LECTURE 22

15 June 2021

Heat Transfer
PPE-211
Dr Atif Javaid

atifjavaid@uet.edu.pk
Department of Polymer & Process
Engineering, UET, Lahore
 Outline
 Boiling and Condensation
 Boiling: General Considerations
• Boiling Curve
• Pool Boiling Correlations
• Learning Exercises

Theodore L. Bergman, Adrienne S. Lavine, Frank P. Incropera, David P. DeWitt, Fundamentals of

Heat and Mass Transfer, 8th Edition, Wiley, 2017. ISBN: ES8-1-119-32042-5. Ch 10
Boiling
General Considerations
• Focus on convection processes associated with change in fluid phase by
considering processes that can occur at a solid–liquid or solid–vapor
interface, namely, boiling and condensation.
• Latent heat effects, associated with phase change, are significant.
• Change from liquid to vapor state due to boiling is sustained by heat
transfer from solid surface; condensation of vapor to liquid state results
in heat transfer to solid surface.
• Since boiling and condensation involve fluid motion, they are classified as
forms of the convection mode of heat transfer
• Boiling is associated with transformation of liquid to vapor at a
solid/liquid interface due to convection heat transfer from solid.
• Agitation of liquid by vapor bubbles is one mechanism that provides for
large convection coefficients and hence large heat fluxes at low-to-
moderate surface-to-fluid temperature differences.
• Special form of Newton’s law of cooling: qs  h Ts  Tsat   h ΔTe
Tsat  saturation temperature of liquid ΔTe  Ts  Tsat   excess temperature
Boiling
General Considerations
• Special Cases
o Pool Boiling:
Liquid motion is due to natural convection and bubble-
induced mixing.
o Forced Convection Boiling:
Fluid motion is induced by external means, as well as by
bubble-induced mixing.
o Saturated Boiling:
Liquid temperature is slightly higher than saturation
temperature.
o Subcooled Boiling:
Liquid temperature is less than saturation temperature.
Boiling
Boiling Curve
Nukiyama was first to identify different regimes of pool boiling using apparatus.
• Heat flux from
horizontal nichrome
wire to saturated water
was determined by
measuring current flow
I and potential drop E.
• Wire temperature was
determined from
electrical resistance.
• Arrangement called power‐ controlled heating, wire temperature Ts (hence
excess temperature ΔTe) is dependent variable and power setting (hence
heat flux qs’’) is independent variable. As power is applied, heat flux
increases, at first slowly and then very rapidly, with excess temperature.
• Boiling did not begin until ΔTe ≈ 5°C. With further increase in power, heat
flux increased to very high levels until suddenly, for value slightly larger
than qmax’’, wire temperature jumped to melting point and burnout occurred.
Boiling
Boiling Curve
• Repeating experiment with
platinum wire having higher
melting point (2045K vs
1500K), Nukiyama was able to
maintain heat fluxes above
qmax’’ without burnout.
• When he subsequently reduced
power, variation of ΔTe with
qs′′ followed cooling curve.
• When heat flux reached minimum point qmin′′, further decrease in power
caused excess temperature to drop abruptly, and process followed original
heating curve back to saturation point.
• Nukiyama believed that hysteresis effect was consequence of power‐
controlled method of heating, where ΔTe is dependent variable. He also
believed that by using heating process permitting independent control of
ΔTe, missing (dashed) portion of curve could be obtained.
Boiling
Boiling Curve Water at Atmospheric
Pressure

Reveals range of conditions

associated with saturated
pool boiling on a qs  ΔTe
plot.
• Free Convection Boiling
 ΔTe  5 C
o Little vapor formation.
o Liquid motion is due
to single-phase natural
convection.
• Onset of Nucleate
Boiling -

ONB ΔTe  5 C 
Boiling
Boiling Curve
• Nucleate Boiling  5  ΔT
 30 C 
e

o Isolated Vapor Bubbles  5  ΔTe  10 C 

• Liquid motion is strongly influenced by
nucleation of bubbles at the surface.
• h and qs increase sharply with increasing ΔTe .
• Heat transfer is principally due to contact
of liquid with the surface (single-phase
convection) and not to vaporization.
• Jets and Columns 10  ΔTe  30 C 
• Increasing number of nucleation sites
causes bubble interactions and
coalescence into jets and slugs.
• Liquid/surface contact is impaired.
• qs continues to increase with ΔTe
while h begins to decrease.
Boiling
Boiling Curve

 ΔTe  30 C
• Critical Heat Flux - CHF, qmax 
o Maximum attainable heat flux in nucleate boiling.
o   1 MW/m 2 for water at atmospheric pressure.
qmax
• Potential Burnout for Power-Controlled Heating
o An increase in q  causes the surface to be blanketed by
s beyond qmax
vapor, and the surface temperature can spontaneously achieve a value
that potentially exceeds its melting point  ΔTs  1000 C  .
If surface survives temperature shock, conditions are characterized by
o
film boiling.
• Film Boiling
o Heat transfer is by conduction and
radiation across the vapor blanket.
o Reduction in qs follows cooling curve
continuously to Leidenfrost point
corresponding to minimum heat flux qmin  for film boiling.
Boiling
Boiling Curve
• Reduction in qs below qmin
 causes abrupt reduction in surface
temperature to nucleate boiling regime.
• Transition Boiling for Temperature-Controlled Heating
o Characterized by a continuous decay of qs  from qmax  
 to qmin
with increasing ΔTe .
o Surface conditions oscillate between nucleate and film
boiling, but portion of surface experiencing film boiling
increases with ΔTe .
o Also termed unstable or partial film boiling.
Boiling
Pool Boiling Correlations
o Nucleate Boiling
• What is the critical heat flux?
•What is the heat flux for a specified excess temperature?
Rohsenow Correlation
 g  l    
3
 c p ,l Te 
1/2

qs  l h fg    n 
   C h Pr 
 s , f fg l 
Cs , f , n  Surface/Fluid Combination (Table 10.1) σ (N/m) is the surface tension
l and υ denote saturated liquid and vapor states
Critical Heat Flux for Nucleate Pool Boiling by Zuber

 g  l    
1/4 1/4
𝜎𝑔 𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣

qmax  Ch fg   
′′
𝑞𝑚𝑖𝑛 = Cℎ𝑓𝑔 𝜌𝑣
  2
  𝜌𝑙 + 𝜌𝑣 2
C → surface geometry dependent
example: Flarge horizontal cylinders, spheres, and many large finite surfaces,
C = π/24 ≈ 0.131 (Zuber constant); For a large horizontal plate, C = 0.149
Boiling
Pool Boiling Correlations
o Film Boiling
The cumulative (and coupled effects) of convection and radiation across
the vapor layer → 4/3
 h conv  h rad h
4/3 1/3
h
 
1/4
h conv D
 g     h D 3

Nu D  C l fg

k     s sat  
 k T  T
Geometry C
Cylinder(Hor.) 0.62
Sphere 0.67

hfg  h fg  0.80 c p , Ts  Tsat  → Corrected latent heat accounts for sensible
energy of film blanket.
 T  T
4 4

h rad 
s sat

Ts  Tsat
If hconv  h rad ,

h  h conv  0.75 h rad

Learning Exercise 1
Problem 10.23: Silicon chip of thickness L=2.5 mm and thermal conductivity ks=135
W/m·K is cooled by boiling saturated fluorocarbon liquid (Tsat = 57°C) on its surface.
Electronic circuits on bottom of chip produce uniform heat flux of qo″=5×104 W/m2,
while sides of chip are perfectly insulated. Properties of saturated fluorocarbon are cp,l =
1100 J/kg·K, hfg = 84,400 J/kg, ρl = 1619.2 kg/m3, ρυ=13.4kg/m3, σ=8.1 × 10−3 N/m, μl =
440×10−6 kg/m·s, and Prl=9.01. Nucleate boiling constants are Cs,f=0.005 and n=1.7.
(a) What is steady‐state temperature To at
bottom of chip? If, during testing of chip,
qo″ is increased to 90% of critical heat flux,
what is new steady‐state value of To?

(b) Compute and plot chip surface temperatures (top and bottom) as function of heat
flux for 0.20≤qo″/qmax″≤0.90. If maximum allowable chip temperature is 80°C, what is
the maximum allowable value of qo″?
Solution
Known: Thickness and thermal conductivity of a silicon chip. Properties of
saturated fluorocarbon liquid.
Find: (a) Temperature at bottom surface of chip for prescribed heat flux and
for flux that is 90% of CHF, (b) Effect of heat flux on chip surface temperatures;
maximum allowable heat flux for a surface temperature of 80°C.
Learning Exercise 1
Solution
Schematic

Assumptions: (1) Steady-state conditions, (2) Uniform heat flux and adiabatic
sides, hence one-dimensional conduction in chip, (3) Constant properties, (4)
Nucleate boiling in liquid.
Properties: Saturated fluorocarbon (given):
c p ,  1100 J / kg  K , hfg  84, 400 J / kg ,   1619.2 kg / m3
v  13.4 kg / m3 ,   8.1103 kg / s 2 ,   440 106 kg / m  s, Pr  9.01.
Analysis: (a) Energy balances at top and bottom surfaces yield
qo  qcond
  ks To  Ts  L  qs ; where Ts and qs are related by Rohsenow correlation,
 g  l    
3
 c p ,l Te 
1/2

Hence, for qs  5 104W / m2 , qs  l h fg 

   n 

 1/3
  Cs , f h fg Prl 
0.005  84, 400 J kg  9.011.7   
4 2 1/6
5 10 W m 3
8.110 kg s 2 
T T 
s sat      15.9C
1100 J kg  K  440 106 kg m  s  84, 400 J kg   9.8 m s 1619.2  13.4  kg m3 
2
   
Ts  15.9  57  C  72.9C
Learning Exercise 1
Solution
Schematic

From rate equation,

qo L 5 104 W m 2 0.0025 m
To  Ts   72.9C   73.8C
135 W/m  K
 g  l    
ks 1/4

For heat flux i.e. 90% of critical heat flux (C1 = 0.9), qmax   Ch fg   
1/4  2 
  g      
q  0.9q
o  0.9  0.149h  
max fg    0.9  0.149  84, 400 J kg 13.4 kg m3
 2   
1/4
 8.1103 kg s 2  9.8 m s 2 1619.2  13.4  kg m3 
 
 
 2 
qo  0.9 15.5 104 W m 2  13.9 104 W m 2 13.4 kg m 3
 

From results of previous calculation and Rohsenow correlation, it follows that

 
1/3
 15.9C 13.9 5 
1/3
Te  15.9C qo 5 104 W m 2  22.4C

Hence, Ts = 79.4C and

13.9 104 W m 2 0.0025 m
To  79.4C   82C
135 W/m  K
Learning Exercise 1
Solution
Schematic

(b) Parametric calculations for 0.2  C1  0.9,

yield following variations of Ts and To with qo .
Chip surface temperatures, as well as difference
between temperatures, increase with increasing
heat flux. Maximum chip temperature is associated
with bottom surface, and To = 80C corresponds to
qo ,max  11.3 104 W m 2

which is 73% of C H F (qmax  15.5  104 W m 2 )
Comments: Many of today’s VLSI chip designs involve heat fluxes well in
excess of 15 W / cm 2 , in which case pool boiling in a fluorocarbon would not be
an appropriate means of heat dissipation.