27

U h Ah 100W / m 2 .K  40m 2
NTU   2.67
Cmin 1500W / K

 1  
Calculating heat effectiveness using   1  exp     
 NTU 0.22 exp  Cr  NTU 0.78  1  gives ε =
 Cr  
0.845

qmax  Cmin Th,i  Tc ,i  = 1500 W/K (250 – 35)oC = 3.23 × 105 W

From the definition of ε, the actual heat transfer rate is

q = εqmax = 0.845 × 3.23 × 105 W = 2.73 × 105 W

It is now a simple matter to determine the outlet temperatures from the overall energy balances from
equation 7b

q 2.73  10 5 W
Th , o  Th , i  
 250 o C   68 o C
m h c p,h 1500W / K

And from equation 8b

q 2.73  105W
Tc , o  
 Tc ,i   35o C  100.04 K
mc c p , c 4197W / K

BOILING AND CONDENSATION

Boiling and condensation are processes that can occur at a solid –liquid interface. The latent heat
effect associated with the phase change is significant. The change of state from liquid to vapor state
due to boiling is sustained by heat transfer from the solid surface; conversely, condensation of a vapor
to the liquid state results in heat transfer to the solid surfaces
 28

Since they involve fluid motion, boiling and condensation are classified as forms of the convection
mode of heat transfer. However, they are characterized by unique features. Because there is a phase
change, heat transfer to or from the fluid can occur without influencing the fluid temperature. In fact
through boiling or condensation, large heat transfer rates may be achieved with small temperature
differences. In addition to the lantent heat hfg, two other parameters are important in characterizing
the processes, namely, the surface tension σ between the liquid-vapor interface and the density
difference between the two phases. This difference induces buoyancy force which is proportional to
g(ρl –ρv). Because of combined latent heat transfer buoyancy driven flow effects, boiling and
condensation heat transfer coefficients and rate are generally much larger than those characteristic
of convection heat transfer without phase change.

Many engineering problems involve boiling and condensation. For example, both processes are
essential to all closed-loop power and refrigeration cycle. In a power cycle, pressurized liquid is
converted to vapor in a boiler. After expansion in a turbine, the vapor is restored to its liquid state in
a condenser, whereupon it is pumped to the boiler to repeat the cycle. Evaporators, in which the
boiling process occurs, and condensers are also essential components in vapor-compression
refrigeration cycles. The rational design of such components dictates that the associated phase
change processes be well understood.

DIMENSIONLESS PARAMETERS IN BOILING AND CONDENSATION

Since it is difficult to develop governing equations for boiling and condensation processes, it is easier
to obtain the appropriate dimensionless parameters by using the Buckingham pi theorem. For either
process, the convection coefficient could depend on the difference between the surface and
saturation temperatures ΔT = |Ts – Tsat|, the body force arising from the liquid-vapor density
difference g(ρl – ρv), the latent heat hfg, the surface tension σ, a characteristic length L, and the
thermophysical properties of the liquid or vapor: ρ, cp, k, μ. That is,


h  h T , g  l   v , h fg ,  , L,  , c p , k ,   (1)

Since there are 10 variables in 5 dimensions (m, kg, s, J, K), there will be (10 – 5) = 5 pi-groups which
can be expressed in the following forms.

hL  g  l   v L3 c p T c p  g  l   v L2 
 f , , ,  (2a)
k  2 h fg k  

L
 29

or defining the dimensionless groups,

 g  l   v L3 
Nu L  f  2
, Ja, Pr, Bo  (2b)
  

Nusselt are Prandtl numbers are familiar from single phase convection analyses. The new
dimensionless parameters are the Jakob number Ja, the Bond number Bo and a nameless parameter
that bears a strong resemblance to the Grashof number. This nameless parameter represents the
effect of buoyancy –induced fluid motion on heat transfer. The Jacobs number is the ratio of the
maximum sensible energy absorbed by the liquid (vapor) to the latent energy absorbed by the liquid
(vapor) during condensation (boiling). In many applications, the sensible energy is much less then the
latent energy and Ja has a small numerical surface tension force.

BOILING MODES

When evaporation occurs at a solid-liquid interface, it is termed boiling. The process occur when the
temperature of the surface Ts exceeds the saturation temperature Tsat corresponding to the liquid
pressure. Heat is transferred from the solid surface to the liquid, and the appropriate form of
Newton’s law of cooling is

q s"  hTs  Tsat   hTe (3)

Where T  Ts  Tsat is termed the excess temperature. The process is characterized by the
formation of vapor bubbles, which grow and subsequently detach from surface. Vapor bubbles
growth dynamics depend, in a complicated manner, on the excess temperature, the nature of the
surface and thermophysical properties of the fluid, such as its surface tension. In turn, the dynamics
of vapor bubble formation affect fluid motion near the surface and therefore strongly influence the
heat transfer coefficient.

Boiling may occur under various conditions. For example, in pool boiling the liquid is quiescent and its
motion near the surface is due to free convection and to mixing induced by bubble growth
detachment. In contrast, for forced convection boiling, fluid motion is induced by external means as
well as by free convection and bubble induced mixing. Boiling may also be classified according to
 30

whether it is subcooled or saturated. In subcooled boiling, the temperature of the liquid is below the
saturation temperature and bubbles formed at the surface may condense in the liquid. In contrast,
the temperature of the liquid slightly exceeds the saturation temperature slightly exceeds the
saturation temperature in saturated boiling. Bubbles formed at the surface are then propelled
through the liquid by buoyancy forces, eventually escaping from the free surface.

POOL BOILING

Saturated pool boiling as shown in Figure 1 has been studied extensively. Although there is a sharp decline
in the liquid temperature close to the solid surface the temperature throughout most of the liquid remains
slightly above saturation. Bubbles generated at the liquid-solid interface therefore rise to and are
transported across the liquid-vapor interface. An appreciation for the underlying physical mechanisms
may be obtained by examining the boiling curve.

Vapor y

liquid
T(y)

T
Solid Tsat Ts

Figure 1 Temperature distribution in saturated pool boiling with a liquid vapor interface

The Boiling Curve

Nukiyama was the first to identify different regimes of pool boiling using the apparatus of Figure 2 the
heat flux from the horizontal nichrome wire to saturated water was determined by measuring the current
flow I and potential drop E. The wire temperature was determined from the knowledge of the manner in
which its electrical resistance varied with temperature. This arrangement is referred to as power
 31

controlled heating, wherein the wire temperature Ts (hence the excess temperature ΔTe) is the dependent
variable and the power setting (hence the flux qs”) is the independent variable.

Wire,

I
E

Figure 2: Nukiyama’s power-controlled heating apparatus for demonstrating the boiling

curve

Following the arrows of the heating curve of Figure 3 it is evident that as power is applied, the heat flux
increases, at first slowly and then very rapidly, with excess temperature.

Nukiyama observed that boiling, as evidenced by the presence of bubbles did not begin until ΔTe ≈ 5oC.
With further increase in power, the heat flux increased to very high levels until suddenly, for a value
slightly larger than qmax”, the wire temperature jumped to the melting point and burnout occurred.
However, repeating the experiment with a platinun wire having a higher melting point (2045 K vs 1500 K),
Nukiyama was able to maintain heat fluxes

Heating curve with

nichrome and platinum
106 qmax
0 Burnout of
Absent in power
nichrome wire
qs" (W/m2)

control mode

qmin

0 1 5 10 30 100 1000

ΔTe (oC)

Fig. 3: Nukiyama’s boiling curve for saturated water

 32

Above the maximum value q”max without burnout. When he subsequently reduced the power, the
variation of ΔTe with q”s followed the cooling curve of Figure 3. When the heat flux reached a maximum
point q”max a further decrease in power caused the excess temperature to abruptly drop, and the process
followed the original heating curve back to the saturation point.

Nukiyama believed that the hysteresis effect of Figure 3 was consequence of the power-controlled
method of heating, where ΔTe is a dependent variable. He also believed that by using a heating process
permitting the independent control of ΔTe, the missing (dashed) portion of the curve could be obtained.
His conjecture was subsequently confirmed by Drew and Mueller. By condensing steam inside a tube at
different pressure, they were able to control the value of ΔTe for boiling of a low boiling point organic fluid
at the tube outer surface and thereby obtain the missing portion of the boiling curve.

Modes of Pool Boiling

An appreciation for the underlying physical mechanisms may be obtained by examining the different
modes, or regimes of pool boiling. These regimes are identified in the boiling curve of Figure 4. The specific
curve pertains to water at 1 atm, although similar trends characterize the behavior of other fluids.

Free convection Nucleate Boiling regimes transition Film

105

q”max C, Critical heat flux

107
P

B
106
From Equation 3 we note that qs” depends on the convection coefficient h, as well as on the excess
temperature
q”min ΔTe. Different boiling regimens may be delineated according to the value of ΔTe.
A D, Leidenfrost point
104
ONB
ΔTe,A ΔTe,B ΔTe,C ΔTe,D
103
1 5 10 30 120 1000

ΔTe, = TS - Tsat
Fig 4: Typical boiling curve for water at 1 atm: surface heat flux qs” as a function of excess temp
 33

Free Convection Boiling: Free convection boiling is said to exist if ΔTe ≤ ΔTe,A, where ΔTe,A ≈ 5oC. In this
regime there is insufficient vapor in contact with the liquid phase to cause boiling at the saturation
temperature. As the excess temperature is increased, bubble inception will eventually occur, but below
point A (referred to as the onset of nucleate boiling, ONB), fluid motion is determined principally by free
convection effects. According to whether the flow is laminar or turbulent, h varies as ΔTe to the ¼ or 1/3
power, respectively, in which case qs” varies as ΔTe to the 5/4 or 4/3 power.

Nucleate Boiling: Nucleate boiling exists in the range ΔTe,A ≤ ΔTe ≤ ΔTe,C, where ΔTe,C ≤ 30oC. In this range
two different flow regimes may be distinguished. In region A-B, isolated bubbles form at nucleateion sites
and separate from the surface, as illustrated in Figure 2 This separation induces considerable fluid mixing
near the surface, substantially increasing h and qs”. In this regime most of the heat exchange is through
direct transfer from the surface to liquid in motion at the surface, and noth through the vapor bubbles
rising from the surface. As ΔTe is increased beyond ΔTe,B, more nucleation sites become active and
increased bubble formation causes bubble interference and coalescence. In the region B-C, the vapor
escapes as jets or columns, which subsequently merge into slugs of vapor. Interference between the
densely populated bubbles inhibits the motion of liquid near the surface. Point P of Figure 4 corresponds
to an inflection point in the boiling curve at which heat transfer coefficient is maximum. At this point h
begins to decrease with increasing ΔTe, although qs”, which is the product of h and ΔTe, continues to
increase. This trend results because, for ΔTe > ΔTe,P, the relative increase in ΔTe is exactly balanced by the
reduction in h. The maximum heat flux, q”s,C = q”max, is usually termed the critical heat flux, and in water
it exceeds 1 MW/m2. At the point of this maximum, considerable vapor is being formed, making it difficult
for liquid to continuously wet the surface.

Because high heat transfer rate and convection coefficients are associated with small values of the excess
temperature, it is desirable to operate many engineering devices in the nucleate boiling regime. The
approximate magnitude of the convection coefficient may be inferred by using Equation 3 with the boiling
curve of Figure 4. Dividing qs”by ΔTe, it is evident that convection coefficients in excess of 104 W/ m2.K are
characteristic of this regime. These values are considerably larger than those normally corresponding to
convection with phase change.

Transition Boiling: The regime corresponding to ΔTe,C ≤ ΔTe ≤ ΔTe,D, where ΔTe,D ≈ 120 oC, is termed
transition boiling, unstable film boiling, or partial film boiling. Bubble formation is now so rapid that a
vapor film or blanket begins to form on the surface. At any point on the surface, conditions may oscillate
between film and nucleate boiling, but the fraction of the total surface covered by the film increases with
 34

increasing ΔTe. Because the thermal conductivity of the vapor is much less than that of the liquid, h (and
qs”) must decrease with increasing ΔTe,.

Film Boiling: Film boiling exists for ΔTe ≥ ΔTe,D. At point D of the boiling curve, referred to as the Leidenfrost
point, the heat flux is a minimum, q”s,D = q”min, and the surface is completely covered by a vapor blanket.
Heat transfer from the surface to the liquid occurs by conduction through the vapor. It was Leidenfronst
who in 1756 observed that water droplets supported by the vapor film slowly boil away as they move
about a hot surface. As the surface temperature is increased, radiation through the vapor film becomes
significant and heat flux increases with increasing ΔTe.

Although the foregoing discussion of the boiling curve assumes that control may be maintained over ΔTe,
it is important to remember the Nukiyama experiment and the many applications that involve controlling
qs” (e.g in nuclear reactor and electric resistance heating device).

CONDENSATION: PHYSICAL MECHANISM

Condensation occurs when the temperature of a vapor is reduced below its saturation temperature. In
industrial equipment, the process commonly results from contact between the vapor and cool surface.
The latent energy of the vapor is released; heat is transferred to the surface, and the condensate is
formed. Other common modes are homogeneous condensation where vapor condenses out as droplets
suspended in a gas phase to form a fog, and direct contact condensation which occurs when vapor is
brought into contact with cold liquid. In this chapter we will consider only surface condensation.

Condensation may occur in one of two ways, depending on the condition of the surface. The dominant
form of condensation is one in which a liquid film covers the entire condensing surface, and under the
action of gravity the film flows continuously from the surface. Film condensation is generally characteristic
of clean uncontaminated surfaces. However, if the surface is coated with a substance that inhibits wetting,
it is possible to maintain dropwise condensation. The drop form in cracks, pits, and cavities on the surface
and may grow and coalesce through condensation. Typically, more than 90% pf the surface is covered by
drops, ranging from a few micrometers in diameter to agglomeration visible to the naked eye. The
droplets flow from the surface due to the action of gravity.

Regardless of whether it is in the form of a film or droplets, the condensation provides a resistance to
heat transfer between the vapor and the surface. Because this resistance increases with condensate
thickness, which increases in the flow direction, it is desirable to use short vertical surfaces or horizontal
cylinders in situations involving film condensation. Most condensers therefore consist of horizontal tube
 35

bundles through which a liquid coolant flows and around which the vapor to be condensed is circulated.
In terms of maintaining high condensation and heat transfer rates, droplet formation is superior to film
condensation. In dropwise condensation most of the heat transfer is through drops of less than 100 –μm
diameter, and transfer rates that are more than an order of magnitude larger than those associated with
film condensation may be achieved. It is therefore, common practice to use surface coating that inhibit
wetting, and hence stimulate dropwise condensation. Silicones, Teflon and an assortment of waxes and
fatty acids are often used for this purpose. However, such coatings gradually lose their effectiveness due
to oxidation and fouling, or outright removal, and film condensation eventually occurs.

Although, it is desirable to achieve dropwise condensation in industrial applications, it is often difficult to

maintain this condition. For this reason and because the convection coefficients for film condensation
those for the dropwise case, condenser design calculations are often based on the assumption of film
condensation.

LAMINAR FILM CONDENSATION ON A VERTICAL PLATE

There are many complicating features associated with film condensation. The originates at the top of the

plate and condensate mass flow rate m increase with increasing x because of continuous condensation
at the liquid- vapor interface, which is at Tsat. There is then heat transfer from this interface through the
film to the surface, which is maintained at Ts < Tsat. In most general cse the vapor may be superheated
(Tv,∞ > Tsat) and may be part of a mixture containing one or more noncondensable gases. Moreover, there
exists a finite shear stress at the liquid –vapor interface, contributing to a velocity gradient in the vapor,
as well as in the film.

Despite the complexity associated with film condensation, useful result may be obtained by making
assumptions that originated with an analysis by Nusselt.
y

Liquid and vapor thermal

Ts T(y) Tsat Tu1∞ boundry layer

Liquid and vapor

Velocity boudry layer
U(y) liquid l

Fig 5: Boundry layer effects related to film condensation on vertical surface

 36

1. Laminar flow and constant properties are assumed for the liquid film
2. The gas is assumed to be pure vapor and at a uniform temperature equal to Tsat. With no
temperature gradient in the vapor, heat transfer to the liquid-vapor interface can occur only by
condensation at the interface and not by conduction vapor.
3. The share stress at the liquid-vapor interface is assumed to be negligible, in which case ∂u/dy|y=δ
= 0. With this assumption and the foregoing assumption of a uniform vapor temperature, there is
no need to consider the vapor velocity or thermal boundary layers shown in Figure 5

x y dq

dx

Liquid velocity boundary

du/dy|y=δ=0

Liquid thermal boundary layer

Ts Tsat
Liquid, l vapor,v

Fig 5: Boundry layer conditions associated with Nusselt’s Analysis of a vertical

plate of width b

4. Momentum and energy transfer by advection in the condensate film are assumed to be negligible.
This assumption is reasonable by virtue of the low velocities associated with the film. It follows
that heat transfer across the film occurs only by conduction, in which case the liquid temperature
distribution is linear.

Film conditions resulting from the assumption are shown in Fig. 5. From the fourth approximation,
momentum advection terms may be neglected, and the x-momentum equation may be expressed as

 2 u 1 dp 
  (4)
y 2  l dx  l
 37

where the body force χ has been retained. The body force within the film is equal to ρlg, and the
pressure gradient may be approximated in terms of conditions outside film. That is invoking the
boundary layer approximation that (∂p/dx) = ρvg. The momentum equation may therefore be
expressed as

 2u 1
  l   v  (5)
y 2  l

Integrating twice and applying the boundary conditions of the form u(0) = 0 and ∂u/∂y|y→δ = 0 the velocity
profile in the film becomes

2
g  l   v  2  y 1  y  
u( y)       (6)
l   2    

From this result the condensate mass flow rate per unit width Γ(x) may be obtained in terms of an integral
involving the velocity profile


mx   ( x )
   l u ( y ) dy   x  (7)
b 0

Substituting from Equation (6), it follows that

g l (  l   v ) 3
 x   (8)
3 l

Since specific variation with x of δ, and hence Γ, may be obtained by first applying the conservation of
energy requirement to the differential element shown in Figure 5. At a portion of the liquid-vapor
interface of unit width and length dx, the rate of heat transfer into the film, dq, must equal the rate of
energy release due to condensation at the interface. Hence


dq  h fg d m (9)

Since advective effects are neglected, it also follows that the rate of heat transfer across the interface
must equal the rate of heat transfer to the surface. Hence