.

This zone also has a large pond and a series of base stones which would have held building
pillars.Using the traditional building techniques of the time, the pillars walls and roof would
have been made from organic materials, so they are no longer remaining.The "Pendopo" or
audience hall is built with Andesite stone. This was the base and floor of the structure, which
also included pillars and a roof made of wood.
The complex remains a great mystery for millions of Indonesians and foreign visitors.
Whether a monastery or a palatial kingdom, many are left to wonder the life lived in these
grounds.The story featured may in some cases have been created by an independent third
party and may not always represent the views of the institutions, listed below, who have
supplied the content.

Syncretic temples at Ratu boko:Ratu boko is not a temple but a place and probably was used
as the headquarters of the Mataram empire. Within the compound are a series of
archaeological remains of various temples. There was a Buddhist inscription dated 792
saying it was built by Rakai Penangkaran and known as Abhayagiri Wihara.

Rakai Panangkaran is the second King of Medang who ruled around 746 - 784 with the title
of Srī Mahārāja Rakai Pānangkaran Dyaḥ Pañcapana. His name is known through the Raja
Sankhara Inscription , the Kalasan Inscription , the Mantyasih Inscription , the Wanua
Tengah III Inscription , and is strengthened by the Wangsakerta Manuscript .
Maharaja Rakai Panangkaran ranks second in the list of kings of the Medang
Kingdom according to the Mantyasih inscription . His name is written after Sanjaya , who is
believed to be the founder of the kingdom. This inscription was issued by Maharaja Dyah
Balitung in 907 , or hundreds of years since the life of Rakai Panangkaran.

390
Meanwhile, the inscription from the Rakai Panangkaran era is the Kalasan
inscription of 778 . This inscription is an official charter for the construction of
a Buddhist temple named Tarabhavanam (Buana Tara) to worship Goddess Tara . This
construction was requested by the teachers of King Sailendra. In the inscription Rakai
Panangkaran is praised as Sailendrawangsatilaka or "jewel of the Sailendra House". The
temple founded by Rakai Panangkaran is now known as Kalasan Temple .
This is the first inscription discovered in Indonesia that mentioned the dynastic name
of Sailendra as Sailendravamça.
The inscription mentioned about Guru Sang Raja Sailendravamçatilaka (Teacher of the
King, the Jewel of Sailendra family) that succeed to persuade Maharaja Tejapurnapana
Panangkaran (in other part of the inscription also called as Kariyana Panangkaran) to
construct a holy building for (Bodhisattvadevi) Tara and also build a Vihara (monastery)
for Buddhist monks from Sailendra family's realm. Panangkaran donated the Kalaça village
to Sangha (Buddhist monastic community). The temple dedicated to Tara is identified
as Kalasan temple.
The inscription now is displayed in the National Museum of Indonesia, Jakarta, under the
inventory number No. D.147.
Honor for Bhagavatī Ārya Tārā
1. After seeing all the creatures in the world drowned in misery, he take across (with) three
true knowledges, she Tarā who became the only guiding star for direction in the world and
(the realm of) the gods .
2. A holy building for the Tārā that is truly beautiful was ordered by the teachers of Sailendra
king, after obtaining the approval of the Maharaja Dyah Pancapana Panamkarana
3. By order of the teacher, a sacred building (dedicated) to Tārā has been established, and
likewise a building for the noble (Buddhist) monks skilled in the Mahāyana teachings, has
been established by experts
4. Tārā's sacred building as well as the (building) belongs to the noble monks had been
established by the officials commissioned by the king, called Pangkura, Tavana, Tiripa.
5. A sacred building for Tārā has been established by the teachers of Śailendra king in a
growing kingdom the jewel (ornament) of Śailendra dynasty
6. Mahārāja Panangkarana constructed a Tārā sacred building to honor his teachers that have
run for 700 years.
7. The Kalasa village has been given to Samgha after calling the witnesses; prominent people
the village authorities which are Pangkura, Tavana, Tiripa.
8. The alms of “bhura” that is incomparable given to the Sangha by the "king like a lion"
(rājasimha-) by the kings of the Śailendra dynasty and subsequent rulers.
9. By the Pangkura and his followers, the Tavana and his followers, the Tiripa and his
followers, by the soldiers, and religious leaders, then the next,
10. "The king that is like a lion" (rājasimhah) asked repeatedly to the upcoming kings to be
bound to Dharma so that they will be protected forever.
11. Well, by granting the vihara (monastery), all sacred knowledge, the Law of Cause and
Effect, and births in the three worlds (as appropriate with) Buddhism, can be understood.

391
12. Kariyana Panangkarana asked repeatedly to upcoming noble kings to always protect this
important temple according to the rules.
The period of his reign was marked by the active construction of Mahayana Buddhist temples
in the Prambanan Plain area .
1. Kalasan. Apart from the Kalasan temple, several temples that are thought to have
been built on the initiative of Rakai Panangkaran include
2. Sari Temple which is linked as a companion monastery to Kalasan Temple,
3. Lumbung Temple ,
4. Prasada Vajrasana Manjusrigrha ( Sewu Temple ), and
5. Abhayagiri Vihara ( Ratu Boko complex ).
The Abhayagiri Wihara inscription dating to 792 AD mentions a character named
Tejahpurnapane Panamkarana (Rakai Panangkaran) resigned as King because he wanted
spiritual peace and focused his mind on religious matters by establishing a monastery called
Abhayagiri Wihara, which is associated with the Ratu Boko complex . It is estimated that
King Panangkaran died before the completion of the Sewu and Abhayagirivihara temples, so
he did not have the chance to see some of his works (Sewu temple).

Relations with Sanjaya and Dharanindra

A. Sanjaya was the first king of the Medang Kingdom . According to the Canggal
inscription ( 732 ), he adhered to the Shiva sect of Hinduism .
B. Rakai Panangkaran is the second king of the Medang Kingdom. According
to the Kalasan inscription ( 778 ), he founded a Mahayana Buddhist temple .
In connection with this news, several theories emerged about the relationship between the
two kings.
I.The first theory pioneered by Van Naerssen stated that Rakai Panangkaran was the son of
Sanjaya. The Sanjaya dynasty was later defeated by the Buddhist Sailendra dynasty . The
construction of the Kalasan Temple was none other than an order from the king of Sailendra
to Rakai Panangkaran who had submitted as a subordinate. The name of the Sailendra king is
thought to be the same as Dharanindra which is found in the Kelurak inscription ( 782 ). This
theory was developed by many Western historians, including George Cœdès , or Dr. FDK
Bosch .
II. The second theory was put forward by Prof. Poerbatjaraka stated that Rakai Panangkaran
was the son of Sanjaya, but both of them came from the Sailendra dynasty, not the Sanjaya
dynasty. In this case Poerbatjaraka did not recognize the existence of the Sanjaya
dynasty. According to his opinion (which is also supported by historians Marwati
Pusponegoro and Nugroho Notosutanto), before he died, Sanjaya had a will that Rakai
Panangkaran convert to Buddhism. This theory is based on the story in Carita
Parahyangan about the character Rahyang Panaraban, son of Sanjaya, who is said to have
changed religions. According to Poerbatjaraka, Rahyang Panaraban is identical to Rakai
Panangkaran. So, what is meant by "the teachers of the king of Sailendra" are none other than
Rakai Panangkaran's own teachers.
III.The third theory was put forward by Slamet Muljana that Rakai Panangkaran was not the
son of Sanjaya. In the list of kings written in the Mantyasih inscription , the name Sanjaya
has the title The Queen , while Rakai Panangkaran has the title Sri Maharaja . This change in
title proves that there has been a change in the ruling dynasty in the Medang Kingdom. So,
Rakai Panangkaran was the king of the Sailendra dynasty who succeeded in seizing the

392
Medang throne and defeating the Sanjaya dynasty. According to Slamet Muljana, it is
impossible for Rakai Panangkaran to have the status of a subordinate of the Sailendra dynasty
because in the Kalasan inscription he is praised as Sailendrawangsatilaka (jewel of the
Sailendra dynasty).
According to some sources, Rakai Panangkaran and Dharanindra both came from the
Sailendra dynasty. Even so, he did not regard the two as the same character. According to
him, Dharanindra is not the same as Rakai Panangkaran who has the real name Dyah
Pancapana (according to the news of the Kalasan inscription. Dharanindra is the original
name of Rakai Panunggalan , namely the third king of the Medang Kingdom whose name is
named after Rakai Panangkaran in the Mantyasih inscription.
Conversion to Hinduism

From 898-908 AD the kingdom became Hindu and was known as Keraton Walaing after
King Rakai Walaing Pu Kombayoni who governed Ratu Boko. The Ratu Boko site has
yielded many smaller artefact including statues, both Hindu (Durga, Ganesha, Garuda,
a Linga and a Yoni) and Buddhist (three unfinished Dhyani Buddhas). Other finds include
ceramics and inscriptions; a golden plate with the writing "Om Rudra ya namah swaha" on it
as form of worship to Rudra as the other name of Shiva.

This proved that the Hindus and Buddhist live together with tolerance or in a syncretism.
Despite the large quantity and variety of remains found there, the exact functions of Ratu
Boko site is still unknown.
1. Some believe it was the former palace of ancient Mataram Kingdom; other scholars
interpret this site as a
2. monastery. While third group holds that it was a
3. place for rest and recreation.

Inscriptions shows that the site was occupied at least during the 8th and 9th centuries. Five
inscriptions in pre-Nagari script and Sanskrit describe the construction of a shrine
for Avalokitesvara. One inscriptions refers to the constructions of a Buddhist monastery
modelled after Abhayagiri Vihara (means a monastery on a peaceful hill) in Sri Lanka, where
a group of ascetic forest dwelling monks resided. Three dated inscriptions in Old
Javanese and poetic Sanskrit recount the erection of two lingga, and bear the date of 778 Saka
or 856 AD. Another undated inscription mentions the erection of linga named Hara at the
order of King Kalasobhawa.

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ABOUT DR UDAY DOKRAS

© Dr. Uday Dokras-

DEAN
INDO NORDIC AUTHORS’ COLLECTIVE

Institute of International Historiography

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 B.Sc., B.A. (managerial economics) LL.B. Nagpur University, INDIA
Graduate Studies, Queen’s University,Kingston, CANADA
Graduate Diploma in Law & PhD, Stockholm University, SWEDEN
Vaastu and Astrology Consultant

Holder of the 6 WORLD RECORDS

Highest number of research Papers and Books written
Hindu Temples
Buddhism
Vaastu

2 - Worldwide Book of Records

#1 x6
2 - Unique World Record
1-INDIA Book of RECORDS
1-Kalam Book of Records

700- BOOKS & 2400 RESEARCH PAPERS- in academia.edu.

3 million Readers as on 1 June, 2024.

Dr.Uday Dokras, a leading historiographer, is Ranked as #1 in the world in SIX categories

for having written the highest number of books and research papers on-Vedic Architecture,
Dhamma, (including Borobudur Buddhism), Angkor Wat (Vrah Vishnuloka), Shivagriha at
Prambanan, Design elements of the ancient Kingdoms of Dvaravati and Vandan in Indo
China.

A senior management professional in HR domain prior to his retirement, he was Group Vice -
President of MZI Group in New Delhi and has anchored Human Relations in Go Air ( Go
Airlines India Pvt Ltd-Mumbai) , Hotel Holiday Inn; Lata Mangeshkar Hospital and Medical
College- amongst other corporate entities. Resident of Sweden for 12 years, where he studied
and worked, he anchored HR in Stadbolaget RENIA, SSSB.

He has studied in Nagpur for B. Sc. B.A. (Economics) and LLB.

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He has done his Graduate Studies from Canada at the Queen's University, Kingston
He has a PhD, Stockholm University, Sweden.
Apart from that he has done a Management Training Program in Singapore.
A scholar of the Swedish Institute for 5 years, he has been an Edvard Cassel Fund and
Wineroth Fund Awardee.

In 1984 he was involved with the Comparative Labor Law Project of the University of
California, Los Angeles, U.S.A. He was also visiting lecturer there.
In 1985 he was invited by the President of Seychelles to do a study of the efficacy of the
labor laws of Seychelles.

Author of thousands of research papers and almost 640 + books, his brief life sketch is part of
the English study text book of 7 th Class Students in Sweden -“Studying English-
SPOTLIGHT 7”- and 8th Class students in Iceland - SPOTLIGHT 8- and Lausnir.

His books adorn many International Libraries and the US Library of Congress has awarded
him a copyright. A prolific writer and decipherer of ancient mysteries. Is currently Consultant
in Vedic Architecture and Dean of the Indo Nordic Authors’ Collective, Stockholm,
SWEDEN and President of the International Institute of Historiography, Tampare ,
FINLAND.
Dr Dokras has his family in Gurugram, India-Australia and New Jersey, USA.

2700 Research Papers and 780 BOOKS written by DR UDAY DOKRAS

Referred to in more than 200+ research papers and theses .Contributor to various magazines and
literary Fora.

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World# Honorifics by following Agencies & other titles
1
Largest Number of Religious Research papers written by an individual-world-
record
https://www.worldwideworldrecords.com/post/largest-number-of-religious-
research-papers-written-by-an-individual-world-record-by-uday-dokras
MOST ARTICLES ON DHAMMA
https://www.uniqueworldrecords.com/records/posts/most-articles-on-
dhamma

Maximum number of books written on Hindu Temples by an Individual

https://www.worldwideworldrecords.com/post/maximum-number-of-books-
written-on-hindu-temples-by-an-individual-world-record-by-dr-uday-
dokras#:~:text=The%20World%20Record%20For%20Maximum,The
%20Worldwide%20Book%20Of%20Records.

Highest number of articles and books written on Hindu Buddhist Temples

of Indonesia( Including Borobudur and Prambanan)

Highest number of Research Papers/ Books (Literary endeavours) published

by an Individual- UNIQUE Book of world records

Maximum sociocultural research papers uploaded by an individual

on a single website INDIA BOOK of RECORDS
recordsmanagement@indiabookofrecords.in

Award and honor Bahujan Hitai Sangh award for writing highest
number of books and Research on BOROBUDUR

https://www.academia.edu/110112500/
Bahujan_Hitai_Sangh_Fetes_dr_Uday_for_highest_number_of_Boo
ks_and_Research_papers_written_on_BOROBUDUR
The Jain Foundation presented the Jaina Achiever Trophy to Dr Uday Dokras
for his prolific writings on historiography of Jainism and Jain religious
structures and contributing erudite articles to numerous Jain Journals such as
Nagabharana: Recent Trends in Jainism Studies and SWASTIKA: Epigraphy,
Numismatics, Religion and Philosophy
https://www.academia.edu/110112203/
Jaina_award_to_Dr_Uday_Dokras
Economic Times (20 July 2022) mentions and acknowledges contribution of
Dr. Uday to design elements of New Parliament House of India vis-a-vis
Dwarpals or door guardians.
https://www.academia.edu/109139672/
Design_components_of_the_new_Parliament_complex_of_INDIA_inspired_by
_the_author_Dr_Uday_Dokras_work

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 https://
drive.google.com/file/d/1rr86sEWr4SVN4pdIMHkS-lqmKF6jl5nR/view?usp=sharing

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From the Newspaper Times of India March 24, 2018

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Iceland & Sweden- both countries use the English Text book
SPOTLIGHT-one of the lessons in which is about Dr Uday Dokras
https://mms.is/sites/mms.is/files/atoms/files/
7057_spotlight_8_nem.pdf (page 44)

Prof. S.Deshpande,Past President of the Indian Institute of

Architects, New Delhi INDIA releasing the book of Dr Dokras
HINDU TEMPLES on the web in CARONA times ( May 2020)

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 Meditation Center Project
for HARIOM Cow Shelter by
Dr Uday Dokras

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 Design Consultant to
OCTAGONAL Meditation Center for REIKI
MASTER-
Mrs.Tracey Stanfield,Fish Creek, AUSTRALIA

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