Biology Notes

Chapters 1 - 11
IMPORTANT SKILLS:

F inal − Initial
Percentage change:​ Initial × 100
https://docs.google.com/document/d/1ummYuWGkN9F1elJolOCH1q9BpFf8r5wjcobtgwFDQm4/edit
^ Criteria A, B, C, and D practice

Chapter One:​ What chemical processes support life?

Subtopic - ​“Characteristics of living things”

Three aspects of the cell theory.

1. All cells come from pre-existing cells through the process of cellular division.
2. All living things are made up of one or more cells.
3. Cells are the smallest unit of life (in other words, are the building blocks of life).

Outline the 7 characteristics of life.

Remember: ​MRS GREN
M​ovement​ - Movement refers to the ability the organism has to relocate from one place to another.
R​espiration​ - The ability to break down glucose to release energy.
S​ensitivity​ ​- The ability to respond to changes in the environment.
G​rowth​ ​- The way in which an organism can achieve a permanent change in size.
R​eproduction​ - The ability to produce offspring.
E​xcretion​ ​-​ ​The ability to get rid of waste products that have been produced by chemical reaction in the cells.
N​utrition​ - Nutrition refers to the ability an organism possesses to obtain crucial nutrients from the food it
consumes.

Deduce whether viruses are living or non-living.

Viruses do not conform to any of the biological kingdoms of life, furthermore, require a living host
cell to be able to synthesize products of metabolism to reproduce. Due to this, it is unquestionable that
viruses fail to follow all seven characteristics of what is deemed necessary for ‘living’ organisms, therefore,
cannot be classified as one.

Outline Pasteur’s experiment.

Louis Pasteur deduced from his experiment that ​all cells come from pre-existing cells through the
process of cell division​.
Process:
1. Two sterile broth-filled flasks were set up. One had the
swan-neck snapped off, whereas the other remained intact to
prevent the entry of unwanted microbes.
2. The flask that did not have the swan-neck turned cloudy as a
result of microbial growth, whereas the other flask (the one with
the swan-neck) remained clear. This was for the reason that the
microbes are not able to appear spontaneously without the
presence of prior microbes.
3. This experiment, and the findings of the experiment, refuted previous theorems.

Subtopic - ​“Cells”
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Draw and label eukaryotic cells.

Eukaryotes are any organism that have a ‘true’ nucleus as well as other membrane bound organelles.

Animal cell: Plant cell:

Compare and contrast animal and plant cells.

Differences

Animal cells: Plant cells:

Do not have cell walls. Have rigid cell walls.

Do not have chloroplasts. Have many green chloroplasts.

Do not obtain/contain chlorophyll. Contain chlorophyll.

Most of the cell is filled by the cytoplasm. Only a thin lining of cytoplasm.

Small (if any) vacuole. Have a large central vacuole that is filled with
cellular sap.

Similarities:

Animal and plant cells are very similar structurally as they both contain various membrane-bound
organelles as well as a ‘true’ nucleus, however, plant cells have a few additional structures/organelles.

What is the function of the following?

➔ Plasma membrane​ - The plasma membrane is a semipermeable membrane which regulates which
molecules enter and exit the cell (water, oxygen, and carbon dioxide can pass freely).
◆ The plasma membrane is composed of a phospholipid bilayer and provides support to the
cell.
➔ Mitochondria​ - The mitochondria is the site at which cellular respiration takes place.
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◆ The mitochondria converts sugar, fat, and proteins from food to useable energy which is
then released.
➔ Nucleus​ - The nucleus is often referred to as the ‘control center of the cell’.
◆ The nucleus contains the majority of the cell’s genetic material which is organized as DNA
molecules with proteins to form chromosomes.
➔ Nucleolus​ - This is the area in which ribosomes are made.
➔ Cell wall​ - The cell wall (which is found in plant cells) is made up of cellulose which provides the cell
with structural support as well as protection.
➔ Ribosomes​ - Ribosomes are made up of RNA and protein.
◆ Ribosomes make and synthesize proteins using amino acids which are then used to repair
the cell’s damage.
➔ Chloroplasts​ - Chloroplasts are the site where photosynthesis takes place.
◆ Chloroplasts also store the chlorophyll (the green pigment in plants).
➔ RER​ - The rough endoplasmic reticulum plays a central role in the synthesis of proteins and
glycoproteins.
➔ Lysosome​ - Lysosomes are organelles that contain digestive enzymes to digest excess or worn out
organelles, food particles, as well as engulfed viruses or bacteria.
➔ Golgi apparatus​ - The golgi apparatus is made up of membrane-bound sacs to process and bundle
macromolecules (proteins and lipids).
➔ Centriole​ - The centriole helps form the spindle fibres which are then used in cellular division.

Draw and label a prokaryotic cell.

Prokaryotic cells are cells that lack a ‘true’ nucleus. An example of a
prokaryotic cell is bacteria.

What is the function of the following?

● Pili​ - The pilus allows the bacteria to attach to other cells or
surfaces.
● Flagella​ - The flagellum is a whip-like structure that enables
the cell to move.
● Nucleoid​ - The nucleoid region is an irregularly-shaped
section of the cell which contains the DNA.
● Cytoplasm​ - The cytoplasm is a jelly-like fluid that fills the cell.

Compare Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes.

All living things can be classified as either prokaryotic or eukaryotic.
Differences

Prokaryotic cells: Eukaryotic cells:

Prokaryotic cells lack various membrane-bound Unlike prokaryotes, Eukaryotic cells have
organelles (such as the nuclei, mitochondria, or membrane-bound organelles (such as the nuclei,
chloroplasts). mitochondria, and chloroplasts).

Lack a ‘true’ nucleus. Have a ‘true’ nucleus.

All prokaryotes are placed in the kingdom ‘Monera’ The protista, fungi, plants, and animals are all
(eg. Bacteria). eukaryotic.
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Subtopic - ​“Organ systems”

Define:
➢ Organ system​ - An organ system is a group of different organs that operate together to carry out a
definite task.
○ The organ systems in humans are:
■ Respiratory system​ - Gas exchange
■ Nervous system​ - Reacting to stimuli
■ Digestive system​ - Breaking down food
■ Excretory system​ - Urine and water/salt balance
■ Endocrine system​ - Hormones
■ Skeletal + Muscular system​ - Protection and movement
■ Circulatory system​ - Transport of nutrients
■ Integumentary system​ - Protection from injury and pathogen entry

Summarize the levels of organization.

The levels of organization are:
Atom - Molecule or compound - organelle - cell - tissue - organ - organ system - organism.

Define:
➔ Tissue​ - A tissue is a collection of cells that operate together.
➔ Organ​ - An organ is a collection of tissues that operate with one another.
➔ Organ system​ - An organ system is a collection of organs that operate together.

Explain examples of specialized cells.

1. Red blood cell:
a. Red blood cells have been adapted to be able to increase their oxygen
uptake.
i. They have a large surface area and are concave so that
they can transport the crucial nutrients to the body’s
cells, tissues, and organs.
2. Nerve cell:
a. Nerve cells are elongated (they can be up to two meters) so that
they can carry nerve impulses.
3. Muscle cell:
a. Muscle cells elongate and contract to enable organisms to move.

Define:
❖ Embryonic stem cells​ - Embryonic stem cells are Stem cells that are
pluripotent​ (can grow into any specialized cell in the body), and
undifferentiated​ cells that ​can differentiate and repeatedly divide into
many mature cell types​ (such as a muscle cell or nerve cell).
■ Embryonic stem cells come from the inner mass of an embryo.
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Chapters 1 - 11
Draw the stem cell life cycle.

List the stages of hierarchy.

Remember:
King Phillip Came Over From Great Spain
K​ingdom​ - animals
P​hylum​ - chordates
C​lass​ - mammals
O​rder​ - primates
F​amily​ - hominids
G​enus​ - homo
S​pecies​ - homo-sapiens

Subtopic - ​“Classification”

Define:
● Classification​ - Classification is the ​division of life into one of the five kingdoms​ using certain cell
characteristics and features of the organism.

Classify the following:

Animals: Plants: Fungi: Bacteria: Protists:

Eukaryotes Eukaryotes Eukaryotes Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

Multicellular Multicellular Mostly Unicellular Usually unicellular
Heterotrophs Autotrophs Multicellular Autotrophs and (algae =
Have a plasma Have a plasma (yeast = heterotrophs multicellular)
membrane membrane and a unicellular) No nucleus Can obtain both
No cell wall cell wall Heterotrophs Have a plasma plant and animal
Some can be membrane and a features
pathogens cell wall Some can be
Have a cell wall pathogens

Outline how organisms can be named according to binomial nomenclature.

Binomial nomenclature refers to the scientific name given to the organism.
This is, the ​Genus​ + The ​species​.
For example:​ Panthera Leo = Lion
​(Genus) (Species)
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Chapters 1 - 11
Chapter Two:​ What chemical processes support life?

Subtopic - ​“Metabolism”

Define:
❏ Metabolism​ - Metabolism is the ​sum of all chemical reactions​ that occur ​in an organism​.
❏ The two types of metabolic reactions are, ​Anabolic and Catabolic reactions​.
❏ Anabolic reactions​ - Anabolic reactions refers to how ​smaller molecules react with one another​ and
build up to form larger molecules​.
❏ An example of this type of reaction is the way in which ​proteins are formed from amino acids
joining together​.
❏ Catabolic reactions​ - Catabolic reactions refer to how ​larger molecules are broken down into
smaller molecules​, ultimately ​releasing energy​.
❏ An example of this reaction is ​respiration​.
❏ Metabolic rate​ (MR) - The ​MR​ is the ​total amount of energy​ that is ​metabolized per unit time​ and is
the ​speed at which chemical reactions take place in the body​.

What are factors that affect the metabolic rate?

1. Age
2. Gender
3. Inherited factors
4. Exercise levels (activity levels)
5. Proportion of muscle to fat
6. Reproduction status (pregnancy)

How does temperature and the presence of a catalyst affect the metabolic rate?
● If the ​temperature​ increases, then the molecules will possess more energy through which there will
be an increase in collisions amongst them, meaning that more reactions will take place.
○ Temperature ​and ​Metabolic rate a​ re directly proportional to one another.
● Catalysts​ will speed up the rate of the reaction without being used up as they reduce the activation
energy.
○ Enzymes​ are biological ​Catalysts​.
○ The presence of a ​catalyst​ and the ​metabolic rate ​are directly proportional.

Subtopic - ​“Respiration”

Define:
➔ Respiration​ - Respiration is the process of ​breaking down glucose to release energy​.
◆ Aerobic respiration​ - Aerobic respiration is a biochemical process that releases energy
(ATP) from sugar in the ​presence of oxygen​.
● This type of respiration occurs in the mitochondria and uses enzymes to be carried
out.
◆ Anaerobic respiration​ - Anaerobic respiration is the process of breaking down glucose in
the ​absence of oxygen​.
● Anaerobic respiration produces ​lactic acid ​in humans​ and ​ethanol​ in plants and
yeast​.
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State the word and chemical equations for aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
Aerobic respiration​:
Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon Dioxide + Water + ​ATP

C6H6O6 + O2 → 6CO2 + 6H20 + ​ATP

Anaerobic respiration
Glucose → Ethanol or Lactic acid + Carbon Dioxide + ​ATP

C6H1206 → 2C2H50H + ​2 ATP

What are the stages of aerobic respiration?

Stage one: ​Glycolysis
Stage one takes place in the cytosol (in the cytoplasm) where the enzymes are located. This process does not
require oxygen.
In this process:
● The glucose molecules are split into two 3-carbon molecules (pyruvic acid) which release small
amounts of ​ATP​.
Stage two: ​The Krebs Cycle
Stage two requires oxygen and takes place in the mitochondria of the cell. The pyruvic acid is converted to
acetyl co-enzyme A which breaks down to form carbon dioxide and water. ​ATP​ is released.

Suggest uses of anaerobic respiration in industry

Alcohol fermentation.
Alcohol fermentation occurs in some bacteria, yeasts, and in plants that are deprived of oxygen.
The pyruvic acid that has been formed is changed into ethanol and carbon dioxide.
Pyruvic acid ----> Ethanol + Carbon Dioxide + ​ATP
Uses of alcohol fermentation:
1. Baking.
a. The Carbon Dioxide causes the dough to rise.
2. Beer and wine production.

Compare aerobic and anaerobic respiration.

Aerobic respiration: Anaerobic respiration:

Requires oxygen Does not require oxygen

Takes place in the mitochondria of cells Takes place in the cytoplasm of cells

Produces a significant amount of ​ATP​ per glucose Produces less ​ATP​ per glucose molecule
molecule

Used when heart rate and breathing rate rise. (Eg. Used in the first 2 minutes of exercise. (Eg. In a
Long distance running). sprint).

Produces Carbon Dioxide and Water Produces Lactic acid or Ethanol and Carbon Dioxide
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Draw and label the mitochondria.

What is the function of the following:

❖ Matrix​ ​ - The matrix contains enzymes that are
critical for the completion of the citric acid cycle takes place
which is a crucial step in cellular respiration.
➢ The mitochondrial DNA is found in the
matrix.
❖ Cristae​ - The cristae creates are the folds of the
inner membrane to give it a larger surface area to provide it
with a greater space for processes that take place across the
membrane.
❖ Outer membrane​ - ‘The gateway of the
mitochondrion’. The outer membrane has pores that allow smaller proteins in, and it has protein
complexes to allow larger proteins in.
❖ Granules​ - The granules act as a ‘contact site’ between the inner and outer membranes so that the
enzymes can function more efficiently.

Subtopic - “​ Photosynthesis”

Define:
● Photosynthesis​ - Photosynthesis is the ​production of organic compounds​ (water, oxygen, and ATP)
from inorganic molecules​ (Carbon Dioxide and Water) ​using light energy​ that is absorbed by the
chlorophyll to transform the light energy into chemical energy.
○ Photosynthesis is a process that occurs in ​autotrophic organisms​.

​State the word and chemical equation for photosynthesis.

1. Carbon Dioxide + Water → (in the presence of light energy and chlorophyll) Glucose + Oxygen + ATP
a. Carbon dioxide and water - in the presence of light energy and chlorophyll - produce glucose
and oxygen.
2. 6CO2 + 6H2O + LIGHT AND CHLOROPHYLL → C6H12O6 + 6O2 + ATP

Draw, label, and explain what chlorophyll is.

● Chlorophyll​ - Chlorophyll is the ​location where
photosynthesis takes​ place, furthermore, is the green
pigment in plants.

Draw and label a leaf.

- The palisade layer contains many chloroplasts for

photosynthesis.
- Carbon Dioxide enters through the stoma.
- Gas exchange occurs by the stoma​.
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Discuss limiting factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis.
1. Carbon Dioxide concentration
a. Plants are unable to photosynthesize if there is an insufficient supply of Carbon Dioxide.
2. Light intensity
a. Without light or without sufficient light, a plant would not be able to photosynthesize
effectively even if there is a sufficient supply of water or Carbon Dioxide.
3. Temperature
a. If the temperature gets too low (it gets too cold), the rate of photosynthesis will decrease.

Subtopic - “​ Enzymes”

Define:
➔ Enzyme​ - An enzyme is a ​catalyst that speeds up chemical reactions​ (​metabolic reactions​) which
are not used up during the reaction.
◆ Enzymes are ​proteins​ that function as biological catalysts by ​lowering the activation energy
and accelerating the chemical process.
● Enzymes can either be ​Anabolic​ or ​Catabolic​.
○ The same enzyme can be used to form larger molecules and can also break
down larger molecules.
➔ Kinetic energy​ - The energy of movement.
➔ Active site​ - An active site is a ​specific region of an enzyme​ in which ​substrates bind​ and where the
chemical reactions take place.

What is meant with ‘enzyme action’?

Enzyme action occurs when an ​enzyme and substrate collide​ in
which the ​substrate slots into the active site of the enzyme​.
When the substrate and enzyme join together, the entire
structure is known as the ‘​enzyme-substrate complex​’ or the ‘​lock and
key structure​’.
In this action, the substrate becomes changed, and is then
released as the product in which the enzyme is free to join with another
substrate.

Illustrate the lock and key theory.

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What is the induced fit theory?
The induced fit theory states that once the active site makes contact with the substrate, the enzyme
would mold itself to the shape of the substrate to allow the substrate and enzyme to bind.

The induced fit model is more accepted, considering

that it was a development of the lock and key
theory/mechanism by suggesting that the active site d ​ oes
change slightly to better suit the shape of the substrate,
whereas the lock and key theory fails to mention any
changes that the active site could undergo.

Provide examples of enzymes​.

When in doubt, always say that the ​enzyme is secreted by the ​pancreas​.
Green = most important
1. Amylase​ - Breaks down starch (amylose) to maltose.
a. Secreted by the salivary glands, pancreas, and small intestine.
2. Maltase​ - Breaks down maltose to glucose.
3. Protease​ - Breaks down proteins.
a. Found in the stomach, Pancreas, and small intestine.
4. Lipase​ - Breaks down fats.
a. Secreted by the pancreas and the small intestine.
5. Lactase​ - Breaks down lactose (milk)
6. Sucrase​ - Digests sucrose

Summarize the general effects of enzymes.

● Enzymes ​lower the activation energy​, enabling the reaction to occur with expending/utilizing less
energy.
○ Activation energy = The energy input that is required to carry out a reaction.
● The activity of the cell is determined by which enzyme is active in the cell at that time.
● Enzymes regulate thousands of different metabolic reactions.

Outline factors that limit/affect enzyme activity.

1. Temperature​:
a. As the temperature increases, so does the enzyme activity,
however, ​once the temperature exceeds​ what is known as
the ‘optimum’ temperature​ (which is normally around
37˚C) the enzyme will ​denature​ and the rate of enzyme
activity will fall.
2. pH levels​:
a. The ideal pH of the enzyme and its’ environment is dependent on
where the enzyme carries out its’ reactions, however, the same
principal goes for all enzymes. If the pH level ​exceeds​ or goes
below the ​optimum​, the enzyme will ​denature​ and the activity of
the enzyme will decrease.
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Chapter Three:​ How do organisms sustain themselves?

Subtopic - “​ Balanced diet”

Define:
● Nutrition​ - Nutrition is the way in which organisms use and obtain food which is then utilized for
growth, repair, defence, reproduction, and metabolism.
○ Good nutrition helps maintaining a healthy weight, furthermore, provides the body with the
crucial energy it uses up.
● Macronutrients​ - Macronutrients are the chemical substances present in the food that is consumed
by the organisms.
○ The three macronutrients in nutrition are, ​Carbohydrates​, ​Lipids​, and ​Proteins​.

List the elements found in food, the elements found as dissolved salts, and the trace elements.
Six common elements found in food:
1. Carbon
2. Hydrogen
3. Oxygen
4. Nitrogen
5. Phosphorus
6. Sulfur
Five common elements found as dissolved salts:
1. Sodium
2. Magnesium
3. Chlorine
4. Potassium
5. Calcium
The trace elements:
1. Copper
2. Iron
3. Zinc
​ inerals​.
All these elements/biomolecules (apart from carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen) are known as m

What are biomolecules?

Biomolecules are minerals that have combined in different ratios that are found in all living
organisms.
❏ They are crucial for maintaining the metabolic processes.
❏ The four main types of biomolecules are:
❏ Carbohydrates
❏ Lipids (fats and oils)
❏ Proteins
❏ Vitamins

Explain what Carbohydrates are.

Carbohydrate-rich foods:
● Grains: Bread, rice, and crackers.
● Dairy: Yoghurt, Milk, and ice-cream.
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● Starchy vegetables: Potatoes and corn.
● Sugary sweets
Carbohydrates​ are a group of organic compounds that consist of Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen
ultimately providing energy to the body’s cells and tissues and regulating the blood glucose levels.
● There are three categories of carbohydrates - Monosaccharides, Disaccharides, and Polysaccharides.

Monosaccharides: Disaccharides: Polysaccharides:

Smallest unit of carbohydrates. Made of two monosaccharides Monosaccharides linked together

This means that they are joined together. in repeating units.
monomers.

Explain what Lipids (fats and oils) are.

Lipids-rich foods:
● Meat, milk, butter, cheese, and plants.
Lipids​ are fatty organic compounds that store twice as much energy as carbohydrates and proteins
which is then released during respiration. Additionally, some lipids act as hormones that are critical for the
body.

What is the difference between fats and oils?

Fats​ = Solid at room temperature
Oils​ = Liquid at room temperature.

Define:
➔ Phospholipids​ - Phospholipids are when one fatty acid is replaced by a phosphate molecule or this
molecule is added to the fatty acid.
➔ Fatty acids​ - A fatty acid is a subunit of fats, oils, and waxes, furthermore, are any group of a long
chain of hydrocarbons with carboxylic acid.

Define:
➔ Saturated fats​ - Saturated fats are normally found in ​animal products​ (such as dairy and meat). Too
much consumption of saturated fats can lead to ​raised cholesterol levels​.
➔ Unsaturated fats​ - Unsaturated fats usually come from ​plant sources​ (such as nuts and Avocados),
and contain omega 3 as well as omega 6. These fats can ​promote healthy cholesterol levels​.

Explain what proteins are.

Protein-rich foods:
● Meat, Fish, Eggs, Milk, Beans, and Peas
Proteins​ are molecules that are composed of polymers of amino acids (monomers) that have been
joined together by peptide bonds. Unlike Lipids and Carbohydrates, Protein contains Nitrogen.
Proteins​ are required for maintaining the structure, function, and the regulation of the bodily tissues
and organs.
Proteins​ are formed by ​Anabolic reactions​ as smaller units (the amino acids) join together to form
the protein.
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What are the roles and functions of the different types of protein?
❏ Keratin​ - Keratin is a protein that is found in hair as well as the outer layer of the skin (epidermis).
Keratin serves critical structural and protective functions.
❏ Myosin​ - Myosin is a major protein that is found in the skeletal and cardiac muscles.
❏ Myosin is used for the following:
❏ The formation of cell membranes.
❏ Functions as a biological catalyst (enzyme).
❏ Functions as antibodies.
❏ Functions as hormones.

Explain what vitamins are.

Vitamins are organic compounds that are not made in the body, rather, are obtained and ingested
during nutrition. Withal, vitamins are needed in small quantities in the diet to maintain a healthy body.
There are two types of vitamins:
➢ Water-soluble vitamins​:​ These are vitamins that dissolve in water.
○ The most common example of a water-soluble vitamin is vitamin C, which is obtained from
fresh fruits and vegetables, furthermore, is needed to make and maintain the connective
tissues.
➢ Fat-soluble vitamins:​ These are vitamins that only dissolve in fats.
○ The most common example of a fat-soluble vitamin is vitamin D, which is obtained from
milk, eggs, liver, and fish oils and is required for the formation of bone and teeth.

Explain what minerals are.

Minerals are inorganic nutrients that occur as molecules rather than as single atoms. Minerals are
soluble in inorganic salts that contain elements for metabolism, furthermore, minerals are only required in
small quantities when maintaining a healthy body.

What are the roles of minerals?

● The construction of the ‘hard parts’ of the body.
○ For example, Calcium (a mineral) is used for the formation of teeth and bone.
● The formation of soft tissue.
○ For example, Nitrogen and Sulphur is used to form the protein of muscle tissue.
● To maintaining the correct fluid concentration.
● (Plant use) In plants, minerals are also very prominent.
○ Eg. Magnesium is used in the production of chlorophyll.

Define:
➔ Monomer​ - A monomer is a molecule that may react with another molecule of the same type to form
larger molecules. (​Anabolic reaction​).
◆ Monomers are the smallest unit of a polymer.

State the monomers of Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, and Nucleic Acids.

❖ Carbohydrates​ - Monosaccharides
❖ Lipids​ - Glycerol and Fatty acids
❖ Proteins​ - Amino acids
❖ Nucleic acids​ - Nucleotides
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Subtopic - “​ Digestion”

Draw and label the parts of the Digestive System.

Define:
➔ Digestion​ - Digestion is the ​breakdown of complex food
molecules into simple, soluble, and absorbable sub-units​.
➔ Absorption​ - Absorption is the process of ​assimilating
substances into cells or across the tissues and organs​ through ​diffusion
and ​osmosis​.
➔ Movement of food​ - The movement of food is controlled by the
sphincter muscles which are longitudinal and circular muscles in the gut
wall.

What are the five stages of human nutrition/digestion?

“I​ ​ D
​ o​ ​Am
​ azingly A
​ ​fter ​Ex​ ams”
1. Ingestion
a. Ingestion is the process when ​food enters the mouth​. In this stage, the food is placed into the
alimentary canal.
2. Digestion
a. Digestion ​breaks down the complex food molecules​ into simple, soluble, and absorbable
sub-units.
3. Absorption
a. After being broken down, the ​food particles are absorbed into the bloodstream​ and are then
taken to the body’s cells​.
i. They enter the blood or lymph.
4. Assimilation
a. Assimilation ​converts the absorbed nutrients into complex molecules​ that are used ​for
growth, repair, and defence​.
5. Egestion
a. Egestion is when the ​waste products​ which remeain behind are ​excluded from the body​.

Describe the functions of the organs in the digestive system.

● Mouth​ - The mouth is the beginning of the digestive tract. Both Mechanical and Chemical digestion
takes place here.
○ Mechanical digestion​: The teeth physically break down the food so that it can be swallowed
and so that it has a greater surface area for the enzymes to act on.
○ Chemical digestion​: The enzyme ‘amylase’ is secreted by the salivary glands which helps
soften the food and turns the food in a ‘bolus’.
● Esophagus​ - The Esophagus is a long tube that connects the mouth with the
stomach, furthermore, carries the food from the mouth to the stomach. The
Esophagus has a contracting muscle that pushes the bolus down.
● Stomach​ - The stomach ​secretes​ gastric juice, ​hydrochloric acid​, as well as ​enzymes
(protease/pepsin) that ​store and digest the food​ (proteins). The sphincter muscle
prevents the food from going back up into the Esophagus. Both Mechanical and Chemical digestion
takes place here.
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○ Mechanical digestion​: The stomach churns converting the food into a thick, milky mixture
(this is known as chyme).
○ Chemical digestion​: The hydrochloric acid kills any bacteria.
■ The stomach contains mucus to prevent it from digesting itself
● Liver​ - The liver secretes bile which detoxifies the body. The bile ends up in the small intestine.
○ Bile​ - Bile is produced by the liver and then stored in the gallbladder. Bile Emulsifies lipids,
allowing the fat to mix with the water by breaking the fat molecules down, furthermore, the
bile helps in neutralizing the chyme from the stomach.
● Gallbladder​ - The Gallbladder stores and concentrates the bile.
● Pancreas​ - The pancreas secretes pancreatic juice which neutralizes the chyme in the stomach and
contains the digestive enzymes​.
● Small intestine​ - The small intestine absorbs the nutrients and minerals from the food which is then
taken to the body’s cells.
● Large intestine​ - The large intestine ​absorbs the water​ from the remaining indigestible food.
○ The waste products become a semi-solid (faeces) which is then stored in the ​rectum​ and
finally egested by the ​anus​.

Distinguish between mechanical and chemical digestion.

Chemical​ - Driven by enzymes and is aided by substances that are released by the digestive organs
into the monomers of that particular molecule.
Mechanical​ - The physical breaking down of food into smaller pieces.

Subtopic - “​ Circulatory system”

What is the function of the circulatory system?

1. To carry digested food from the small intestine to all areas in the body which require it.
2. To carry oxygen from the lungs to the remainder of the body.
3. To aid in the disposal of all waste products from the body.
4. To distribute heat throughout the body.
5. To transport white blood cells to fight diseases and to fight off infections.

Define:
➔ Vessel​ - Any of the vessels (these are, arteries, veins, and capillaries) in the cardiovascular system
that functions by carrying the blood throughout the body.
➔ Red blood cells​ ​- Red blood cells are tiny ​biconcave disc-shaped cells​ that do not have a nucleus or a
mitochondria. The cytoplasm of a red blood cell has a lot of ​haemoglobin which helps carry oxygen
around the body​. Red blood cells have very thin walls.
➔ Deoxygenated​ - The term ‘Deoxygenated’ refers to blood that ​lacks oxygen​/is not oxygen-rich.
◆ Deoxygenated blood ​travels ​to​ the lungs​ from the heart.
➔ Oxygenated​ - Oxygenated refers to blood that is ​oxygen-rich​ which travels ​away​/​from​ the lungs​ to
the heart which is then transported through the rest
of the body.
➔ Capillaries​ - Capillaries are the smallest vessels that
are ​one-cell thick​ to allow
substances to easily cross them
into or out of the bloodstream.
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◆ They distribute the oxygenated blood from the arteries to the tissues of the body and
exchange the deoxygenated blood from the tissues back to the veins.
● In other words, they exchange oxygen, carbon dioxide, water, salts and metabolic
waste products between the blood and the surrounding bodily tissues.
○ “Capillaries are the site of gas exchange.”
➔ Arteries​ - Arteries are vessels that ​carry oxygenated blood​ at a ​high pressure away from the heart​ to
the remainder of the body.
➔ Veins​ - Veins are vessels that are responsible for ​returning the deoxygenated blood back to the heart
under a ​lower pressure​.
◆ Carry deoxygenated blood to the heart.
● Ve​in​s = in

Compare arteries and veins.

Arteries: Veins:

Transports the ​oxygenated blood away from the Transports the ​deoxygenated blood to the heart​.
heart​.

Higher pressure. Lower pressure.

Have a pulse. Does not have a pulse.

Carries oxygenated blood (apart from the Carries deoxygenated blood (apart from the
pulmonary artery). pulmonary vein).

More muscle/elastic tissue. Less muscle/elastic tissue.

Narrow lumens. Wide lumens.

Located deep under the skin. Located near the surface of the skin.

Do not have valves. Have valves.

Draw and label the structure of a heart and outline the blood flow.

Right side Left side

Red=
Deoxygenated
Blood

Blue=
Oxygenated
Blood
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Describe the blood flow.
1. Oxygenated blood flows from the body into the right atrium.
2. Blood flows through the right atrium into the right ventricle.
3. The right ventricle pumps the blood to the lungs, whereby the blood then releases waste gases
(carbon dioxide) and picks up oxygen.
4. The now oxygenated blood returns to the heart and enters the left atrium.
5. The blood flows to the left ventricle which is then pumped to all parts of the body.

Subtopic - “​ Respiratory System”

What is the function of the respiratory system?

The primary function of the respiratory system is to ​transport gases to and from the circulatory
system​, moreover, to get oxygen into the body and to get the waste gases out of the body.
The respiratory system consists of the lungs and the tubes associated with the lungs, furthermore, it
is located in the thorax/chest.

Draw and label the respiratory system.

What are the functions of the:
➔ Nasal Cavity​ - Air passes through the
nasal cavity, in which it is then ​warmed​ and
humidified​ so that it is moist when it reaches the
lungs.
◆ The nasal cavity ​filters air​ by the
hairs and mucus in the nose.
➔ Pharynx​ - The voice box is located here in
which the vibrations from the air produce speech.
◆ The Pharynx (throat) channels the
air down the airways.
➔ Trachea​ - (Also known as the windpipe) is
divided/​branched into bronchi to channel air
towards the left or right lung​. This is then ​divided
into ​smaller bronchioles and then into alveoli​.
◆ The trachea is lined with mucus secreting cells and hairs known as cilia to trap bacteria,
dust, and viruses.
➔ Lungs​ - The lungs are a spongy structure in
which the ​exchange of gas​ (O2-CO2) takes place.
➔ Bronchi​ - The bronchi are ​divided into
bronchioles​ which ​have hollow air sacs​ known
as the ​Alveoli​.
◆ The bronchi allow the air to reach the
Alveoli​.
➔ Alveoli​ - The alveoli greatly ​increase the
surface area of the lung​ to allow for a ​more
efficient site of gas exchange​.
➔ Capillaries​ - The ​capillaries surround the
alveoli​ and ​take up oxygen​ and ​give up carbon
dioxide​.
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How is gas exchanged?
Cells in the body utilize the inhaled oxygen gotten from the alveoli of the lungs. In turn, they produce
carbon dioxide and water, which is then taken to the alveoli for gas exchange to take place.
These exchanges are known as ‘diffusion’.

Suggest how the alveoli have adapted for gas exchange.

● The alveoli provide the lungs with a large surface area.
○ This makes the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide more efficient.
● The walls of the alveoli and capillaries are very thin (one-cell thick).
○ This makes it easier for the gases to diffuse across them.
● The alveoli are folded.
○ This provides them with a greater surface area.

Subtopic - “​ Transport”

Define:
❏ Concentration​ - Concentration refers to ​how much of a solute there is in comparison to the volume
of solvent​.
❏ Concentration gradient​ - A concentration gradient occurs when a solute is more concentrated in
one area than another.

Outline what diffusion is.

Diffusion is the spontaneous, net - passive (as no metabolic energy
is expended) - movement of particles (atoms, ions, or molecules) from a
region of a higher concentration to a region of a lower concentration.

Outline what osmosis is.

Osmosis is the spontaneous net movement of water molecules across a
semipermeable membrane from a region of higher concentration to a region of
lower concentration. Osmosis is a passive transport as no metabolic energy is
expended/no external energy is required.
❏ If the graph plateaus when referring to the rate of
osmosis, then it has reached ​equilibrium​.

Define:
➔ Isotonic​ - Isotonic is when the external concentration of
a solution is equivalent to the internal concentration of
the solution.
➔ Hy​po​tonic​ - Hypotonic is when the ​external
concentration of the solution is lower than the internal
concentration​ of the solution from the organisms’ cell.
➔ Hy​pe​rtonic​ - Hypertonic is when the ​external
concentration of the solution is higher than the internal
concentration​ of the organism’s cell.
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Outline what Active transport is.

Active transport is the movement of molecules ​against the
concentration gradient​ (meaning that molecules move from an area of
lower concentration to an area of higher concentration).
Active transport requires metabolic energy (ATP) and a carrier
protein in order to be carried out, by virtue that molecules need to be
forced across the membrane.
Example of Active transport​: The uptake of glucose and amino acids in the small intestine.

Subtopic - “​ Homeostasis”

Define:
➔ Homeostasis​ - Homeostasis is the ​maintenance​ of a ​constant internal environment​.
◆ For example, sweating to maintaining the internal temperature, or maintaining the pH of the
Blood through the Kidneys.
● Positive and negative feedback.
➔ Vasodilation​ - Vasodilation is when the ​blood vessels dilate​ so that ​more heat​ can be ​released​ due to
the increased blood flow to the surface.
◆ Vasodilation ​occurs in warmer conditions​.
➔ Vasoconstriction​ - Vasoconstriction is when the ​blood vessels​ in the skin ​contract​ to ​reduce the loss
of heat near the surface of the skin​.
◆ Vasoconstriction ​occurs in cooler conditions​.
➔ Piloerection​ - Piloerection is also known as ‘Goosebumps’, furthermore, is the involuntary erection
of hair due to the cold or a strong emotion such as fear.

Describe the mechanism for maintaining sufficient blood glucose levels.

When blood glucose levels are too high:
1. The pancreas detects raised levels of glucose in the blood.
2. Insulin is released from the pancreas into the bloodstream.
3. Insulin causes the muscle and the liver to store the glucose as glycogen.
4. The blood-sugar levels return back to normal.

When blood glucose levels are too low:

1. The pancreas detects low levels of glucose in the blood.
2. Glucagon is released from the pancreas into the bloodstream.
3. Glucagon causes the muscles and liver to break the glycogen into
glucose.
4. Glucose is released in the bloodstream.
5. Blood sugar levels will return to normal levels.

What is negative feedback, and what is the control

cycle?
Negative feedback is a feedback that results in a ​decrease
in a ​function​.
Negative feedback reduces the change.
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What is positive feedback, and what is the control cycle?

Positive feedback is a type of physiological feedback that ​encourages and amplifies the action​ of a
system or ​response​.
The most common example of positive feedback is ​childbirth​.

List the parameters that are controlled in Homeostasis.

1. Blood glucose/sugar levels.
2. Body temperature (the ideal temperature is 37˚C).
a. Controlling blood flow
b. Sweating and shivering
3. The body’s water content.
a. Urine.
b. Sweating.

Compare and contrast Type I and Type II diabetes.

Differences

Type I diabetes: Type II diabetes:

The body’s immune system destroys the cells that The body doesn’t use the insulin correctly.
release insulin.
This means that type 1 diabetes is an ​autoimmune
disease​.

Type 1 diabetes cannot be controlled without taking It is possible to come off insulin.
insulin.

Often diagnosed in childhood. Normally diagnosed in adulthood.

Not associated with excess body weight. Associated with excess body weight.

High blood pressure and cholesterol levels.

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Similarities

Symptoms are identical in most ways.

Common symptoms include:

1. Excess urination (as a result of high blood pressure)
2. Excessive thirst
3. Excessive hunger

Chapter Four:​ What issues do larger organisms face?

Subtopic - “​ Specialized structures”

Define and give examples of:

❖ Environment​ - The ​external conditions​ (Biotic and Abiotic factors), ​resources​, and ​stimuli​ which
organisms react with​. The environment affects the survival and development of that specific
organism or population.
➢ Eg. The components of the physical environment - such as, soil/rock, air, water, and the sun.
❖ Adaptations​ - Adaptations are any form of ​alterations in the anatomy/structure​ or ​function​ of an
organism ​as a result of natural selection​ in which the ​organism becomes more suited to survive​ and
reproduce​ in the environment.
➢ Eg. The bill of a bird, migration patterns, bird calls, and mating calls.
❖ Behavioral characteristics​ - The way in which an o ​ rganism interacts with its surroundings​ and the
way it ​responds to the environment and the stimuli​.
➢ Eg. Mating calls, bird calls, and the way in which an organism protects itself.
❖ Physiological adaptations​ - A bodily process to help an organism survive in the environment.
➢ In other words, physiological adaptations are ​internal systematic responses to external
stimuli​ to maintain the homeostasis of the organism.
■ Eg. Organisms who make/secrete venom or poison or plants in desert climates that
have specific tissues to absorb more water.

Subtopic - “​ Diffusion”

Define:
● Diffusion​ - Diffusion is the net passive movement of ​particles​ from a region of higher concentration
to a region of lower concentration without going through a semipermeable membrane.
○ Diffusion is a passive transport as no metabolic energy is expended/required.
● Osmosis​ - Osmosis is the net movement of ​water molecules​ across a ​semipermeable membrane​ from
a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration.
○ Osmosis is a passive transport as it does not require metabolic energy.

Compare and contrast between diffusion and osmosis.

Differences

Diffusion Osmosis
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Movement of any chemical from one place to Exclusively refers to the movement of water
another without going through a semipermeable molecules across a semipermeable membrane.
membrane.

Similarities

Both equalize the concentration of two solutions into a membrane.

Both move from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.

Moves across/along/down the concentration gradient.

Passive transport.

Distinguish between simple and facilitated diffusion.

Differences

Simple Diffusion Facilitated Diffusion

Does not require a carrier protein to diffuse Requires a carrier protein.

effectively.

Across a phospholipid membrane/bilayer. Occurs across transmembrane proteins.

Transports small, non-polar particles. Does not directly cross a phospholipid

membrane/bilayer.

Slower. Faster.

Similarities

Both are passive transports as they do not require ATP or metabolic energy.

Both move down the concentration gradient.

Outline factors that increase the rate of diffusion.

1. Temperature:
a. As the temperature increases, the kinetic energy will increase simultaneously, thus
increasing the rate of net movement of particles across the membrane.
i. Temperature and the rate of diffusion are directionally proportional.
2. Density:
a. The more particles there are per unit volume (meaning greater density), the higher the
chance of collisions occurring, thus, ultimately, increasing the rate of diffusion.
i. Density and the rate of diffusion are directionally proportional.
3. Medium:
a. The more dense the medium is that particles are diffusing across, the slower the rate of
diffusion will be (and vice-versa).
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i. The density of the medium and the rate of diffusion are inversely proportional.
4. Mass of particles:
a. The heavier the particles are, the slower they will diffuse across the concentration gradient.

Explain what is meant by the term:

❏ Surface area to volume ratio [SA:V]​ - The Surface area to volume ratio gets smaller as the size of
the organism increases (and vice-versa).
❏ It is easier for organisms to exchange materials if its surface area to volume ratio is large.
❏ Eg. Leaves have a very large surface area to volume ratio to increase the rate of
absorption.
❏ Small organisms​ - large surface area to volume ratio. (less heat is lost)
❏ Large organisms​ - small surface area to volume ratio. (more heat is lost)

State the formula to calculate the Surface area to volume ratio [SA:V].
Surf ace area
V olume

What is the affect Surface area to volume ratio has on the movement of molecules.
● The larger the surface area to volume ratio (the smaller the cell is), the faster the rate of diffusion is.
● As the surface area to volume ratio gets smaller (the organism gets larger), the rate of diffusion gets
slower simultaneously.
○ The rate of diffusion and the surface area to volume ratio are directly proportional.

Subtopic - “​ Comparing Adaptations”

Compare adaptations of similar species to different environments.

★ Sun bear:
○ Jaws are disproportionately large enabling them to break open hard fruits.
○ They have very large tongues to retrieve insects from logs.
○ They have short fur to better suit the warmer climates.
★ Polar bear:
○ Small ears to prevent heat loss.
○ Strong legs for swimming and running to be able to effectively catch prey.
○ They have a thick layer of blubber/fat to store energy.
■ This also acts as an insulator against the harsh temperatures.
○ They have a thick layer of white fur for insulation and for camouflage.

Describe how body size affects the rate of heat loss in animals.
The larger the surface area to volume ratio is, the greater the heat loss, and vice versa.
Ultimately, organisms that exist in colder climates have a smaller surface area to volume ratio to prevent the
extensive loss of heat.

Subtopic - “​ Protection”

Define:
● Extinction:​ Extinction is the termination of an organism, a group of organisms (taxon), or a species.
○ Extinction is considered to be the death of the last remaining individual of that species.
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Chapter Five:​ What factors affect human health?

Subtopic - “​ Pathogens”

Define:
➔ Pathogen​:​ Pathogens are ​infectious agents​ and are organisms that cause harm and disease to the
host.
◆ Eg. Bacteria or a virus.
● Pathogens enter the body through:
○ Eyes, ears, the mouth and the nose
○ Intravenous (injections)
○ Through open wounds or cuts
○ Through sexual intercourse (sexually transmitted)
➔ Parasite​: A parasite is an organism that ​lives and feeds on or in another
organism of a different species​ which also causes harm to the host
organism.
➔ Budding​: Budding is a type of asexual reproduction that often occurs in
bacteria and yeast. In budding, the parent organism creates a bud from its
own cells which form the basis of the offspring.

Outline what bacteria is, and list examples of diseases caused by them.
Bacteria are live microscopic organisms that have the capability to reproduce rapidly by binary
fission. Bacteria are bigger than viruses, however, they can be infected by viruses as the virus reproduces
within the bacteria.

● Once inside the body, bacteria releases poisons/toxins that are carried around the body through the
bloodstream and make you feel ill.
● Toxins come from the waste products of the bacteria.
● Bacterial infections are treated with ‘antibiotics’ (meaning, anti-living).
○ Due to many factors (such as mutations), there are antibiotic resistant bacteria that are
known as ‘superbugs’.
■ For example, MRSA.
Diseases caused by bacteria​ = Cholera, Typhoid, and Salmonella.

State that not all bacteria have harmful effects (Eg. probiotics)
Probiotics are living bacteria or other microorganisms which are beneficial for the health when
consumed. Furthermore, probiotics promote a healthy digestive tract and immune system as they travel
through the digestive system.
● Probiotics help combat gastrointestinal infections
○ An example of a probiotic drink that you can consume is ‘Yakult’.

What are the industrial uses of Bacteria?

The primary industrial uses of Bacteria involve the making of yoghurt and cheese.

Outline what a virus is, and list examples of diseases caused by them
Viruses are among the smallest organisms known which consist of a fragment of genetic material that
lies inside of a protective protein coat.
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Viruses can only reproduce inside a host cell through two different cycles (either the lytic cycle or the
lysogenic cycle) ultimately destroying the host.

Diseases caused by viruses​= Influenza/flu, AIDS, colds, measles, chicken pox, rubella, and mumps.
These diseases cannot be treated by antibiotics as viruses are not considered to be ‘living’.

Summarize the reproduction of viruses.

In simple terms.
1. The virus lands on a host cell.
2. DNA of the virus enters the host whilst the protein coat stays outside the cell.
3. New virus DNA is made using the
host cell.
4. New viruses are assembled inside
the host cell.
5. The host cell bursts, releasing
many new viruses.

Lytic cycle Lysogenic cycle

This cycle is faster than the lysogenic cycle. Takes longer.

The genetic material that enters the cell from the The virus enters the host cell in which the genetic
virus takes over the operations of the host cell and material of the virus becomes part of the cells’
produces multiple copies of itself. chromosomes, however, does not affect the function
The host cell then dies and releases all the viruses of the cell. Eventually the viral DNA becomes active
which then look for a new host. and the separates from the other DNA ultimately
replicating.

Outline ways the body prevents the entry of pathogens.

General defence systems:
● The Skin
○ The skin is a physical barrier that prevents the entry of pathogens.
● Clotting/blood
○ If the skin is broken, the blood clots to prevent pathogens from entering.
● Nasal hairs/cilia
○ The Nasal hairs remove and trap suspended micro-organisms from the air, furthemore,
sweep mucus and pathogens to the stomach.
● Mucus
○ The respiratory system is sticky and traps the pathogens.
● Acis
○ Acid in the stomach kills pathogens.
● White blood
○ If a pathogen enters the body, white blood cells destroy it.

Outline what white blood cells are.

There are two distinctive types of white blood cells:
➔ Phagocytes​ - Circa 70% of all white blood cells are phagocytes.
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◆ Phagocytes surround and ingest the pathogens.
➔ Lymphocytes​ - Lymphocytes produce chemicals (known as antibodies) which recognize and attack
the invading pathogens.
◆ Antibodies are unique for the antigen.

Define:
➢ Antigen​: Antigens are proteins on the surface of each pathogen.
○ Antigens are different for each pathogen.
➢ Antibodies​: Antibodies are large ‘Y-shaped’ proteins that neutralize foreign objects.
○ They stick the pathogens together to make it easier to kill them.
○ They make it easier to recognize the pathogens.
○ They neutralize the toxins.

Subtopic - “​ Immunity”

What are antibiotics?

Antibiotics are ‘anti-living’/’antimicrobial’ agents that are made from microorganisms (such as
bacteria and fungi) aimed to kill or prevent the growth of foreign microorganisms. Antibiotics are used to kill
microorganisms that are infectious or disease-causing.

Outline how Alexander Fleming discovered the first antibiotic.

Alexander Fleming accidentally discovered the first antibiotic as he was sorting through petri dishes
and found a blob of mold that was killing the bacteria that he had been growing.

Define:
❏ Antibiotic resistance​ - Antibiotic resistance can be defined as the ability for bacteria and other
microorganisms to ​resist the effects of an antibiotic agent​ to which they were once sensitive.
❏ This occurs as:
❏ 1. Large numbers of bacteria exist around us, however, due to random, natural
mutations, some are resistant to antibiotics.
❏ 2. When exposed to antibiotics, all the susceptible bacteria die as well as the ‘good
ones’ that protect you from infections. The ones who are naturally resistant, survive
the dose of antibiotics.
❏ 3. The remaining, resistant bacteria now have room to thrive and reproduce.
❏ 4. Due to rapid reproduction and the duplication of genes, the ‘resistance’ gene is
passed on and spread out.
❏ 5. This results in superbugs (Eg. MRSA)

What are vaccines?

Vaccines consist of a ​weakened form of a virus or a virus which has had its DNA removed so that it
can’t reproduce​. When the virus enters the body, the white blood cells attack it in which they will then
remember the antibodies needed to kill that specific virus for future references.
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List the advantages and disadvantages of vaccines.

Advantages Disadvantages

Prevents epidemics and pandemics Vaccines are not guaranteed to work or provide
100% protection.

Prevents diseases spreading to other individuals. Vaccines are costly to the government and the
individual. For this reason, many low income
countries may not be able to afford the necessity.

Define:
❏ Herd immunity​ - Herd immunity occurs when the majority of a population are immune to a
particular disease in which the large percentage of the population protect the few susceptible people
as the disease is less likely to spread.
❏ Herd immunity means that not everyone needs to be immune to prevent the spread of
disease.
❏ Epidemic​ - The prevalence/occurrence of more cases of a particular disease than would be expected
within a given area.

Subtopic - “​ Disease transmission”

How are diseases transmitted?

1. Airbourne - coughing/sneezing
2. Bodily fluids - saliva, blood, vomit, sex etc.

Define:
❏ Communicable diseases​ - A disease that can be transmitted from one person to another. It is known
as an ‘infectious’ disease which is caused by a pathogen.
❏ Inherited/genetic diseases​ - Genetic diseases are passed on through generations. They are
congenital diseases that are not curable.
❏ Eg. Hemophilia.
❏ Autoimmune disease​ - Autoimmune disease occurs when the body produces antibodies that attack
its own tissue.
❏ This disease cannot be spread from person to person, however, can sometimes be linked to
the person's lifestyle or environment.
❏ Eg. Type 2 Diabetes.

Chapter Six:​ How do characteristics from the past generations pass onto other generations?

Subtopic - “​ Discovering DNA”

Describe how the structure of DNA was discovered.

Rosalind Franklin​ photographed crystallized DNA fibres. Using this photograph, she calculated the
dimensions of the strands and deduced that the phosphates were on the outside, moreover, that it had a
double helix.
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James Watson​ and ​Crick​ ‘discovered’ the double helix structure of DNA through the use of the x-ray
image ​Franklin ​took. Despite this being ​Franklins’​ photograph, she did not get honoured.

Subtopic - “​ DNA Structure And Function”

Define:
➔ Replication​:​ The process in which a double-stranded ​DNA molecule is copied​ to produce ​two
identical DNA molecules​.
◆ This process occurs in all organisms and is the basis for biological inheritance.
➔ Heredity​:​ The passing on of genetic factors from parent to offspring.
◆ The means by which offspring acquire genetic information from their parents.
➔ DNA helix​:​ The three-dimensional structure of a double-stranded DNA.
◆ A structure that consists of two complementary helices that intertwine.
◆ The DNA helix is made up of phosphates.
➔ Semi-conservative​:​ Genetic replication in which a double stranded DNA molecule is separated into
two single strands. These individual strands serve as a template for the formation of complementary
strands that together with the template forms a complete molecule.
◆ In simple terms, a form of genetic replication in which one strand of the DNA is old and the
other strand is new.

Identify the components of a nucleotide.

Explain the role of DNA in the body.
● DNA ​contains the genetic
material/instructions for the
development and function of all living
organisms
○ Long term storage of
information
● DNA ​forms proteins and RNA
● DNA exchanges the genetic material of parental chromosomes during meiotic cell division
● DNA facilitates occuring mutations

Identify the four base pairs.

DNA:
Adenine, ​Thymine​, Guanine, and Cytosine
● Complementary bases:
A = T (Adenine - purine- to Thymine - pyrimidine - with a ​double​ bond)
C ≡ G (Cytosine - pyrimidine - to Guanine - purine - with a ​triple​ bond)
RNA:
Adenine, ​Uracil​, Guanine, and Cytosine
A = U (Adenine to Uracil with a ​double​ bond)
C ≡ G (Cytosine - pyrimidine - to Guanine - purine - with a ​triple​ bond)

In ​RNA,​ there is no Thymine, rather, it is replaced with an ​Uracil​.

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Outline the process of DNA replication.
Steps:
1. The ​Helicase enzyme​ separates the strands into two separate strands which
presents itself as a ‘y-shaped’ formation.
a. This is known as​ replication fork formation​ or ​elongation​.
2. DNA polymerase​ attaches ​complementary​ ​bases​ (these are A to T and C to
G) to each strand
a. In other words, the bases bond to each strand.
3. Semi-conservative replication​.
a. One strand is new (complementary strand) and the other is old.
4. Termination of the replication process.

Compare DNA and RNA.

DNA RNA

Double Helix Single Helix

Sugar = Deoxyribose Sugar = Ribose

Bases = Adenine, ​Thymine​, Guanine, and Cytosine Bases = Adenine, ​Uracil​, Guanine, and Cytosine

Location = Nucleus Location = Nucleus and cytoplasm

Longer in length Shorter in length

Self-replicating Replicates from DNA.

- RNA is transcribed from DNA

Subtopic - “​ Inheritance”

Compare and contrast the terms: DNA, Genes, and Chromosomes.

- A gene is a segment of DNA.
- Genes are located on DNA molecules​.
- Each Chromosome is made up of tightly coiled DNA that coils around protein.
- Chromosomes contain many genes to determine the phenotype of an organism.
- Chromosomes are made up of DNA and Protein.

Define:
❏ Genotype​:​ The genetic constitution/make-up of an organism.
❏ The entire set of genes in an organism.
❏ Phenotype​:​ The physical features of an organism that are observable.
❏ The phenotype is determined by the genotype.
❏ Homozygous​:​ A particular gene in which the alleles are identical on both homologous chromosomes.
❏ The alleles are the same.
❏ Heterozygous​:​ A cell that contains two distinctive alleles or a particular gene in which the alleles are
different on the homologous chromosomes.
❏ The alleles are different.
❏ Alleles​:​ Possible forms of a gene.
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❏ Such as, eye color. The alleles are: Blue, Green, Brown and so on.
❏ There are dominant alleles and recessive alleles.
❏ Selective Breeding​:​ The ​intentional mating of two organisms​ in the attempt to ​produce offspring
with desirable traits/characteristics​ or for the elimination of a specific trait.
❏ Crossbreed​:​ An organism that is the offspring of genetically ​dissimilar​ parents.
❏ Offspring from two purebred parents that are from different breeds, or even species.
❏ Eg. A crossbreed dog. - The mother is a Golden Retriever, the father is a German Shepherd,
but the offspring is a ‘cross-breed’.
❏ Inheritance​:​ The process of genetic transmission of characteristics from parent/ancestor to the
offspring.
❏ Variation​: The differences which exist between numbers of the same species.
❏ Offspring​:​ The organism(s) resulting from sexual or asexual reproduction.
❏ Generation​:​ All of the offspring that are at the same stage of descent from a common ancestor.

Explain how a gene codes for the formation of protein.

Two major steps: ​Transcription​ and ​Translation
DNA -> mRNA -> Protein
mRNA = Messenger RNA
(transcription) -> (translation)
● Transcription
○ The process of ​making a RNA copy of a gene sequence​.
■ A particular segment of DNA is copied into RNA by the enzyme ‘RNA Polymerase’
○ This copy is known as a ​messenger RNA (mRNA)
● Translation
○ The process of converting the information of a mRNA into a sequence of amino acids that
make up proteins.
★ Each amino acid is coded for by its own sequence of three bases (known as a triplet).
★ These then code for the traits.

Amino acids.

What is ‘Gene Expression’?

➢ The process in which ​inheritable information from a gene is made into protein​.
➢ Gene expression is how a gene works.
➢ The combination of amino acids (which is determined by the gene sequence) makes each protein
different. Ultimately, depending on the sequence of bases, different proteins will be formed.

Describe how mutations occur.

A mutation occurs when a DNA gene is damaged
or changes in such a way that it alters the genetic
information. Mutations occur when - during the
replication process - incorrect copies are made.
Biology Notes
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Discuss how Mendel determined how traits are inherited.
Gregor Mendel experimented on Pea Plants to establish how traits were inherited.
Gregor Mendel discovered that paired pea traits were either dominant or recessive.
According to his findings, when purebred parent plants were crossbred, the dominant traits were always seen
in the offspring, whereas the recessive traits were always masked/hidden until the first generation hybrid
plants were left to self-pollinate.
“​Dominant traits/alleles mask Recessive traits/alleles​”

It is evident that the yellow color in the peas was the dominant alleles, therefore, masked the recessive allele
(the green). On the contrary, once the peas were left to self pollinate, the recessive allele arose.

Punnett squares:
Punnett squares are tools utilized to determine how traits are passed on from parent to offspring,
likewise, illustrates the potential variation in the offspring.

Capital letter = Dominant | Lower-case letter = Recessive

Subtopic - ​“Reproduction”

Distinguish between sexual and asexual reproduction.

❖ Sexual reproduction​ - Reproduction involving the ​fusion of the female and male gametes​ which will
develop into an ​offspring that is genetically distinct​ from the parents.
❖ Asexual reproduction​ - Reproduction where ​offspring arises from a single organism​, and inherits
genes from that one parent only. In asexual reproduction, the ​offspring is genetically identical​ to the
parent.

Differences between sexual and asexual reproduction.

Asexual Sexual

Produces offspring that is genetically identical to Produces offspring that shares DNA from both
the parent. parents, however, is genetically distinct from them.
Biology Notes
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Requires only one organism. Requires two organisms.

Gametes are not produced. Gametes are produced.

Occurs in more primitive organisms. Occurs in more evolved and developed organisms.

Is more energy efficient. Requires more energy (they need to find a mate
etc.)

Takes less time. Requires more time.

Pros and Cons of both sexual and asexual reproduction.

Sexual reproduction

Pros: Cons:

Positive genetic mutations can be passed on. Negative mutations can be passed on.

Allows for genetic diversity. Not time efficient.

Enables an organism to evolve. Not energy efficient.

Asexual reproduction

Pros: Cons:

Produces identical copies. There is no diversity.

It is not required to find a mate. As a result of producing identical copies, the

organism cannot evolve.

Very energy and time efficient.

Fast.

Outline what is meant by IVF (in vitro fertilization).

IVF is the process of removing an egg from an ovary, in which it is then fertilized outside the body
and is then transferred to the uterus in the hope that it attaches.

Label the male and female reproductive systems.

Male: Female:
Biology Notes
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Describe the role of sex hormones in puberty.

● Oestrogen​ - ‘​Female hormone​’ that is produced in the ovaries, adrenal glands, as well as fat cells.
During puberty, oestrogen is responsible for the production and growth of breasts and pubic hair,
furthermore, oestrogen initiates menstruation.
● Progesterone​ - 2nd female hormone which is also produced in the ovaries. Progesterone is
responsible for the balancing of oestrogen levels and thickens the lining of the endometrium so that it
is ready to accept a fertilized egg.
● Testosterone​ - ‘​Male hormone​’ that is produced in the testicles and adrenal glands. Testosterone is
responsible for the growth spurts in males, growth of pubic hair, as well as genital changes.

What are the three main hormones during menstruation?

➔ FSH - Follicle stimulating hormone.
◆ Stimulates the growth of ovarian follicles before the release of an egg at ovulation.
➔ LH - Luteinizing hormone.
◆ Acute rise in the LH levels triggers ovulation and the development of the corpus luteum
which causes the egg to be released.
➔ Oestrogen.
◆ Develops the female secondary sexual characteristics.

Describe the menstrual cycle and the role of each hormone plays in the cycle.
1. FSH and LH are produced by the pituitary glands in the brain which is then transported in the blood.
2. Low progesterone levels allow the FSH levels to stimulate an egg to be matured.
3. This stimulates the production of oestrogen, ultimately causing the lining of the uterus to thicken and
grow (repairing the uterus wall).
4. This stimulates a surge of LH which triggers ovulation.
5. After an egg is released, it develops into the corpus luteum.
6. This produces progesterone with maintains the lining of the uterus, thus, stopping menstruation.
7. Progesterone levels fall, and the uterus lining breaks.
8. Then this repeats itself.

Subtopic - ​“Mitosis and Meiosis”

Define:
Mitosis​ - The process in cell division in which the
nucleus divides, consisting of five stages (interphase,
prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and
telophase/cytokinesis).
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Mitosis results in ​two new nuclei (diploid), each containing a complete copy of the parental
chromosomes​.
Mitosis is used for “​Growth, Repair, and Replace​”.

Identify the stages of mitosis from images.

I Party Monday And Tuesday
Interphase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and
Telophase/cytokinesis.

Outline the process of Meiosis.

Meiosis​ is the division of cells that ​produces
reproductive cells (gametes or spores) in sexually
reproductive organisms​.
The nucleus divides into four nuclei, each
containing half the number of chromosomes as the original
nucleus (haploid).
In meiosis, each cells is genetically unique due to
the crossing over stage.

Chapter seven:​ How do different forms of life arise?

Subtopic - ​“Evidence of evolution”

Define:
Evolution​ - Evolution is a ​cumulative change​ in the ​heritable characteristics​ of a ​population over time or
across a generation​.

Discuss Charles Darwin’s contribution to the theory of evolution by natural selection.

Darwinism states that ​all species​ of organisms ​arise and develop through the natural selection of
small, inherited variations that increase the organisms’ ability to survive and reproduce​.

What is evidence for evolution? List the six different ways to determine evolution.
● The fossil record
○ A fossil record assesses the ​remains or imprints of the organisms from earlier geological
periods​ that have been ​preserved in sedimentary rock​. Fossils are compared to establish a
hereditary trend or other similarities.
■ Fossils provide a record of the organisms that lived during different periods in the
Earth’s history.
● Embryology
○ The study that assesses the ​formation​ and ​development​ of an ​embryo and fetus​.
■ Embryology studies the ​pre-natal development​ of gametes, fertilization, embryos,
and fetuses.
● Comparative anatomy
○ A study that determines the ​similarities and differences in the anatomy of different species​,
moreover, compares the anatomical structure with the function of the structure which is
then as a whole compared to other organisms to identify similarities.
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■ Comparative anatomy ​establishes what the homologous, analogous and vestigial
structures are​.
● Biogeography
○ Biogeography assesses the ​distribution of species and ecosystems within a geographic area
through geological time​.
● Molecular Biology
○ Identifies the ​structure and function of the macromolecules​ (such as proteins and nucleic
acids) ​in organisms and compares the formation of the proteins with other organisms​ to
determine if the organisms have a common ancestor.
● Developmental biology
○ A study that ​assesses the growth​ and ​development​ from the ​embryonic stage to the stage of
maturity​.

Define:
➔ Homologous structure​ - Homologous structures refer to ​anatomical structures of different
organisms that are very similar​, however, the ​function​ of the structure is ​different​.
◆ Shows that the organisms may share a common ancestor.
● Eg. The leg of a crocodile and the arm of a human
➔ Analogous structure​ - Analogous structures occur when the ​anatomical structure is different​,
however, the ultimate​ function of the anatomical structure is very similar​.
◆ This occurs in organisms that are not necessarily closely related, however, may live in
comparable conditions, therefore, have similar adaptations.
➔ Vestigial structure​ - An ​anatomical remnant​ that was ​once important to the organisms’ ancestor​,
however, is ​no longer used the same way​.
◆ A ​structure​ in an organism that has ​lost all or most of its original function​ in the course of
evolution.
● Eg. The tailbone in humans, the appendix in humans, and the thumb bone in the fin
of a whale.
Homologous structure Analogous structure

Define:
➢ Pentadactyl limb​:​ ​PENTA​ = Five | ​DACTYL​ =
Digits
○ A pentadactyl limb is a limb that has five
digits (toes or finger). These limbs are
common examples of homologous
structures that are often compared in the
study of comparative anatomy.
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○ The limb consists of the humerus, ulna, radius, carpals, metacarpals, and the phalanges.

Suggest how the comparison of the pentadactyl limb and the embryos of different vertebrates can be
used as evidence of evolution.
● Comparative anatomy indicates that opposing organisms have a common ancestor.
● Vestigial structures suggest that evolution has occurred, by virtue that these structure in humans (for
example) may be homologous structures in opposing organisms.
○ This suggests that the organism derived from the other.
■ Eg. The tailbone in humans (which is a vestigial structure) is a homologous
structure in primates indicating that humans have evolved from primates.

Subtopic - ​“Natural Selection”

Define:
➢ Natural Selection​:​ Occurs when the ​traits of an organism are more favorable to the environment​,
thus ​making it more likely for that organism to reproduce​. These favorable traits ​increase the
chances of survival​ amongst that organisms’ gene pool as the genes are passed on. This process was
first introduced by Charles Darwin, furthermore, the process of natural selection leads to evolution.
➢ Artificial Selection​:​ Also known as ​‘selective breeding’ which is the intentional mating of organisms
to produce offspring with desirable traits​ (such as, size, taste, and color).
○ Organisms with pre-existing traits that are desired are bred or cross-pollinated with other
organisms that have similar desired traits.

Explain the process of natural selection.

ICE AGE​ [remember]
1. Inherited variation.
a. Genetic variation amongst the population (Eg. Yellow and Brown Butterflies)
2. Competition.
a. Overproduction of offspring leads to a competition to survive and competition for resources.
3. Environmental pressure.
a. Environmental pressures force organisms to adapt to better suit the environment.
4. Adaptations.
a. The organisms with the desired traits are more likely to survive.
i. These organisms have a higher fitness (reproductivity)
ii. These organisms pass their genes on
5. Genotype frequency.
a. The number of organisms that have a specific genotype amongst the population gene pool.
6. Evolution.
a. Over time, within a population, the alteration of a genetic composition leads to a change.
Biology Notes
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Justify the theory of natural selection using evidence (such as Darwin’s finches or the peppered
moths)
Due to environmental changes (in this case, the pollutants in the air), there was a directional color
change amongst the peppered moth population. This environmental pressure enabled the dark-colored
moths to camouflage better (as the trees were now much darker due to the pollution). This made them more
suited for the environment meaning that the darker genes were passed on. For this reason, both speciation
and natural selection took place considering that there was a lineage splitting amongst one population.

Describe the three types of natural selection.

1. Disruptive selection.
a. The variance of the trait increases and the population is divided into two
distinctive groups.
i. Eg. The peppered moths.
2. Stabilizing selection.
a. This type of selection favors the ‘average’ organisms. In other words, the
selection type stabilizes on a particular non-extreme trait.
b. Favors the majority of the population and selects against the extremes.
i. Eg. The size of newborn babies (average size is the best to limit complications).
3. Directional selection.
a. A force in nature that causes a population to evolve one end of a trait spectrum.
b. Caused by climate change.
i. Eg. Beak sizes in the finches.
What are factors needed to enable an organism to evolve?
➔ Variation​: There must be genetic variation amongst the population.
➔ Heredity​: These differences between the organisms must be heritable.
➔ Means of selection​: There must be a mechanism or pressure that selects some variables for the next
generations at the expense of others.

Subtopic - ​“Speciation”

Define speciation using real-life examples.

Speciation is the formation of a new and disparate species over a period of time and in the course of
evolution. Furthermore, speciation is the ​splitting of a single evolutionary lineage into two or more
genetically independent lineages​.
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Eg. The peppered moth (the white colored moth genetic lineage split into two - the darker colored
moths and the lighter colored moths).
Eg. The Galapagos finch.

Why does speciation occur?

1. Geographic isolation.
a. A geographic barrier (such as a large lake) or an unfavorable habitat between two
populations of the same species which will prevent them from interbreeding resulting in
speciation.
2. Reproductive isolation.
a. When the geographic barrier is no longer existent, and the two population ‘mix’ back
together, the differences in mating calls and sexual organs would prevent them from
interbreeding.
3. Reduction of gene flow.
a. For example, a population may extend over a broad geographic range whereby the mating
throughout the population can not be random.
b. Organisms at either end of the geographic range would have a low chance (theoretically 0%)
of breeding with one another ultimately reducing the gene flow.

Define:
● Species​ - A species is a ​group of closely related organisms​ that are ​very similar to each other​ and are
usually ​capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring​.

Do organisms have to look identical to be the same species?

Organisms within a species may ‘hybridize’, therefore, do not have to look identical to be considered
the same species.
The genotype of all sexually reproductive organisms differs due to the ‘crossing over stage’ in
meiosis.

Subtopic - ​“Meiosis”

Compare and contrast Mitosis and Meiosis.

Differences

Mitosis Meiosis

Finish: Diploid​ - results in two new nuclei each of Finish: Haploid​ - the nucleus divides into four
which containing a ​complete​ set of the parental nuclei each containing ​half​ the number of
chromosomes (the new cells each have 46 chromosomes as the original nucleus (the new cell
chromosomes - if in humans). would have 23 chromosomes - humans).

Chromosome number stays the same. Chromosome number halves.

For growth, repair and replace. Produces sexually reproductive cells (gametes or
spores).

Produces ​Genetically Identical​ cells (duplicates). Produces ​Genetically Unique​ cells due to the
‘crossing over stage’.
Biology Notes
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Asexual. Sexual.

The nucleus only undergoes one division. The nucleus undergoes two divisions.

Similarities

Both are multistage processes.

Both are a type of cell division.

Both have the same steps for the division to take place (Interphase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, and
Telophase), however, in Meiosis, this is repeated.

Outline the stages of Meiosis.

( ‘I Party Monday And Tuesday’ ) x 2
Interphase, Prophase 1, Metaphase 1, Anaphase 1, Telophase 1, Prophase 11, Metaphase 11, Anaphase 11,
Telophase 11.

● Prophase 1:
○ Crossing over takes place in this stage.
● Metaphase 1:
○ Homologous pairs of chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate. (Random assortment).
● Anaphase 1:
○ The Homologous pairs are pulled apart and move to opposite ends of the cell (by the spindle
fibres).
● Telophase 1:
○ Cytokinesis splits the cell in half and the nucleus regrows. (Two haploid cells)
● Prophase 11:
○ Nucleus dissolves.
● Metaphase 11:
○ Chromosomes line up at the metaphase plate.
● Anaphase 11:
○ Chromatids (ripped apart chromosomes) separate to opposite ends of the cell.
● Telophase 11:
○ Cytokinesis splits the cell in half once again. The nucleus regrows in each cell. Haploid.
Biology Notes
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Summarize the process of ‘crossing over’.

Crossing over is the process in which two ​chromosomes of a homologous pair exchange equal
segments of genes with one another​.
Due to this process, all sexually reproductive organisms are genetically unique.

Subtopic - ​“Ancestry”

Support the theory that all six kingdoms share a common ancestor.
Phylogenetic trees and cladistics are tools which can be utilized to determine ancestry and
relationships between organisms.
Define:
❖ Clade​ - A group of organisms that have evolved from a common ancestor.
Biology Notes
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➢ Evidence for which species are part of a clave can be obtained from the base sequences of a
gene.
■ ‘The ancestry of groups of species can be deduced by comparing the base or amino
acid sequences.

Apply knowledge of DNA and inheritance to support the theory that all six kingdoms share a common
ancestor.
Evidence can be derived from amino acid sequences in certain proteins (those that are evolutionarily
conserved/those that have remained unchanged throughout evolution).
Evidence that organisms share a common ancestor:
1. Gene conservation with humans
a. Biochemical evidence.
i. Comparing amino acid sequences.
2. Gene expression.
a. Analogous and homologous traits.

Understanding and interpreting information from cladograms and phylogenetic trees.

❏ The branch points in cladograms represent the time at which two taxa (species) split from one
another.
❏ Phylogeny = The study of evolutionary relationships.
❏ Sometimes, cladograms are referred to as phylogenetic trees.
❏ In cladograms, the characteristics appear in later organisms but not in earlier ones (when referring
to the point at which that trait arose).
Cladogram example:
Drawing phylogenetic trees.

Chapter eight: ​How are organisms adapted to survive?

Subtopic - ​“Interacting with the environment”

Define:
Adaptation​ ​- ​Adaptations are any form of ​alterations in the anatomy or function of an organism as a result of
natural selection​ in which the ​organism becomes more suited to survive and reproduce in the environment​.
★ “​Adaptations are a result of natural selection acting upon heritable variation.​”
➔ Behavioral adaptations:​ Actions organisms take to survive in their environment. This may include
hibernation, migration, mating calls, and distinctive instincts.
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➔ Physical or structural adaptations:​ Phenotypic features that have altered or developed over time to
enable the organism to better suit the environment. These changes may include the beak of a bird,
mimicry and the fur of a bear
➔ Physiological adaptations:​ A bodily process to help an organism survive in the environment.
◆ In other words, physiological adaptations are ​internal systematic responses to external
stimuli to maintain the homeostasis​ of the organism. These adaptations include organisms
who make/secrete venom or poison or plants in desert climates that have specific tissues to
absorb more water.

Why is there such a large variety of organisms found on earth?

Due to the endless niches, evolution allows organisms to diversify to fill the niches. The other reason
is due to the speciation of species - in which, a single evolutionary lineage splits into two or more genetically
distinct lineages/species - resulting in more, genetically unique organisms.

Discuss why some organisms live in large communities and others live alone.
Some organisms live alone for the reason that it is easier to find food and shelter in rough conditions
(for example, in the Savannah, Cheetahs live alone considering that it is easier to hunt and obtain food for one
organism as the availability of food would only suffice one organism). Similarly, hunting styles may benefit
one organism in comparison to a ‘community’.

On the contrary, many organisms tend to live in ‘communities’ for the following reasons:
1. “Safety in numbers”. Predators can only hunt a couple of organisms at one time (eg. a lioness and a
herd of Springbok) therefore, by being in a group, each organism is decreasing their personal odds of
being preyed on.
2. “It takes a village”. Various communities of organisms raise their young/offspring together. An
example of where this takes place is in various pods of Whale.
3. In groups, there is greater success in finding, killing or defending their prey items.
a. Wolves are actually more successful as lone hunters, however, are unable to defend their
prey, therefore, hunt in packs.
4. Easier to find mates (organisms would not have to travel vast distances/across territories to find
their mate).

Discuss how some species of plant thrive in damp conditions whilst others survive in the desert.
Distinctive adaptations have enabled plants to thrive in contrasting conditions (such as the desert
and damp conditions). These adaptations include:
a. Succulence​ (desert adaptation)
b. The surface area of the leaves​ (to manage the transpiration of water) - Desert plants have small
leaves and spines to make them more water efficient (greater volume to surface area ratio), whereas
plants in damp conditions have leaves with large surface areas to absorb more sunlight for
photosynthesis.
c. Root location​ - eg. the roots of plants within the desert either stay close to the soils’ surface to be able
to absorb rainwater before it evaporates, or the roots grow deep into the soil to be able to reach the
water table or to obtain moisture closer to the water table. (These changes/adaptations alter per
plant).
d. Often, plants in the desert have ​no - or very few - leaves​ to reduce transpiration and water loss.

Suggest how humans have adapted for survival in many conditions.

Humans normally respond to environmental stresses in three ways (Biological responses):
Biology Notes
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1. Genetic change
2. Developmental adjustments
3. Acclimatization
Due to these responses, humans are able to acclimatize to a wide range of temperatures, humidity levels as
well as altitudes.
➔ Cold adaptations:​ Extreme coldness favors short, round people that have flat faces, narrow noses (to
reduce the loss of heat through the nasal cavities) and a heavier-than-average layer of body fat. These
adaptations minimize the surface area to volume ratio to reduce the loss of heat.
➔ Heat adaptations:​ In hotter climates, the issue lies with dissipating the excess heat. The body rids
itself of the excess heat through sweating. Heat-adapted individuals would present themselves as tall
and slim/thin so that there is a maximum surface area for heat radiation. Furthermore, the
individuals have little body fat, and often have wide noses so that there is less warming of the air
through the nasal cavities. These people are usually dark-skinned due to higher Melanin levels to
shield the body from harmful solar radiation.

Subtopic - ​“Nervous system”

Define:
Stimulus​ - ​A stimulus is a ​detectable change in the external or internal environment​. A stimulus evokes a
physiological response in the cells and causes a temporary change in the physiological activity. (Examples
include; light stimuli, sound stimuli or touch).
Reflex​ - ​A reflex is an ​innate, immediate, and involuntary action in response to a stimulus without prior
conscious thought​. Likewise, they are protective, biological control systems that link a stimulus to a response.
Reflex action​ ​-​ A reflex action is a ​sudden, involuntary reaction of the body in response to the stimulus​ (eg.
pupillary responses - dilation and constriction - in response to the changes in light).
Efferent neuron​ -​ They carry impulses/information ​from the CNS to muscles and organs​ throughout the
body. In other words, these neurons tell the muscles and organs what to do.
Afferent neuron​ -​ These are also known as the ​sensory neurons​. They are pathways that carry sensory
information ​from the receptors to the CNS​.
Neurons​ - ​Specialized cells that ​transmit signals throughout the body​ (the CNS and the PNS). They form the
basis of the nervous system.
Nervous system​ - ​The nervous system is a complex ​collection of nerves and specialized cells​ (neurons) that
transmit signals through the body.
Neurotransmitter​ -​ A ​chemical​ that is ​released from a nerve cell​ that then results in the ​impulse​ to be
transmitted​ from ​one nerve cell to another nerve, muscle, organ or tissue.​ They are also known as the
messengers of neurological information from one cell to another.
Action potential​ -​ A temporary change in the electrical potential on the surface of a cell in response to
stimuli. This is the passage/transmission of an impulse along the membrane of a muscle cell or nerve cell.
Effector​ - ​ A ​muscle, gland or organ that is capable of responding to a stimulus​/nerve impulse. ​Motor neurons
transmit impulses to the effectors​ to trigger a response (eg. movement).
Interneuron​ - ​Relay neuron

Distinguish between the CNS and the PNS.

The ​CNS ​(central nervous system)​ consists of the ​Brain​ and ​Spinal cord​, whereas the ​PNS ​(peripheral
nervous system)​ ​consists of all ​nerves (cranial + spinal)​ and ​ganglia​ outside the ​Brain ​and ​Spinal cord​.
The ​CNS​ ​neurons​ are encased by the ​spinal vertebrae​ and the ​bones​ of the ​skull​, whereas the ​PNS
neurons​ travel through (or lie on top of) ​muscles​, ​organs​, and ​skin tissue​.
Biology Notes
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Differences in the function:

➔ ​CNS​: Organizes and analyses all information. Impulses travel through the brain via the spinal cord
which then enables us to observe and react to our environment or stimuli.
➔ PNS​: Follows the commands of the CNS. Neurons in the PNS gather sensory information from the
surroundings and relay it to the CNS. Once the CNS has processed the information gathered by the
PNS, the PNS responds to its commands by changing a motor output.

Outline the different parts of the peripheral nervous system.

The peripheral nervous system divides into two sections in which one of those two can be divided
into disparate sections as well.
● Somatic nervous system:​ ​(Somatic motor)​ The voluntary movement of muscles or reflex movements.
This is controlled by the skeletal muscles and consists of afferent (sensory) nerves and efferent
(motor) nerves. The somatic nervous system conducts impulses from the CNS to the Skeletal muscles.
● Autonomic nervous system:​ ​(Visceral motor)​ The involuntary regulation of bodily fluids
(unconsciously regulating bodily actions). The autonomic nervous system conducts impulses from
the CNS to cardiac muscles, smooth muscles or glands.
○ Sympathetic division:​ Mobilizes body systems during activity (eg. Fight or Flight).
Accelerates the heart rate, constricts blood vessels and raises blood pressure.
○ Parasympathetic division:​ Conserves energy and promotes ‘housekeeping’ functions during
rest. Slows the heart rate, increases intestinal and gland activity furthermore, relaxes
sphincter muscles.

Draw and label a sensory neuron, relay neuron, and a motor neuron.

Outline the functions of the following:

I. Dendrites​: Receives signals from
other neurons or from sensory receptor
cells. They conduct electrical messages to
the neuron cell body for the cell to
function.
II. Axon​: Long, slender fibers that are
responsible for the carrying of nerve
impulses (also known as action potentials)
away from the cell body towards the axon
terminal (end of the neuron).
III. Myelin sheath​: Most axons are
encompassed by myelin sheaths (apart
from relay neurons). Myelin sheaths
insulate the axon enabling the electrical impulses to travel at a faster rate. In simple terms: they
speed up the transmission of the impulses.
IV. Axon terminal​: The end of the neuron. They connect neurons to other neurons or directly to organs,
by utilizing a process known as synaptic transmission.
V. The node of Ranvier​: A periodic gap in the insulating myelin sheath to facilitate the rapid conduction
of nerve impulses.
Biology Notes
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Outline the difference between sensory, relay and motor neurons.

➔ Sensory neuron​:​ ​Found in receptors​ (such as the eyes, ears, tongue, and skin). Furthermore, they
carry nerve impulses to the spinal cord and brain (the CNS)​. Sensory neurons convert external
stimuli from the environment to internal electrical stimuli.
➔ Relay neuron​:​ ​Found between sensory inputs and motor outputs​, furthermore, are found in the
brain and spinal cord​ allowing sensory and motor neurons to communicate with one another.
➔ Motor neuron​:​ Motor neurons ​transmit impulses away from the CNS to the effectors​, moreover,
control the muscle movements. When they are stimulated, they release neurotransmitters that
connect to the receptors on the muscles (effectors) to trigger a response, ultimately leading to a
movement.

Describe what is meant by a ‘reflex arc’.

A reflex arc can be defined as a ​natural pathway
that controls a reflex​. This pathway occurs when sensory
neurons pass information to the CNS which then transmits
the impulse to a motor neuron.

Analyze why reflexes are useful to us.

Reflexes ​minimize the damage from any
potentially harmful conditions​ (for example, touching
something that is burning).

Explain how a synapse functions.

When a nerve signal reaches the end of the neuron
(axon terminal), it must trigger the release of
neurotransmitters into the synapse ​(the gap between one neuron and another)​ in order to send the impulse
across to the next neuron. This is known as synapses.
● In the presynaptic neuron, a chemical messenger is released into the synapse.
● The chemical messenger quickly diffuses in the synapse ​(because the gap is only about 20 nanometers
wide, thus does not take long).
● The neurotransmitters bind with a receptor molecule on the membrane of the postsynaptic neuron.
● As the neurotransmitter binds to the receptor, it stimulates a new nerve impulse in the postsynaptic
neuron.
● In the final step, the chemical messenger gets reabsorbed back into the presynaptic neuron to be
reused. Then, the levels of the neurotransmitter in the synapse decrease and stimulate the
postsynaptic nerve ends.

What causes the release of adrenaline?

Adrenaline is released due to the ​sympathetic division in the autonomic nervous system​ for the ‘fight
or flight’ response. Adrenaline is a hormone that is secreted by the adrenal glands due to strong emotions that
result in an increased heart rate, raised blood pressure, enhanced muscle strength, as well as increased sugar
metabolism.

Subtopic - ​“Adapting to stimuli”

Identify different types of stimuli that cause a response.

Biology Notes
Chapters 1 - 11
The five different stimuli are:
● Chemicals​ (chemoreceptors respond to this stimulus)
● Temperature​ (thermoreceptors respond to this stimulus)
● Pressure​ (mechanoreceptors respond to this stimulus)
● Light​ (photoreceptors respond to this stimulus)
● Pain ​(nociceptors respond to this stimulus)
1. Touch
2. Sight
3. Smell
4. Sound

State the different types of receptors and state where they are located.
● Chemoreceptors​: Detect the presence of chemicals.
○ They are located in the respiratory center at the base of the brain.
○ Chemoreceptors monitor the levels of carbon dioxide and oxygen by detecting changes in the
pH levels of the cerebral spinal fluid.
● Thermoreceptors​: Detect changes in the temperature.
○ They are located in the dermis (skin), skeletal muscles, liver, and the hypothalamus (a small
region in the brain).
○ Thermoreceptors have very few nerve endings.
● Mechanoreceptors​: Detect mechanical forces (such as pressure or vibrations).
○ These detectable changes can be a result of physical interactions.
○ Mechanoreceptors are located in the skin.
● Photoreceptors​: Detect light during vision.
○ They are located in the cells in the retina that are responsible to respond to light sources.
● Nociceptors/pain receptors​: Stimulated by tissue damage.

Define:
➔ Tropism​:​ A ​turning direction of growth​ of an organism (tropism most commonly occurs in plants) in
response to an external stimulus​. This movement of growth can be towards (positive) or away
(negative) from the stimulus.
There are six different types of tropism however, the three main ones are:
◆ Phototropism:​ When organisms (normally plants) grow in a directional manner in response
to a light source. The two types of phototropism are:
● Positive phototropism​ - growth towards the light source
● Negative phototropism​ - growth away from a light source (Eg. plant roots grow away
from the light source).
○ Auxin​: Auxins are hormones that promote the elongation of the stem and
they inhibit the growth of lateral buds.
○ Auxins help plants grow by stimulating the plant cells to elongate.
◆ Gravitropism/geotropism​: The movement or direction of growth of a plant in response to
gravity.
● Positive gravitropism​ - Grow in the direction of gravity/the earth. (Eg. plant roots)
● Negative gravitropism​ - Grow in the opposite direction of gravity/the earth. (Eg. The
shoot of a plant grows away from the earth)
◆ Thigmotropism:​ ​ The directional response of a plant organ to touch or physical contact with
a solid object.
● Positive thigmotropism​ - Grow towards touch (Eg. vines and the venus fly trap plant)
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● Negative thigmotropism​ - Grow in the opposite direction of a touch
◆ Chemotropism​: In response to chemicals such as fertilizers.
◆ Hydrotropism​: In response to water
◆ Thermotropism:​ In response to the temperature/heat
◆ Heliotropism​: Heliotropism is a growing movement in plants that is induced by sunlight.
(Eg. Sunflowers move in the direction towards the sunlight)
➔ Receptor​:​ A receptor is a ​specialized cell or group of nerve endings​ that ​respond to sensory stimuli​.
◆ A receptor is a protein which binds to a specific molecule ​(ligand)​ which receives the
chemical signals from outside the cell. When those signals bind to the receptors, they evoke a
cellular or tissue response.
Distinguish between biotic and abiotic factors that affect organisms.
❖ Abiotic​ - Abiotic factors refer to all non-living prospects of a given environment that can have
colossal impacts on the organisms within the environment.
➢ Examples of Abiotic factors include water, sunlight, oxygen concentration, carbon dioxide
concentration, soil, and temperature.
❖ Biotic​ - Biotic factors refer to all living things within the ecosystem (such as plants and animals).
➢ Biotic factors interact with one another. These interactions can be broken down into three
components.
■ Producers​: Plants are producers. Producers are organisms that are autotrophic -
meaning that they make their own food from inorganic molecules through the
process of photosynthesis.
■ Consumers​: The majority of the animals are consumers. Consumers eat producers
and/or other animals. They may also eat decomposers. In other words, they are
heterotrophic and do not produce their own food and rely on other organisms for
their energy.
■ Decomposers​: Decomposers are organisms that break down dead material and then
return the nutrients to the soil in which they are then re-used by the producers as
they photosynthesize.

Chapter nine:​ How do species interact?

Subtopic - ​“Ecosystems”

Outline Robert Paine’s experiment.

In the 1960s, Robert Paine conducted an experiment to determine the effects the removal of the ‘top
predator’ would have on an ecosystem. He assessed if this process would result in an ecosystem that was
more stable and healthy, or if the removal of the top predator would result in catastrophic consequences,
moreover, make the ecosystem less stable.
● In this case, he removed the Pisaster ochraceus - the top predator - from one ecosystem and kept
another untouched as a control.
● He observed the new and old ecosystems for ten years.
● The end result - Unstable and unhealthy ecosystem subsequent to the removal of the top predator.
(The number of species decreased in incremental numbers annually).

Discuss the impact of removing the top predator from an ecosystem [e.g. Pisaster ochraceus starfish].
What happens:
1. Population Explosion.
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a.
There is an instantaneous population ‘explosion’ (increase in the prey species as there is no
predator to hunt them).
i. This is only temporary, by virtue that predators are crucial to maintaining the
herbivorous population (and vice-versa - herbivores are crucial to maintaining the
carnivorous population). If there is a shortage in the number of prey, the population
of the predators will decrease until there is a sufficient number or abundance in the
prey species (and vice-versa). Withall, the two species always balance one another
out.
2. Trophic cascade.
a. If the herbivorous population increases, there will not be enough food to sustain them. They
will continue to consume plants which will put pressure on the plants to the point of
preventing the plant reproduction and leading to the destruction of the habitat. The
herbivorous species are no longer just the ‘primary consumers’ but are now on the top of the
food chain.
3. Behavioral changes.
a. The prey will change their eating habits as there are no predators to be wary about.
i. For example, Elks will continuously feed in one area as they do not have to fear
being hunted. This means that they will feed down to the roots.

Define:
➔ Producer​ - A producer is an ​autotrophic organism that produces complex compounds from
inorganic molecules​ through the process of ​photosynthesis​.
◆ In other words, organisms that produce their own energy and do not rely on other
organisms for the energy they obtain.
➔ Trophic level​ - Trophic levels refer to the ​position​ that an ​organism occupies in a food chain​.
◆ These are also known as the feeding levels such as, ‘producers’, ‘primary consumers’ and so
on.
➔ Niche​ - A niche is a ​functional role of a species within an ecosystem​.
◆ A niche includes the physical environment which the organism has adapted to and the role
as producers and consumers of food sources.
● For example, an ecological niche could be preying on other organisms within an
ecosystem to maintaining the balance in the populations.
➔ Consumer​ - A consumer is a ​heterotrophic organism that obtains food and energy by feeding on
other organisms​ or organic matter as they are not able to provide themselves with energy.
➔ Omnivore​ - An organism that ​feeds on​ both ​other organisms​ (meat) and ​plants​ to obtain sufficient
amounts of energy.
➔ Decomposer​ - A decomposer is an organism who feeds on and ​breaks down dead organisms/organic
matter​, ultimately ​recycling the nutrients​ it breaks down and ​returning them to the soil​ which plants
then reuse for photosynthesis.
➔ Saprotroph​ - A saprotroph is an organism that ​absorbs soluble organic nutrients from inanimate
sources​ (dead plants, animals, or dung). Saprotrophs live on or in non-living organic matter and
secrete digestive enzymes to be able to absorb the soluble organic nutrients.
➔ Detritivore​ - A detritivore ​consumes decaying organisms​ or matter/organic waste.
➔ Food chain​ - A ​feeding hierarchy​ in which organisms within an ecosystem are grouped into trophic
levels.
◆ Food chains represent the flow of energy from one organism to the next and highlight the
feeding relationships.
● An example of a food chain is, Oaktree -> Woodmouse -> Weasel -> Owl
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➔ Food web​ - A graphical model that shows the ​interconnecting of various food chains​ in an ecological
community.
◆ Food webs can be defined as food chains that are linked together.

Distinguish between photosynthesis and chemosynthesis.

Photosynthesis:​ The process by which ​autotrophic organisms transform energy from the sun into
chemical energy​ (Glucose, Oxygen, and energy).
Chemosynthesis​: The process by which certain organisms (normally bacteria) extract inorganic
compounds from their environment and convert them into organic nutrient compounds without the presence
of sunlight.
Differences:

Photosynthesis Chemosynthesis

Requires light energy (sufficient light is a necessity) Occurs in complete darkness on the seafloor

Occurs in plants and some bacteria Use of energy is released by inorganic chemical
reactions

The products are, Oxygen and Glucose The products are, Sulfur, Sugar, and Water

Does not require oxygen Requires oxygen

Carbon dioxide + water -> (In the presence of Requires hydrothermal vents to be able to
chlorophyll and sunlight) Glucose + Oxygen synthesize (vent bacteria oxidize hydrogen sulfide)

Carbon dioxide + Hydrogen sulfide + Oxygen ->

Sugar + Sulfur + Water

Similarities:

In both chemosynthesis and photosynthesis, Carbon Dioxide is required as a reactant.

Both synthesis reactions take place in autotrophic organisms.

In both chemosynthesis and photosynthesis, sugar is a product that is formed.

Describe energy flow through a food chain.

Energy is passed​ through an
ecosystem from ​one trophic level to
the next​ (from primary producers to
the Apex predators), however, only
10% of the energy is transferred from
one organism to the next​.
The ​energy is lost between
the trophic levels in the form of heat
through cellular respiration, excretion
of faeces, tissue loss, as well as death​.
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Subtopic - ​“Species interactions”

Define:
➔ Commensalism​ ​- In commensalism, ​one organism/species benefits​ in which the ​other
species/organism ​is neither harmed nor benefited​.
◆ Eg. When birds use tree branches for roosting sites. The birds are benefited whereas the
trees are neither harmed nor benefited.
➔ Parasitism​ ​- Parasitism is a type of predation in which ​the parasite (the predator) lives off another
organism and feeds on the host directly harming it​. The parasite directly benefits from this
interaction whereas the host is immediately harmed.
◆ Eg. When ticks suck blood from a deer. The ticks are the parasite and the deer is the host.
➔ Competition​ ​- Competition occurs when two ​organisms struggle for the same resources within an
environment​.
◆ Int​ra​specific​ competition: Amongst organism of the ​same species​.
◆ Int​er​specific​ competition: Amongst organisms of ​different species​.
● Intraspecific competition is more significant and intense as it affects only one
species rather than two distinctive species. For this reason, more organisms from
the species would be affected.
➔ Mutualism​ ​- Mutualism is a symbiotic association in which ​both organisms benefit​ from the
interaction.
◆ Eg. Clownfish and sea anemone.
➔ Symbiosis​ ​- Symbiosis is the interaction when two or more species that live together in a close,
long-term association in which the ​organisms co-exist​, therefore, the benefits flow both ways.
◆ Eg. Springbok and Elands or Wildebeest.
➔ Predation​ - An interaction in which ​one organism feeds on another organism​. This interaction
directly benefits the predator and directly harms the prey.
◆ Eg. A Canadian Lynx predating on a Snowshoe Hare.

Subtopic - ​“Keystone species”

Define:
➔ Keystone species​:​ A species whose importance in an ecosystem’s structure, composition, and
function is disproportionately large in comparison to their abundance.
◆ Its role in the community is far greater and more important than the number of organisms of
that species within the community. In other words, they have a crucial role in the community
despite the low number of organisms of that specific species.
● Eg. Beavers, otters, and starfish
○ Very few of these organisms, however, they are vital for maintaining the
structure, function, and composition of the ecosystem.

Suggest the impact of removing keystone species from the environment would have on the
community.
As seen in Robert Paine’s experiment, the removal of the Keystone species (which was also the top
predator of the community) had colossal impacts on the structure, composition, and the balance of the
ecosystem.
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