Unit 5

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BACHELOR OF SCIENCE (PCM)

PHB-1111 Mechanics and Wave Motion

Block 2: Rotational Mechanics

Unit 5: Angular Momentum and Torque

Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Angular Momentum
5.2.1 Orbital Angular Momentum
5.2.2 Conservation of Angular Momentum
5.3 Torque
5.4 Let Us Sum Up
5.5 Glossary
5.6 Questions
5.7 Suggested Readings

5.0 Objectives
Angular momentum and torque are pivotal concepts in the study of rotational dynamics, offering profound
insights into the behavior of rotating objects. Angular momentum, a product of an object's moment of
inertia and angular velocity, encapsulates the essence of rotational motion quantitatively. It stands as a
crucial conserved quantity in isolated systems, underscoring the stability of celestial bodies and the
persistence of gyroscopic motion. Torque, the rotational analog of force, instigates and regulates rotational
movement by acting on an object's moment of inertia, instigating alterations in angular momentum. Torque
governs the rate of angular acceleration, exerting dynamic control over mechanical systems and facilitating
precise manipulation across diverse fields, from machinery design to robotics. Together, the conservation
principles of angular momentum and the dynamic influence of torque form the foundation for
comprehending and predicting the intricate behaviors observed in rotating systems, spanning scientific,
engineering, and celestial realms.

5.1 Introduction
Angular momentum and torque are fundamental concepts in the realm of rotational motion, shedding light
on the dynamics and behavior of objects undergoing rotation. Angular momentum represents the rotational
analog of linear momentum, quantifying the rotational motion of an object by considering its moment of
inertia and angular velocity. It serves as a crucial parameter in understanding stability, conservation laws,
and complex motions in systems ranging from celestial bodies to spinning tops. On the other hand, torque,
analogous to force in linear motion, is the pivotal factor responsible for inducing, altering, or controlling
the rotational motion of an object. It is the product of a force applied at a distance from the axis of rotation,
influencing the rate of change in angular momentum and governing the dynamics of rotating systems.
Together, angular momentum and torque form the cornerstone of rotational mechanics, providing the
framework to analyze, predict, and manipulate the behavior of objects undergoing rotational motion across
various scientific, engineering, and physical domains.

5.2 Angular Momentum


Angular momentum is angular analogues of momentum. The angular momentum is defined
L=r×p
Where p is the ordinary kinetic momentum of the mass and r be the radial distance with respect to some
reference point.
The angular momentum is zero if the motion of the object is directly towards or away from the origin, or if
it is located at the origin.
We can write above equation as

The rotational analogue of linear momentum in physics is known as angular momentum (also known as
moment of momentum or rotational momentum). Since the total angular momentum of a closed system
never changes, it is a conserved quantity, making it a significant physical quantity. Both the direction and
the amplitude of angular momentum are conserved. Angular momentum conservation gives valuable
qualities to rifled bullets, gyroscopes, flying discs, bicycles, and motorcycles. Neutron stars rotate at rapid
rates and hurricanes create spirals because of conservation of angular momentum. Conservation generally
restricts a system's potential motion but does not dictate it exclusively.
The total angular momentum of every composite system is equal to the sum of the angular momenta of its
component elements. Angular momentum is an extensive quantity. The volume integral of angular
momentum density, or angular momentum per unit volume in the limit as
volume shrinks to zero, over the whole body determines the total angular momentum of a continuous rigid
body or fluid.
Angular momentum has unit kg-m2/s2, it is a vector quantity and its direction is given by right hand rule as
shown is above figure.

5.2.1 Orbital Angular Momentum


Similar to angular velocity, there are two distinct forms of an object's angular momentum: orbital angular
momentum is the angular momentum at a selected center of rotation, whereas spin angular momentum is
the angular momentum about the object's center of mass. Due to its daily rotation around the polar axis, the
Earth possesses a spin angular momentum in addition to its orbital angular momentum from its rotation
around the Sun. The product of the orbital and spin angular momenta is the total angular momentum. Since
angular momentum is transferred between the planets and the Sun to a little but significant degree, the total
angular momentum of the solar system is the fundamental preserved quantity in the case of the Earth. A
point particle's orbital angular momentum vector is always parallel to and directly proportional to its orbital
angular velocity vector (ω), with the proportionality constant being dependent on the particle's mass and
distance from the origin. The constant of proportionality is not a scalar, but rather a second-rank tensor
since the spin angular momentum vector of a rigid body is proportional, albeit not always parallel, to the
spin angular velocity vector Ω.
Angular momentum is a vector quantity (more precisely, a pseudovector) that represents the product of a
body's rotational inertia and rotational velocity (in radians/sec) about a particular axis. However, if the
particle's trajectory lies in a single plane, it is sufficient to discard the vector nature of angular momentum,
and treat it as a scalar (more precisely, a pseudoscalar). Angular momentum can be considered a rotational
analog of linear momentum. Thus, where linear momentum p is proportional to mass m and linear speed v,

Angular momentum L is proportional to moment of inertia I and angular speed ω measured in radians per
second.

Unlike mass, which depends only on amount of matter, moment of inertia depends also on the position of
the axis of rotation and the distribution of the matter. Unlike linear velocity, which does not depend upon
the choice of origin, orbital angular velocity is always measured with respect to a fixed origin. Therefore,
strictly speaking, L should be referred to as the angular momentum relative to that center.
In the case of circular motion of a single particle, we can use

Thus,

The product of the radius of rotation r and the linear momentum of the particle 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣,
Where, 𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔 is the linear (tangential) speed.
This simple analysis can also apply to non-circular motion if one uses the component of the motion
perpendicular to the radius vector,

Where, is the perpendicular component of the motion. The angular momentum can also be
expressed as

Where, is the length of the moment arm, a line dropped perpendicularly from the origin
onto the path of the particle. It is this definition, (length of moment arm) × (linear momentum), to which
the term moment of momentum refers.

5.2.2 Conservation of Angular Momentum


The conservation of angular momentum is a fundamental principle in physics that states that the total
angular momentum of a system remains constant in the absence of external torques. In other words, if no
external forces or torques act on a system, the total angular momentum of that system remains unchanged
over time, regardless of any internal changes.
Mathematically, this principle can be expressed as L(initial) = L(final), where L represents the total angular
momentum of the system. This conservation law arises from the rotational analog of Newton's first law of
motion, which states that an object in motion tends to stay in motion unless acted upon by an external
force.

Torque determines the rate of change of angular momentum, taking time derivative of angular momentum,
we have

Or

The first term vanishes as (dr/dt) × p = v × mv = 0, because the cross product of parallel vectors is zero.
Also, dp/dt = F, from Newton’s law, therefore

Thus, if there is a torque on a system there must be an angular momentum on the system. If 𝜏 = 0 then

L=constant

5.3 Torque
A new number, torque τ, is introduced to the dynamics of rotational motion. Its function in rotational
motion is like that of force in linear motion. When force F acts on a particle at location r, the torque
resulting from that force is defined as

We can solve above vector product as

The unit of torque is N-m. It is vector quantity which is directed to the plane containing radius vector and
force.
The direction of torque is perpendicular to both the force applied and the lever arm (the distance between
the axis of rotation and the point where the force is applied). If you are considering a scenario where you
are trying to rotate an object about an axis, imagine using a wrench to tighten a bolt. When you apply force
using the wrench at a certain distance from the bolt (lever arm), the torque generated is perpendicular to
both the direction of the force you are applying and the lever arm. The direction of this torque can be
determined using the right-hand rule.
Imagine pointing your fingers in the direction of the applied force and then curling them in the direction of
the lever arm. The direction your thumb points represents the direction of the torque. This rule follows the
convention of a vector cross product.
So, the direction of torque follows a perpendicular orientation to both the force being applied and the lever
arm's direction, as indicated by the right-hand rule.

5.4 Let Us Sum Up


Angular momentum and torque are fundamental concepts in the realm of rotational dynamics, each playing
a crucial role in understanding and predicting the behavior of rotating objects and systems. Angular
momentum represents the rotational equivalent of linear momentum. It is the product of an object's
moment of inertia and its angular velocity.
In the absence of external torques, angular momentum is conserved. This principle provides insights into
stability, celestial mechanics, and gyroscopic motion. Angular momentum quantifies the rotational motion
of an object and depends on its mass distribution around an axis of rotation.
Applications: Used extensively in celestial mechanics, gyroscopic systems, and understanding rotational
dynamics in various scientific, engineering, and physical contexts.
Torque is the rotational counterpart of force in linear motion. It is the product of a force applied at a
distance from the axis of rotation (lever arm). Torque induces, controls, or alters rotational motion by
affecting the rate of change in angular momentum.
Essential in designing machinery, controlling robotic systems, analyzing stability in structures, and various
engineering and physical applications involving rotational forces.
Together, angular momentum and torque form the core principles of rotational mechanics, enabling the
understanding, analysis, and manipulation of rotational motion in a wide array of scientific, engineering,
and physical contexts. Their interplay elucidates the complexities of rotating systems and provides the
framework for innovation and technological advancements.

5.5 Glossary
Angular Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration: Like linear motion, rotational motion involves
angular measures. Angular displacement describes the change in angle of a rotating object, while angular
velocity refers to the rate of change of angular displacement, and angular acceleration describes how
quickly angular velocity changes over time.
Torque: Torque is the rotational equivalent of force. It causes an object to rotate around an axis and
depends on both the force applied and the distance from the axis of rotation. Mathematically, torque is the
product of force and the lever arm (the perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation to the line of action
of the force).
Angular Momentum: Just as linear momentum is the product of mass and linear velocity; angular
momentum is the product of moment of inertia (a measure of an object's resistance to changes in its
rotational motion) and angular velocity. According to the conservation of angular momentum, in the
absence of external torques, the total angular momentum of a system remains constant.

5.6 Questions
Question 1: An object of mass 5 kg is attached to a rod that is 1.5 meters long. A force of 10 N is applied
perpendicular to the rod at a distance of 0.5 meters from the pivot point. Calculate the torque produced by
this force.
Solution 1:
Torque (τ) = Force (F) × Lever Arm (r)
Given: Force (F) = 10 N, Lever Arm (r) = 0.5 m
Torque (τ) = 10 N × 0.5 m = 5 Nm
Therefore, the torque produced by the force is 5 Newton-meters (Nm).
Question 2: Angular Momentum Calculation
A bicycle wheel has a radius of 0.3 meters and is rotating at 120 revolutions per minute (rpm). If the wheel
has a mass of 2 kg, calculate its angular momentum.
Solution 2:
Angular momentum (L) = Moment of inertia (I) × Angular velocity (ω) Given: Radius (r) = 0.3 m, Mass
(m) = 2 kg, Angular velocity (ω) = 120 rpm
First, convert angular velocity from rpm to radians per second:
Angular velocity (ω) = 120 rpm × (2π radians / 1 revolution) × (1 minute / 60 seconds) ω = 4π
radians/second
Next, calculate the moment of inertia for a solid disk:
Moment of inertia (I) = (1/2) × mass × radius^2
I = (1/2) × 2 kg × (0.3 m)^2
I = 0.09 kgm²
Now, calculate angular momentum:
Angular momentum (L) = Moment of inertia (I) × Angular velocity (ω)
L = 0.09 kgm² × 4π radians/second ≈ 1.13 kgm²/s
Therefore, the angular momentum of the bicycle wheel is approximately 1.13-kilogram meters squared per
second (kgm²/s).

5.7 Suggested Readings

1. J.C. Upadhyay: ‘Mechanics’. Ram Prasad Publications, Agra.


2. D.S, Mathur “Mechanics”. S Chand Publication, New Delhi.
3. D. Kleppner and R. Kolenkow, An Introduction to Mechanics, TMH

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