CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 GENERAL

This Chapter deals with the literature review on the mechanical properties of
concrete, structural performance of RC beams, and literature review on improving
the performance at elevated temperature using expanded vermiculite and expanded
perlite.

2.2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.2.1 Effect of Elevated Temperature on Mechanical Properties of Concrete

Yermak, Pliya, Beaucour, Simon and Noumowé (2017) investigated the mechanical
properties such as compressive strength, tensile strength and modulus of elasticity
of high strength concrete exposed to the standard ISO 834 fire up to 900°C. It was
found that the reduction in the compressive strength and tensile strength at 900°C is
85% and 91%, respectively.

Correia, Lima and de Brito (2014) analysed the mechanical properties of concrete
exposed to higher temperature of 600°C and 800°C as per ISO 834 standard fire
curve. The reduction in the compressive strength and tensile strength was found to
be
1
24.85% and 43.65% respectively after heating to 600°C. According to Ayudhya
(2016) and Behnood and Ghandehari (2009), the loss in splitting tensile strength
was higher than the loss in compressive strength when exposed to high temperature.
Ayudhya (2016) carried out an experimental investigation on compressive and
tensile strength of concrete exposed to high temperatures of 100, 200, 400, 800 and
1000°C. After exposure to 800°C, a severe reduction in strength was observed. The
splitting tensile strength was found to be more sensitive to high temperatures than
the compressive strength.

Generally, the tensile strength of concrete is ignored in the design of structural

elements. Also, concrete is not designed to resist direct tension. But the knowledge
on the tensile strength of concrete will be helpful to predict the load under which the
crack may develop for different strength grades. Xiaoyong and Fanjie (2011)
evaluated the effect of heating on compressive strength and tensile strength of
concrete subjected to temperatures between 100 to 600°C. In the temperature range
between 200°C and 300°C, a gain in residual compressive strength was observed,
but the tensile strength continued to decrease and the critical temperature for
strength loss was found to be 400°C. Peng et al. (2006) conducted an experimental
investigation on the residual compressive strength and splitting tensile strength of
high performance concrete at elevated temperatures. It was observed that the
residual strength decreased after exposure to high temperatures ranging from 200 to
800°C. The reduction in splitting tensile strength was found to be significantly
sharp, which is notably different from the slow decrease in compressive strength.

Hoff, Bilodeau and Malhotra (2000) evaluated the residual compressive strength of
concrete specimens subjected to high temperature as per hydrocarbon fire curves.
The experimental result indicates that at 300°C, a significant strength loss was
observed and after reaching the temperature of 900°C, the structural integrity was
lost for all the types of concrete. Behnood and Ghandehari (2009) carried out an
experimental
2
study on the compressive and splitting tensile strength of high strength concrete
specimens after exposure to 100, 200, 300 and 600°C. A severe decrease in strength
was observed for concrete beyond 600°C. The temperature range between 300°C
and 600°C was found to be critical range for strength loss. The splitting tensile
strength was found to be more susceptible to strength loss than the compressive
strength.

Tian (2011) investigated the effect of high temperatures (20, 100, 300, 500, and
700°C) on compressive strength of concrete specimens comprising of two strength
grades (C20 and C30). The reduction in compressive strength of concrete was found
to increase along with the increase in temperature and higher reduction in
compressive strength was observed for concrete with higher strength grade. Chan,
Peng and Anson (1999) conducted an experimental investigation on the influence of
temperature on normal strength and high strength concrete having compressive
strength of 39 and 94 MPa respectively. Compressive strength and splitting tensile
strength were determined after exposure to temperatures of 400, 600, 800, 1000 and
1200°C. It was found that the temperature range between 400°C and 800°C was
critical for the strength loss of concrete. Li, Qian and Sun (2004) investigated the
compressive strength and tensile strength of normal strength concrete (NSC) and
high strength concrete (HSC) of grades C40 and C70. The concrete specimens were
exposed to temperatures of 200, 400, 600, 800 and 1000°C. It was reported that the
strength loss of HSC (C70) exceeds that of NSC (C40). Luo, Sun and Chan (2000)
investigated the residual compressive strength of NSC and HPC subjected to
temperatures of 800 and 1100°C. After exposed to high temperatures, the
compressive strength of HPC decreases more sharply than that of NSC.

Kodur, Cheng, Wang and Sultan (2003) claimed that the NSC has higher fire
resistance than that of HSC. Gao, Yan and Li (2012) reported that the residual
mechanical strength of NSC is comparatively better than that of HSC after
subjected to high temperature. This higher reduction is due to the inbuilt vapour
3
pressure after

4
subjected to high temperature. These results are in accordance with Kim, Choe,
Yoon and Lee (2015). It was reported that, the strength of normal weight concrete
(NWC) decreased more sharply than the light weight concrete (LWC). Potha Raju,
Srinivasa Rao and Raju (2007) tested high strength concrete specimens of M60
grade with ordinary portland cement (OPC) and pozzolona portland cement (PPC)
after exposing to ISO 834 Time- temperature rate of heating. It was found that the
residual compressive strength of PPC was higher than that of OPC. Noumowé,
Carré, Daoud and Toutanji (2006) examined the strength properties and spalling of
conventional and self compacting concrete (SCC) specimens subjected to fire
exposure in accordance with ISO 834 fire curve (up to 600°C). The result indicated
that residual mechanical properties were similar for both the types of concrete but
the risk of spalling for SCC was found to be higher than that of the conventional
concrete.

Xiong and Liew (2016) examined the compressive strength of Ultra High Strength
Concrete (UHSC) subjected to heating rate of 5°C per minute exposed up to 800°C.
It was reported that the compressive strength decreased sharply up to 100°C and a
gain in strength was observed at 300°C. Arioz (2007) reported that the residual
strength and weight of the specimens decreased above 800°C. The results of the
earlier work are shown in Figure 2.1, where the residual compressive strength of
normal strength and high strength concrete exposed to higher temperatures are
presented. HSC is denser and have less porosity. Water in various forms, such as
free water, adsorbed and chemically bound water are present in concrete. When
exposed to high temperature, evaporation of significant amounts of water takes
place and temperature gradient increases. Due to this reason, internal stresses are
developed in concrete and when the internal stresses exceed the maximum
allowable tensile stresses of the concrete, the thermal cracks and spalling of
concrete occur (Sanjayan & Stocks, 1993; Kalifa, Menneteau, & Quenard, 2000; Fu
& Li, 2011).

5
Information on thermal crack pattern and its properties such as crack density and
width of thermal cracks for different grades of concrete exposed to standard fire is
rare in the literature. An attempt has been initiated to correlate the damaged surface
in-terms of pixel with residual strength. Also crack properties were estimated
through image analysis and compared with the experiment work.

The primary causes of deterioration of concrete at high temperatures are thermal

cracks and spalling. It was reported that the thermal cracking and spalling are
general indications of fire affected concrete (Erlin, Hime, & Kuenning, 1972). Chen
and Liu (2004) also reported that HSC is more prone to spalling when it is subjected
to temperature over 400°C. Furthermore, the investigation carried out by Poon, Shui
and Lam (2004) reported that explosive spalling occurred in high strength concrete.
Noumowe (2005) evaluated the effect of temperature on the microstructure
characteristics of HSC using SEM. Small channels and supplementary pores were
created in the concrete exposed to elevated temperature and that was confirmed by
SEM. Akca and Zihnioğlu (2013) made an investigation on surface cracking and
spalling of concrete exposed to elevated temperature. He also performed the thermo
gravimetric analysis and SEM investigation on concrete specimens subjected to
high temperatures at a heating rate of 10°C/min. It was reported that the
microstructure of concrete was severely damaged along with the temperature
increase which lead to failure of the specimens. Georgali and Tsakiridis (2005)
conducted an experimental study on concrete samples exposed to high temperatures
focusing on the microstructure analysis and quantification of the crack pattern. The
physical observation along with microstructure examination, indicate the effect of
temperature on the intensity of damage in concrete. This influence of high
temperature on micro- structural properties was also observed by Fares, Remond,
Noumowe and Cousture (2010).

6
Figure 2.1 Published Results related to Residual Compressive Strength of
Normal Strength and High Strength Concrete Specimens Exposed to
Elevated Temperatures

7
 Table 2.1 Data from the Available Literature

Residual Residual
Compressive Rate of
Reference Duration of heating Temperatures compressive tensile
strength (MPa) heating
strength strength
20min + 1h, 40min
+ 1h, 60min + 1h, 100, 200, 300, 400,
Xiaoyong and 41, 25, 16 and 31, 12.1, 4
28 5 °C/min 80min + 1h, 100min 500 and
Fanjie (2011) 5% and 1%
+ 1h and 120min + 600°C
1h
Behnood and 33.3min + 3h, 66.6min
63 + 3h, 100min + 3h and 100, 200, 300 and 86, 90, 75 and 85, 89, 74.5
Ghandehari 3 °C/min
200min + 3h 600°C 33% and 28%
(2009)
20min + 4h, 40min 100, 200, 300, 400, 77, 89, 94, 83,
Xiong and Liew 166.6 5 °C/min + 4h, 60min + 4h, ... 500, 600, 700 and 71, 61, 50 and -
(2016) 800°C 29%
and 160min + 4h
Noumowé,
Carré, Daoud 75 800min + 3h
0.5 °C/min 400°C 55% 58%
and Toutanji
(2006)
Pineaud,
Pimienta, 120, 250, 400 and 120, 250, 400 and 73, 89, 95 and
61 1 °C/min 600°C -
Rémond and 600min 44%
Carré (2016)
Demirel and
160, 240 and 400, 600 and 800°C
Keleştemur 49.7 2.5 °C/min 98, 76 and 28% -
320min
(2010)
Ali, Nadjai and 15, 22.5, 30, 37.5, 200, 300, 400, 500, 102, 93, 84, 22,
81 13.33 °C/min 600 and 800°C -
Abu-Tair (2011) 45 and 60min 18 and 0%
Correia and ISO 834 time– 7.13 + 60 min and
44 600 and 800°C 75 and 31% 56 and 18%
Lima (2014) temperature 27 + 60min

8
 (Table 2.1 Continued)
0.89min + 3h,
100, 200, 300, 400, 102, 88, 94, 85,
Xiao and ISO-834 fire 1.79min + 3h,
66.8 500, 600, 700, 800 76, 59, 48, 32 -
Falkner (2006) curve 2.6min + 3h, 3.6min
and 900°C and 16%
+ 3h,…, 52min + 3h
600min + 1h,
Yermak et al. 1200min + 1h, 300, 600, 750 and 104, 66, 42 and
81.3 0.5°C/min 1500min +1h and -
(2017) 900°C 18%
1800min + 1h
40min + 2h, 120min
Savva et al. + 2h, 240min + 2h 100, 300, 600 and 98, 96, 53 and
40.9 2.5 °C/min -
(2005) and 300min + 2h 750°C 12%
Anand and
22.13 2.25°C/min 400min 900°C 49.8% 50.9%
Godwin (2016)
Potha Raju, 50, 100, 200 and
ISO-834 fire 80, 79, 64, 70.5
Srinivasa Rao 58.6 60 min 250°C -
curve and 64%
and Raju (2007)
Anand and 31.25 400 min
2.25°C/min 900°C 39% 30%
Arulraj (2014)
Peng, Yang,
Zhao, J., Liu, 40min + 1h, 60min +
93.9 10 °C/min
Bian and Zhao 1h and 80min + 1h 400, 600 and 800°C 97, 78 and 31% 62, -, -%
(2006)
Chu, Jiang, Sun 40min + 2h, 80min +
89 2h, 160min + 2h and 200, 400, 600, 800 88, 84, 37, 27 89, 52, 27,
and Zhang 5°C/min
200min + 2h and 1000°C and 15% 18 and 12%
(2016)
Bastami,
Khiabani, 20min + 1h, 30min + 91, 58 and
82.47 20 °C/min
Baghbadrani and 1h and 40min + 1h 400, 600 and 800°C 84, 51 and 26%
29%
Kordi (2011)

9
 (Table 2.1 Continued)
Xu, Wong, Poon 200min + 1h, 400min
78 + 1h, 600min + 1h 200, 400, 600 and 123, 98, 64 and 92, 65, 32
and Anson 1 °C/min
and 800min + 1h 800°C 26% and 16%
(2003)

10
Xiao and Falkner (2006) determined the residual strength of Concrete made with
and without polypropylene (PP) fibers. It was observed from the investigation
thatthe decrease in the residual flexural strength of concrete with and without PP
fibers under rising temperatures was more than the reduction in the residual
compressive strength. Chung, Lee and Choi (2016) developed formulae for
calculating sectional temperature of Reinforced Concrete (RC) slabs exposed to an
ISO 834 standard fire. Choi and Shin (2011) determined the structural behavior of
RC beams under fire. The concrete beams were produced and heated as per the ISO
834 standard temperature. Husem (2006) examined the flexural and compressive
strengths of High-performance (HPC) and Conventional concrete (CC) after
exposure to high temperatures. It was found that as the temperature increased the
strength of concrete decreased simultaneously and the strength loss of CC was
higher than that of the HPC. Li, Qian, Wang, You and Sun (2003) investigated the
tensile, bending and compressive strength of Normal strength concrete (NSC) and
High strength concrete (HSC) exposed to high temperatures. The result indicated
that the strength loss in flexural strength was greater than that of the compressive
strength and splitting tensile strength and the bending strength of HSC decreased
more sharply than that of NSC. Sivaraja (2010) carried out an experimental
investigation on compressive strength, split tensile strength and flexural strength of
different types of concrete. Specimens were subjected to temperatures of 500°C and
1000°C for 1 hour. It was elucidated that the flexural strength of rice husk concrete
was maximum at both 500º C and 1000º.

Ding, Azevedo, Aguiar and Jalali (2012) examined the residual flexural strength
and compressive strength of Self Compacting Concrete (SCC). The specimens were
heated at a temperature up to 900°C. The loss on flexural strength was about 18%,
78% and 98% respectively at temperature of 300°C, 600°C and 900°C.It was
comparatively a higher loss than compressive strength of SCC. Rashad (2015)
studied the effect of high-volume fly ash on concrete with furnace slag subjected to
high temperatures. Loss in weight and strength of concrete before and after

11
exposure to

12
elevated temperatures were investigated. The microstructure investigation also
carried out using XRD and SEM. Ergün, Kürklü, Serhat and Mansour (2013)
investigated the mechanical behaviourof concrete considering the dosage of cement
and temperature. The results specified that at temperature over 400°C, significant
strength loss was observed. Ahn, Jang and Lee (2016) conducted experiments on
thermal behavior of lightweight concrete (LWC) heated up to 800°C. Compressive
strength and microstructure analysis were carried out on the heated concrete
specimens. An increase in the residual strength of LWC was observed after
exposure to higher temperature.

13
 Table 2.2 Details of Investigation on Residual Compressive Strength

Reference Type of Size of the Rate of heating Compressive Duration of Temperatures Residual
concrete specimen strength heating compressive
(MPa) strength
Pineaud et al. Self Cylinder 1 °C/min 61.6 120, 250, 400 120, 250, 400 73, 89, 95 and
(2016) compacting 104×300 mm and 600min and 44%
concrete 600 °C
Demirel and Normal Cube 2.5 °C/min 49.71 160, 240 and 400, 600 and 98, 76 and 28%
Kelestemur Concrete 100×100×100 320min 800°C
(2010) mm
Ali, Dinkha High Cylinder 13.33 °C/min 81 15, 22.5, 30, 200, 300, 400, 102, 93, 84, 22,
and Haido performance 100×200 mm 37.5, 45 and 500, 600 and 18 and 0%
(2017) concrete 60min 800°C
Correia, Lima Normal Cube ISO 834 time– 48.7 7.13 + 60 min 600 and 800°C 75 and 31%
and de Brito concrete 150×150×150 temperature and 27 + 60min
(2014) mm Curve
Xiao and High Cube ISO-834 fire 66.8 0.89min + 3h, 100, 200, 300, 101, 98, 104,
Falkner (2006) performance 100×100×100 curve 1.79min + 3h, 400,...,900°C 95, …, 28%
concrete mm 2.6min + 3h,
3.6min + 3h,…,
52min + 3h
Mousa (2017) Rubber filled Cube ISO-834 fire 49 0.89min + 2h, 100, 300, 400, 102, 82, 47, 18
high strength 100×100×100 curve 2.6min + 2h, 600 and 800°C and 6%
concrete mm 3.6min + 2h,
6.9min + 2h and
27min + 2h
Yermak, Pliya, High strength Cylinder 0.5°C/min 81.3 600, 1200, 1500 300, 600, 750 104, 66, 42 and
Beaucour and concrete 150×300 mm and 1800 min + and 900°C 18%
Simon (2017) (1h)

14
 (Table 2.2 Continued)
Savva, Manita Normal Cube 2.5 °C/min 40.9 40min + 2h, 100, 300, 600 98, 96, 53 and
and Sideris concrete 150×150×150 120min + 2h, and 750°C 12%
(2005) mm 240min + 2h and
300min + 2h
Anand and Self Cube 2.25°C/min 56.09 400min 900°C 49.8%
Godwin (2016) compacting 150×150×150
concrete mm
Fck20 Normal Cube ISO 834 fire 27.09 60, 120, 180 and 925, 1029, 83, 58, 37 and
concrete 150×150×150 curve 240min 1090 and 16%
mm 1133°C
Fck30 Normal Cube ISO 834 fire 37.8 60, 120, 180 and 925, 1029, 76, 45, 28 and
concrete 150×150×150 curve 240min 1090 and 13.4%
mm 1133°C
Fck40 Normal Cube ISO 834 fire 47.31 60, 120, 180 and 925, 1029, 75, 40, 24 and
concrete 150×150×150 curve 240min 1090 and 12%
mm 1133°C
Fck50 Normal Cube ISO 834 fire 56.67 60, 120, 180 and 925, 1029, 73, 35, 22 and
concrete 150×150×150 curve 240min 1090 and 11%
mm 1133°C

Table 2.3 Details of Investigation on Residual Flexural Strength

Reference Type of Size of beam Rate of Compressive Flexural Duration of Temperatures Residual
concrete specimen heating strength Strength heating Flexural
(MPa) (MPa) strength
Ergün, Kürklü, Normal 100×100×300 2°C/min 48.99 4.2 50, 100, 200, 100, 200, 400, 91, 80, 56,
Serhat and strength mm 300 and 400 600 and 800 30 and
Mansour concrete min °C 12%
(2013)

15
 (Table 2.3 Continued)
Potha Raju, Normal 100×100×500 - 28 - 60, 120 and 180 100, 200 and 84, 78 and
Shobha and strength mm min 250°C 76%
Rambabu concrete
(2004)
Culfik and High 40×40×160 2°C/min 61.8 11.4 150min + 1h, 300, 600 and 64, 16 and
Ozturan (2002) performance mm 300min + 1h 900°C 6%
mortar and 450min +
1h
Husem (2006) High 40×40×160 5.5°C/min 71 9.6 36, 72, 109, 145 200, 400, 600, 75, 63, 39,
performance mm and 181min 800 and 35 and7 %
concrete 1000°C
Xiao and High 100×100×515 ISO-834 - 5.54 0.89min + 3h, 100, 200, 300, 104, 104,
Falkner (2006) performance mm fire curve 1.79min + 3h, 400,...,900°C 76, 52, …,
concrete 2.6min + 3h, 8%
3.6min + 3h, …
52min + 3h
Li, Qian and High strength 100×100×415 Chinese 78 10.7 - 200, 400, 800, 84, 43, 16
Sun (2004) concrete mm standard and 1000°C and 7%
Aydin and Cement based 40×40×160 10 °C/min 45.6 9 30min + 3h, 300, 600 and 95, 68 and
Baradan (2007) mortar mm 60min + 3h and 900°C 20%
90min + 3h
Anand and Self 100×100×500 2.25°C/min 47.55 6.95 400 min 900°C 27%
Arulraj (2014) compacting mm
concrete
Yermak, Pliya, High strength 100×100×400 0.5°C/min 81.3 10.9 600min + 1h, 300, 600, 750 90, 62, 38
Beaucour, concrete mm 1200min + 1h, and 900°C and 9%
Simon and 1500min +1h
Noumowé and 1800min +
(2017) 1h

16
 (Table 2.3 Continued)
Fck20 Normal 100×100×500 ISO 834 27.09 3.01 60, 120, 180 925, 1029, 34, 18, 0
strength mm fire curve and 240min 1090 and and 0%
concrete 1133°C
Fck30 Normal 100×100×500 ISO 834 37.8 3.58 60, 120, 180 925, 1029, 25.6, 13.1,
strength mm fire curve and 240min 1090 and 0 and 0%
concrete 1133°C
Fck40 Normal 100×100×500 ISO 834 47.31 4.72 60, 120, 180 925, 1029, 18.8, 8.6,
strength mm fire curve and 240min 1090 and 0 and 0%
concrete 1133°C
Fck50 Normal 100×100×500 ISO 834 56.67 6.16 60, 120, 180 925, 1029, 13.9, 3.7,
strength mm fire curve and 240min 1090 and 0 and 0%
concrete 1133°C

17
Based on the review of literature, the results of the residual compressive strength
and flexural strength of specimens are consolidated and presented in Table 1 and
Table 2. Researchers have followed different duration of heating, magnitude of
temperature and rate of heating in their investigation.

Fire is one of the most damaging environmental factors that cause deterioration of
reinforced concrete structures. Although concrete is a non-combustible material,
when concrete structures are exposed to high temperature, its chemical, physical
and mechanical properties deteriorate. The effect of high temperature on the
mechanical properties of concrete is being studied by various researchers with the
suitable experiments (Malhotra, 1956; Xiao & König, 2004). Concrete is an
important construction material. In reinforced concrete, steel is protected by
concrete from elevated temperature. The behaviour of concrete under fire needs to
be investigated to ensure the safety of structures and occupants during fire accidents
(Yüzer, Aköz, & Özt, 2004).

The performance of concrete at high temperature is better than those of other

construction materials, due to its non-combustibility and low thermal conductivity
(Buchanan, 2001; Li & Wu, 2018; Zhaodong & Jie, 2018). However, the behaviour
of concrete under fire exposure differs for each strength grade due to its variation in
water to cement ratio, and the permeability and paste content present in the
concrete. Compressive strength, tensile strength and flexural strength of concrete
have been investigated by researchers frequently, because these properties indicate
the overall performance of concrete under compression, tension and flexural
loading.

The reduction in the mechanical strength of concrete after exposure to elevated

temperature is due to thermal incompatibility between cement paste and aggregate,
disruption of CSH gel, deformation of aggregate, loss of bond between aggregate
18
and cement paste interface, internal pressure due to evaporation of water and
chemical

19
transformation in cement paste (Yüzer, Aköz, & Özt, 2004; Chen et al., 2018;
Husem, 2006; Li, Qian, & Sun, 2004; Savva, Manita, & Sideris, 2005; Fletcher,
Welch, Torero, Carvel, & Usmani, 2007; Poon, Azhar, Anson, & Wong, 2001;
Noumowé, Carré, Daoud, & Toutanji, 2006). Experimental studies revealed that
when concrete is exposed to elevated temperature, mass loss occurs. Cracking,
spalling and mass loss were also observed in concrete when it was exposed to fire
(Bastami, Baghbadrani, & Aslani, 2014).

The grade of concrete was also found to have a significant influence on the
performance of concrete under fire (Anand & Arulraj, 2014). Earlier investigation
shows that, strength reduction was found to be lower for concrete with lower grade.
Concrete with higher grade was found to be detrimental in improving the fire
performance of concrete because of the development of pore pressure within dense
internal structure (Anand & Arulraj, 2014; Jin, Ding, Li, & Du, 2018).

The changes in the mechanical properties of concrete subjected to high temperature

also depends on the rate of heating. When concrete is heated, between 100 and
200°C, free water evaporates slowly and no structural damage is observed.
However, rapid heating results in higher vapour pressure and causes cracks in
concrete. Loss in compressive strength of concrete occurs when heated between 200
and 250°C (Lin et al., 1996). At temperatures between 300 and 500°C, the
compressive strength of concrete is reduced to about 15 to 70% of that of the non-
heated concrete (Lin et al., 1996). When heated, bounded water starts to evaporate
at 300°C, and thus leads to dehydration of the chemical compound CSH (calcium
silicate hydrate) which is responsible for binding the different constituents of the
concrete together (Lin et al., 1996). When the exposure temperature is higher than
400°C, the strength of concrete further deteriorates, however, relative residual
compressive strength does not change considerably (Xiao & Falkner, 2006). The
dehydration of CSH crystals results in the decrease of strength of concrete and this

20
process is not reversible. At 530°C, Ca(OH)2

21
turns into CaO resulting in a shrinkage of 33% in volume of cement paste
(Buchanan, 2001). At 750°C, the reduction increases from 75% to 93%.
Temperatures between 300 and 750°C are critical and most of the strength loss of
concrete occurs between 300 and 750°C (Savva, Manita, & Sideris, 2005). Jonaitis
and Papinigis (2005) found that the decrease in compressive strength of the concrete
when exposed to a Ergün, Kürklü, Serhat and Mansour (2013) investigated the
influence of cement dosage on the residual flexural strength of beam specimens
after exposing to temperatures of 100°C, 200°C, 400°C, 600°C and 800°C. The test
results indicated that at the temperature above 400°C, concrete undergoes
significant strength loss when compared to the strength of non-heated concrete. It is
observed that, strength reduction was found to be unaffected by the cement dosages.

All the experimental results on concrete exposed to elevated temperature depend on

nature of experiment, heating conditions and mix design parameters. Compressive
strength of concrete is a significant parameter that affects the performance of
concrete exposed to elevated temperatures. Thus, it is necessary to improve the
fundamental understanding on concrete with different strength grade exposed to
elevated temperature.

The increase in temperature and resulting temperature profile can be related to fire
resistance determined by standard fire testing as per ISO 834 (1999). Xiao and
Falkner (2006) has estimated the residual compressive and flexural strengths of
concrete specimens at target temperatures ranging from 20 to 900°C as per ISO 834
and the target temperature was maintained for 3 h. Simple expressions were
proposed to obtain both the residual compressive strength and the residual flexural
strength corresponding to a particular exposure temperature. But in real cases, the
effect of fire on buildings is based on the duration of exposure and grade of
concrete. When concrete is exposed to elevated temperature as per Standard fire,
thermal gradient occurs across the section and this causes deterioration of concrete.
During the present
22
study, the specimens were heated as per standard fire curve. Mechanical properties
of concrete exposed to elevated temperature for durations of 15 min, 30 min, 45
min, 60 min, 120 min, 180 min and 240 min were determined.

Many investigations have been carried out to determine the effect of elevated
temperatures on mechanical properties and microstructure of various types of
concrete. Investigations on mechanical properties of concrete with varying water
cement ratio subjected to elevated temperatures are limited. Information on
relationship to determine the residual strength such as compressive, tensile and
flexure strength of concrete with varying strength grade and temperature is not
available in the literature. A detailed investigation has not been carried out so far
focusing on the mechanical properties and physical characteristics of concrete with
different strength grades subjected to standard fire.

The aim of this investigation is to enhance the understanding of the residual

mechanical properties such as compressive strength, tensile strength, flexural
strength, stress strain behaviour and elastic modulus of different grades of concrete
exposed to elevated temperature. Seven concrete grades were chosen, viz., M20,
M25, M30, M35, M40, M45 and M50 for this study. A mathematical relationship is
proposed to obtain the residual compressive, tensile and flexural strength based on
exposure time and strength of concrete ranging between 20N/mm2and 50 N/mm2.
The results of this investigation resulted in a large data base that can be used for the
development of guidelines for the fire resistant design.

23
 Table 2.4 Experimental Results Database
Reference Type of concrete Rate of heating Duration of Temperatures Residual Residual Residual
heating compressive tensile Flexural
strength strength strength
Pineaud, Self compacting 1 °C/min 120, 250, 120, 250, 400 and 73, 89, 95 and - -
Pimienta, concrete 400 and 600°C 44%
Rémond and 600min
Carré (2016)
Demirel and Normal Concrete 2.5 °C/min 160, 240 400, 600 and 98, 76 and 28% - -
Keleştemur and 320min 800°C
(2010)
Ali, Dinkha High 13.33 °C/min 15 min, 22.5 200, 300, 400, 500, 102, 93, 84, 22, - 99, 85, 77,
and Haido performance min, 30 min, 600 and 800°C 18 and 0% 58, 49 and
(2017) concrete 37.5 min, 45 0%
min and
60min
Correia, Lima Normal concrete ISO 834 time– 7.13 + 60 600 and 800°C 75 and 31% 56 and 18% -
and de Brito temperature min and 27
(2014) curve + 60min
Xiao and High ISO-834 fire 0.89min + 100, 200, 300, 400, 102, 88, 94, 85, - 104, 104,
Falkner (2006) performance curve 3h, 1.79min 500, 600, 700, 800 76, 59, 48, 32 76, 52, 35,
concrete + 3h, 2.6min and 900°C and 16% 19, 11, 12
+ 3h, 3.6min and 8%
+ 3h,…,
52min + 3h
Mousa (2017) Rubber filled ISO-834 fire 0.89min + 100, 300, 400, 600 102, 82, 47, 18 - -
high strength curve 2h, 2.6min + and 800°C and 6%
concrete 2h, 3.6min +
2h, 6.9min +
2h and
27min + 2h

24
 (Table 2.4 Continued)
Yermak, Pliya, High strength 0.5°C/min 600min + 300, 600, 750 and 104, 66, 42 and - 88, 61, 38
Beaucour, concrete 1h, 1200min 900°C 18% and 9%
Simon and + 1h,
Noumowé 1500min
(2017) +1h and
1800min +
1h
Savva, Manita Normal concrete 2.5 °C/min 40min + 2h, 100, 300, 600 and 98, 96, 53 and - -
and Sideris 120min + 750°C 12%
(2005) 2h, 240min
+ 2h and
300min + 2h
Anand and Self compacting 2.25°C/min 400min 900°C 49.8% 50.9% 47.9%
Godwin (2016) concrete
Ergün, Kürklü, Normal strength 2°C/min 50, 100, 200, 100, 200, 400, 600 90, 82, 69, 49 - 91, 80, 56,
Serhat and concrete 300 and 400 and 800 °C and 31% 30 and 12%
Mansour (2013) min
Potha, Shobha Normal strength - 60, 120 and 100, 200 and - - 84, 78 and
and Rambabu concrete 180 min 250°C 76%
(2004)
Cülfik and High 2°C/min 150min + 1h, 300, 600 and 79, 37 and 13% - 64, 16 and
Özturan (2002) performance 300min + 1h 900°C 6%
mortar and 450min +
1h
Husem (2006) High 5.5°C/min 36, 72, 109, 200, 400, 600, 800 96, 109, 104, 68 - 75, 63, 39,
performance 145 and and 1000°C and 35% 35 and7 %
concrete 181min
Li, Qian and High strength Chinese - 200, 400, 600, 800, 82, 63, 58, - and 85, 81, -, 51 84, 43, -, 16
Sun (2004) concrete standard and 1000°C 27% and 16% and 7%

25
 (Table 2.4 Continued)
Aydin and Cement based 10 °C/min 30min + 3h, 300, 600 and 122, 95 and 31% - 95, 68 and
Baradan (2007) mortar 60min + 3h 900°C 20%
and 90min +
3h
Anand and Self compacting 2.25°C/min 400 min 900°C 39% 30% 27%
Arulraj (2014) concrete
Peng, Yang, High 10 °C/min 40min + 1h, 400, 600 and 97, 78 and 31% 62, -, -% -
Zhao, Liu, Bian performance 60min + 1h 800°C
and Zhao concrete and 80min +
(2006) 1h
Chu, Jiang, Sun Ferro siliceous 5°C/min 40min + 2h, 200, 400, 600, 800 88, 84, 37, 27 89, 52, 27, -
and Zhang concrete 80min + 2h, and 1000°C and 15% 18 and 12%
(2016) 160min + 2h
and 200min +
2h
Bastami, High strength 20 °C/min 20min + 1h, 400, 600 and 84, 51 and 26% 91, 58 and -
Baghbadrani concrete 30min + 1h 800°C 29%
and Aslani and 40min +
(2014) 1h
Xu, Wong, High 1 °C/min 200min + 1h, 200, 400, 600 and 123, 98, 64 and 92, 65, 32 -
Poon and performance 400min + 1h, 800°C 26% and 16%
Anson (2003) concrete 600min + 1h
and 800min +
1h
M20 Normal concrete ISO 834 fire 15min, 30 718, 821, 873, 925, 78, 95, 78, 51, 31 81, 70, 46, 86, 62, 34,
curve min,45 min, 1029, 1090 and and 15% 30, 20 and 18, 0 and
60 min, 120 1133°C 11% 0%
min, 180
and 240min

26
 (Table 2.4 Continued)

M30 Normal concrete ISO 834 fire 15, 30,45, 718, 821, 873, 925, 83, 98, 76, 45, 28 78, 65, 40, 79, 53, 25,
curve 60, 120, 180 1029, 1090 and and 13% 27, 17 and 13, 0 and
and 240min 1133°C 9% 0%
M40 Normal concrete ISO 834 fire 15, 30,45, 718, 821, 873, 925, 87, 102, 75, 40, 72, 59, 35, 69, 45, 18,
curve 60, 120, 180 1029, 1090 and 24 and 12% 24, 15 and 8, 0 and 0%
and 240min 1133°C 9%
M50 Normal concrete ISO 834 fire 15, 30,45, 718, 821, 873, 925, 93, 107, 73, 35, 68, 54, 31, 52, 36, 13,
curve 60, 120, 180 1029, 1090 and 22 and 11% 22, 13 and 3, 0 and 0%
and 240min 1133°C 8%

27
 Table 2.5 Residual Compressive, Tensile and Flexural Strength Models

𝑓 = (1.0101 − 0.115 × ) × 𝑓
Reference Type of Concrete Findings Model𝑇
𝑐𝑇(𝑇) 𝑐𝑇(20 °𝐶)
Ergün, Kürklü, Serhat and Normal concrete Residual flexural
100
𝑇
Mansour (2013) strength

𝑓′𝑐(𝑇) = (1.0109 − 0.09 × ) × 𝑓′𝑐(20

Residual
100
compressive °𝐶)
strength

𝑓′cT = 𝑓′c(0.87 + 0.0003 𝑇 − 2.2 × 10−6𝑇2

Aslani and Samali (2015) Self compacting Residual

+ 8.58 × 10−10𝑇3)
concrete compressive
strength , 100°C ≤ T ≤ 800°C

𝑓′cT = 𝑓′c (1.0), 20°C – 100°C

𝑓 = 1904.7096 × [1 − 𝑒0.00101 × (𝑉−0.86291)

0.55001

]𝑐𝑠
Chu, Jiang, Sun and Zhang Ferro-siliceous Compressive
(2016) concrete strength

𝑓 = 0.55189 ×
V – UPV propagation
𝑠𝑡𝑠
𝑒0.46617 × 𝑉
Splitting tensile
strength

𝑓𝑇 /𝑓20 = 1.011 − (𝑇/1900), T ≤ 400°C

𝑐𝑢 𝑐𝑢
𝑓𝑇 /𝑓20 = 1.440 − (𝑇/625), 400°C ≤ T ≤ 900°C
Xiao and Falkner (2006) High performance Residual
𝑐𝑢 𝑐𝑢
concrete compressive

𝑓𝑇 /𝑓20 = 1.0 − (𝑇 − 20)/680

strength

𝑓 𝑓
Residual flexural

518.7
strength
𝑓𝑐𝑢−𝑝 =
2.29 2.66𝑤/𝑏2.18𝑇/𝑇𝐿 2.13𝑠
Thomas and Harilal (2016) Cold bonded Compressive
𝑐/𝑡
aggregate concrete strength

320.7
𝑓𝑠𝑡−𝑝 =
1.39 2.08𝑤/𝑏1.35𝑇/𝑇𝐿 6.67𝑠
Split tensile strength
𝑐/𝑡

28
 (Table 2.5 Continued)
𝑓𝑇𝑐𝑢
Abid, Hou, Zheng and Reactive powder Compressive = 1.06 − 3.04T ( ), 20°C ≤ T ≤ 100°C
𝑓𝑓𝑇𝑐𝑢 1000 2
= 0.796 − 0.644 ( 3
𝑐𝑢
) + 3.08 ( −
Hussain (2017) concrete strength
3.62 ( T ) ,
1000)
T T
𝑓𝑐𝑢 1000 1000
𝑓𝑇𝑡 ≤ T ≤ 800°C
= 0.98 − 0.925 ( ), 20°C ≤ T ≤
100°C

T
Tensile strength 800°C
𝑓𝑡 1000

Flexural strength 𝑓𝑇𝑓

= 0.99 + 0.55 T( ), 20°C ≤ T ≤ 200°C
𝑓𝑓 1000
𝑓𝑇𝑓 T T 2
= 1.47 − 2.01 ( ) + 0.75 ( ) , 200°C ≤ T ≤ 900°C
𝑓𝑓 1000 1000

σ 𝑝𝑇 T
Zheng, Li and Wang (2012) Reactive powder Compressive = 0.99 + 0.60 ( ), 20°C ≤ T ≤ 120°C
σ𝑝 1000
σ 𝑝𝑇 T
= 1.09 − 0.28 ( ), 120°C ≤ T ≤ 300°C
concrete strength
σ𝑝 1000
σ 𝑝𝑇 T
= 2.29 − 4.28 ( ), 300°C ≤ T ≤ 400°C
σ𝑝 1000
σ 𝑝𝑇 T
= 0.89 − 0.79 ( ), 400°C ≤ T ≤600°C
σ𝑝 1000
σ 𝑝𝑇 T
= 2.14 − 2.86 ( ), 600°C ≤ T ≤ 700°C
σ𝑝 1000
σ 𝑝𝑇 T
= 0.07 + 0.30 ( ), 700°C ≤ T ≤ 900°C
σ𝑝 1000
σ 𝑝𝑇 T
= 0.09 + 0.20 ( ), 900°C ≤ T ≤ 1000°C
σ𝑝 1000

29
 (Table 2.5 Continued)
𝑓′𝔀r
Chang, Chen, Sheu and Yao Normal concrete Residual = 1.01 − 0.00055𝑇, 20°C < T ≤ 200°C
𝑓′𝔀
𝑓′𝔀r
= 1.15 − 0.00125𝑇, 200°C ≤ T ≤ 800°C
(2006) compressive
strength
𝑓′𝔀
𝑓′tr
Residual tensile = 1.05 − 0.0025𝑇, 20°C < T ≤ 100°C
𝑓′
𝑓′trt
= 0.80, 100°C < T ≤ 200°C
strength

𝑓′
𝑓′trt
= 1.02 − 0.0011𝑇, 200°C < T ≤ 800°C
𝑓′t

T T 2 T 3
= 0.950 + 0.233 ( ) − 0.083 ( ) +
𝑓 𝑐,𝑇

compressive strength 0.005 ( )

Liu, Wang, Chen and Ji Thermal insulation Residual
(2016) concrete
𝑓𝑐 100 100 100
= 1.008 + ≥ 0.0, 20°C < T ≤ 800°C
𝑓𝑐𝑟 𝑇
𝑇
𝑓𝑐 450 ln( )
Anagnostopoulos, Sideris Self compacting Residual
5800

= 1.05 − 0.025 𝑇, 20°C < T ≤ 100°C

𝑓𝑡𝑟
and Georgiadis (2009) concrete compressive strength
Residual tensile
𝑓𝑡
= 0.80, 100°C < T ≤ 200°C
strength 𝑓 𝑡𝑟

𝑓𝑡
= 1.02 − 0.0011 𝑇 ≥ 0, 200°C < T ≤ 800°C
𝑓 𝑡𝑟

𝑓𝑡

30
Table 2.1 and Table 2.2 show the details of the earlier investigations on residual
strength of concrete subjected to elevated temperature. Researchers have followed
different duration of heating, magnitude of temperature and rate of heating in their
investigation (Husem, 2006; Savva, Manita, & Sideris, 2005; Bastami,
Baghbadrani, & Aslani, 2014; Xiao and Falkner, 2006; Pineaud, Pimienta, Rémond,
& Carré, 2016; Demirel & Keleştemur, 2010; Ali, Dinkha, & Haido, 2017; Correia,
Lima, & de Brito, 2014; Mousa, 2017; Yermak, Pliya, Beaucour, Simon, &
Noumowé, 2017; Anand & Godwin, 2016; Ergün, Kürklü, Serhat, & Mansour,
2013; Potha Raju, Shobha, & Rambabu, 2004; Cülfik & Özturan, 2002; Li, Qian, &
Sun, 2004; Aydin & Baradan, 2007; Peng et al., 2006; Chu, Jiang, Sun, & Zhang,
2016; Xu, Wong, Poon, & Anson, 2003). In reality, these studies have been carried
out on a wide variety of concretes, covering a wide range of compressive strengths.
Several models have been proposed to estimate the residual strength of concrete at
high temperatures (Xiao & Falkner, 2006; Ergün, Kürklü, Serhat, & Mansour, 2013;
Chu, Jiang, Sun, & Zhang, 2016; Aslani & Samali, 2015; Thomas & Harilal, 2016;
Abid, Hou, Zheng, & Hussain, 2017; Zheng, Li, & Wang, 2012; Chang, Chen,
Sheu, & Yao, 2006; Liu, Wang, Chen, & Ji, 2016; Anagnostopoulos, Sideris, &
Georgiadis, 2009). Very few investigations have been carried out following ISO
834 time- temperature fire curve to heat the specimens. The present investigation
aims to highlight the effect of water cement ratio, density, and porosity of the
specimens on concrete with different compressive strength (M20 to M50) exposed
to temperature with specified duration which is not found in literatures. This post
fire investigation on mechanical properties of concrete will be useful for the design
engineers to select the appropriate concrete for a specified fire resistance. New
relationships are proposed to evaluate the mechanical properties of concrete with
siliceous aggregate at elevated temperatures using regression analyses based on
experimental data.

Moreover, most of the research data on residual properties of concrete after fire
were found under the conditions of natural air cooling. The conditions during fire

31
and natural air cooling are apparently different from the cooling regimes in a real
fire,

32
where spraying of water is the most commonly adopted method of extinguishing the
fire.

Water cooling causes a thermal shock (Peng et al., 2008) and results in a severe
reduction in the mechanical properties of concrete. Therefore, the cooling regimes
were found to have a significant influence on the residual mechanical properties of
concrete. In this paper, the effect of two cooling methods (i.e. air cooling and water
spraying) on different properties of concrete are presented.

A detailed review on the available literature related to the properties of concrete

exposed to high temperatures is presented. The effect of water to cement ratio,
behaviour of high strength concrete and low strength concrete exposed to high
temperatures effect of type of cooling on residual strength of fire exposed
specimens were also discussed, followed by a review on the standard rate of
heating. Also, a detailed discussion on the cooling regimes and subsequently, the
influence of heating and cooling regime on the residual strength of concrete is
assessed, followed by an additional strength loss of heated concrete specimens
cooled by water compared to natural air cooling is presented. Finally, conclusions
are formulated in relation to the experimental observations.

The effect of high temperatures on the strength of concrete specimens has been
reported extensively in the literature. Yermak, Pliya, Beaucour, Simon and
Noumowé (2017) investigated the effect of high temperatures (300, 600, 750 and
900°C) on compressive and flexural strength of concrete specimens. The test
specimens were slowly cooled down after heating. An increase in compressive
strength of 4% from the original strength was observed at low temperatures (up to
300°C), while a significant reduction was found for higher temperatures. The
concrete specimens showed a significant reduction in flexural strength with the
increase in elevated temperature.

33
Ergün, Kürklü, Serhat and Mansour (2013) investigated the effect of high
temperature on mechanical properties of concrete using cube and beam specimens.
The test specimens were exposed to elevated temperature ranging from 100 to
800°C, and then allowed to cool down gradually to room temperature. It was
reported that a significant strength loss was noted at temperature above 400°C when
compared to strength of unheated concrete.

Chu, Jiang, Sun and Zhang (2016) investigated the compressive and splitting tensile
strength of concrete specimens after exposure to various temperatures (200, 400,
600, 800, and 1000°C). The specimens were cooled slowly to ambient room
temperature after heating. A continuous decrease in both the compressive and
tensile strength was observed with increasing exposure temperature.

Demirel and Keleştemur (2010) investigated the effect of high temperature on

concrete by means of cube specimens of size 100 mm. The concrete specimens
were heated to 400, 600 and 800°C and then cooled down to room temperature. It
was elucidated that a slight increase in relative compressive strength up to 400°C
and a slight decrease in strength was observed between 400 and 600°C. The
reduction in compressive strength of concrete was significantly higher for
specimens exposed to heating higher than 600°C. Also, the grade of concrete has a
large influence on the behaviour of concrete when exposed to fire. Previous
investigation reported that, the strength reduction is less for concrete with lower
grade. Higher grade concrete experienced higher reduction in strength because of
the increase in pore pressure within the dense structure.

Husem (2006) carried out a study on the compressive and flexural strengths of
ordinary and high-performance concrete which were exposed to elevated
temperatures (200, 400, 600, 800 and 1000°C) and cooled down by air and water. It
was found that the strength of concrete decreased with increasing temperature.
34
Li, Qian and Sun (2004) carried out an investigation on mechanical properties of
Normal-Strength Concrete (NSC) and High-Strength Concrete (HSC) after
exposing to temperatures of 200, 400, 600, 800, and 1000°C and subsequent cooling
by natural air. It was reported that the strength loss of HSC surpasses NSC,
especially at the temperature range of 25–400°C.

Bastami, Baghbadrani and Aslani (2014) investigated the effect of high temperature
on mechanical properties of HSC with water to cement ratio (w/c): 0.23-0.25; 0.25-
0.27; and 0.27-0.30. These specimens were cooled slowly to room temperature after
exposure to high temperature of 800°C. It was found that by increasing the ratio of
water to cement, compressive strength decreased in unheated concrete specimens,
while in the heated specimens higher ratio of water to cement resulted in less
reduction in the compressive strength. These results correspond to the results
obtained by Xu, Wong, Poon and Anson (2003). Further, the results obtained by Xu
et al. (2003) showed larger crack widths and lengths for concrete with w/c ratio of
0.3 compared with concretes made with w/c ratio of 0.5.

Moreover, the reduction in the strength of concrete depends on the rate of heating
when subjected to elevated temperature. Reduction in strength was not observed
when concrete specimens were heated slowly in the temperature range amid 100
and 200°C, because water evaporates slowly. Nevertheless, sudden increase in rate
of heating results in higher vapour pressure and cause crack in concrete. Sarshar and
Khoury (1993) reported that short time exposure with low temperatures (100°C)
results in a strength decrease, while for longer exposure time the original strength
was regained. This influence of rate of heating on residual mechanical properties
was also observed by Annerel (2010).

Correia, Lima and de Brito (2014) investigated the residual mechanical properties
of concrete specimens exposed to elevated temperatures of 600°C and 800°C for
35
a

36
period of 1 h, after being heated in accordance with the ISO 834 time–temperature
curve (1999). Xiao and Falkner (2006) investigated the residual mechanical
properties of concrete specimens exposed to high temperatures ranging from 20 to
900°C in accordance with ISO 834. After achieving the target temperature, it was
maintained for 3 h. The results of the research works mentioned above are shown in
Figures 2.1 to 2.3, where the residual compressive strength, residual tensile and
residual flexural strength are presented.

Figure 2.2 Published results related to residual Compressive strength of

concrete exposed to elevated temperatures

Figure 2.3 Published results related to residual tensile strength of concrete

exposed to elevated temperatures

37
 Figure 2.4 Published results related to residual flexural strength of concrete
exposed to elevated temperatures

Review of literature reveals that the original compressive strength before heating
may be lost between 600 to 800°C. Most of the research data on residual strength
after exposure to high temperature were obtained under conditions of natural
cooling (Phan & Phan, 1996; Schneider, 1988; Chan, Peng, & Anson, 1999;
Khoury, 1992), which differs obviously from the cooling regimes in a real fire,
where water spraying is usually used for fire extinguishing and consequently
thermal shock is induced to concrete.

It has been reported that water cooling caused more severe decrease in strength
compared to natural cooling (Luo, Sun, & Chan, 2000; Ishihara, Goshima, Nomura,
& Yoshimoto, 1999; Nassif, 2002). Therefore, the effect of cooling regimes on
mechanical properties of concrete is of great concern, especially after a fire case
was reported (Peng et al., 2008; Anand & Godwin, 2016).

Many authors have investigated the effect of different cooling methods on the
strength of concrete. The salient features are consolidated and given in Table 2.1.

38
In general, it is observed that a short immersion of heated concrete specimens in
water has not produced any significant effect on the reduction of concrete strength
(Abramowicz & Kowalski, 2005). It is reported that the specimens cooled naturally
in the air lost only about 10% of their strength. Specimens cooled rapidly in water
for a short time of 5 minutes, lost about 35% of their strength. Specimens cooled
rapidly in water for a long time of 20 minutes, lost about 55% of their Strength
(Kowalski, 2007).

Spraying results in a strength loss which is between the reduction obtained through
natural cooling and the reduction obtained through quenching (Botte & Caspeele,
2017). Furthermore, the results obtained by Peng et al. (2008) shows that spraying
water only for 5 min resulted in a behaviour different from quenching, while
spraying water for 30 min resulted in a behaviour comparable to quenching.

In general, it was noticed that faster cooling rates result in an additional strength
loss compared to the natural cooling. This additional reduction in strength is
attributed to the occurrence of a thermal shock which results in sudden temperature
difference.

Anand and Arulraj (2014) studied the behaviour of concrete specimens of different
grades exposed to elevated temperature. The heated specimens were cooled either
by air or water. It was found that the reduction in the compressive, tensile and the
flexural strengths of concrete specimens increased for water cooled conditions.

Aydin and Baradan (2007) investigated the mechanical properties of cement based
mortars containing pumice and fly ash exposed to high temperatures of 300, 600,
and 900 °C for 3 h. The residual strength of these specimens was determined after
cooling by water soaking or by air cooling. Test results showed that the specimens

39
cooled by water suffered greater strength loss than the air cooled specimens.

40
El-Hawary and Hamoush (1996) conducted experiments on bond shear modulus of
concrete exposed to elevated temperature. It was observed that, the bond shear
modulus of concrete cooled by water was much lower than that of the concrete
cooled gradually in air.

Abdulhussei, Abbas and Frayyeh (2018) studied the mechanical properties such as
compressive strength and flexural strength of cement mortar specimens exposed to
high temperature. The specimens were cooled by air and by water. It was found that
the compressive strength of the water cooled concrete specimen at 700°C was less
compared to that of specimen cooled in air. Abramowicz and Kowalski (2005)
conducted experiments on concrete subjected to high temperature and cooled
subsequently by air and water. Specimens were exposed to high temperatures of
270°C, 370°C and 500°C. In case of specimens cooled by water, larger decrease in
strength was observed than in the ones cooled slowly by air. Nassif, Rigden and
Burley (1999) examined the degradation of Young’s modulus of concrete exposed
to elevated temperature and then cooled by air and spraying of water. The results
indicated that specimens sprayed with water had a significant degradation of
Young’s modulus of concrete. Zoldners (1960) examined the compressive strength
of concrete heated up to 500°C. The concrete specimens were cooled by quenching
with water or allowed to naturally get cooled in the furnace. The specimens
quenched with water had much lower compressive strength than the specimens
allowed to cool slowly. Sarshar (1989) examined the compressive strength of
concrete specimens exposed to elevated temperature. The specimens were cooled by
quenching with water, cooled by natural air and the specimens were left in furnace.
Higher strength loss was observed in specimens cooled with water than those of the
specimens cooled by other means.

It was observed that rapid cooling resulted in more strength loss as compared to
normal cooling due to the development of larger crack widths and lengths during

41
rapid cooling (Chan, Peng, & Chan, 1996; Nadeem, Memon, & Lo, 2014). The
results obtained by Gupta, Siddique, Sharma and Chaudhary (2017) confirm these
observations.

The extent of damage on fire affected of concrete mainly depends on applied

magnitude of temperature, ingredients of concrete mix and nature of cooling type
adopted. During the fire accidents, generally concrete structures are quenched by
water extinguisher. Rarely the structures are left out without being quenched to
bring back into normal. But the damage level between air cooled (naturally) and
water cooled concrete structures may be different in terms of strength and porosity.
Considering both case of cooling, it is important to know the residual strength of
concrete so as to estimate the capacity of structural elements.

Past studies on fire affected concrete structures are explaining about the information
on residual strength and behaviour of structural elements after fire. Structural,
thermal and material characteristics of concrete exposed to elevated temperature and
cooled by water is missing phenomenon in the literatures. Also concrete with
different strength grade having different w/c ratio have not investigated yet to
address the residual strength behavior. Therefore, it is essential to examine the
mechanical properties such as compressive strength, tensile strength, flexural
strength and stress strain behaviour of fire affected concrete which are cooled by
forced water cooling. Availability of data on residual strength, relationship between
mechanical properties, porosity, microstructure characteristics will be helpful for
the design of concrete structures under fire condition. During the present
investigation, the concrete specimens were heated as per standard fire curve.
Mechanical properties of concrete specimens were determined when subjected to
high temperature for different durations (15 min, 30 min, 45 min, 60 min, 120 min,
180 min and 240 min).

42
Since the damage level of water cooled concrete specimen is entirely different as
compared to air cooled concrete specimens, it is essential to investigate the
mechanical properties of fire affected water cooled specimens. The damage pattern
and crack width will be different for water cooled specimens. During water cooling,
water suddenly cools the cover concrete first and significant spalling occurs on the
cover concrete. Since the rate of spalling is higher, steel gets exposed to the fire
within a short span of time. The data on residual strength of water cooled specimens
may be useful to estimate the evacuation time of humans during fire accidents in
buildings. The strength reduction factor is completely different for water cooled
specimens compared to air cooled specimens, so this data will be helpful for
developing standards in structural fire engineering.

Table 2.1 shows the database of residual strength of concrete subjected to different
methods of cooling and additional strength reduction due to rapid cooling.
Researchers followed various durations of heating, intensity of heating, rate of
heating and different cooling methods in their study (Peng et al., 2008; Husem,
2006; Abramowicz & Kowalski, 2005; Kowalski, 2007; Botte & Caspeele, 2017;
Abdulhussei, Abbas, & Frayyeh, 2018; Gupta, Siddique, Sharma, & Chaudhary,
2017; Awal, Shehu, & Ismail, 2015; Chan, Luo, & Sun, 2000; Li, Yang, & Tan,
2019; Karakoç, 2013; Aydın, 2008; Shaikh & Vimonsatit, 2016; Wang, Liu, Xu, &
Zhao, 2019). Table 2.2 gives the details of the different models to determine the
residual strength of concrete at elevated temperatures for different cooling methods
(Chu, Jiang, Sun, & Zhang, 2016; Ergün, Kürklü, Serhat, & Mansour, 2013; Xiao &
Falkner, 2006; Awal, Shehu, & Ismail, 2015; Zheng, Li, & Wang, 2012; Chang,
Chen, Sheu, & Yao, 2006; Liu, Wang, Chen, & Ji, 2016; Anagnostopoulos, Sideris,
& Georgiadis, 2009; Thomas & Harilal, 2016).

Few investigations are addressing the effect of standard fire on residual strength
behaviour of concrete. Effect of water cooling on residual strength characteristics of

43
concrete exposed to standard fire is missing. Concrete with low and higher water to
cement ratio and its effect on higher temperature exposure to be understood.
Relationships are established to assess the residual strength of concrete (Normal
siliceous aggregate concrete) at elevated temperatures and subjected to different
cooling conditions using regression analysis based on experimental data. The
objective of this study is to improve the understanding of the residual mechanical
properties such as compressive strength, tensile strength, flexural strength and stress
strain behaviour of different grades of concrete exposed to standard fire and
subsequently cooled by natural air and spraying water. The microstructure analysis
of concrete subjected to elevated temperature has also been carried out.

44
 Table 2.6 Experimental Results Database of Residual Strength of Concrete subjected to Different methods of cooling and
Additional Strength Reduction due to Rapid Cooling

Additional
strength
reduction
Residual
Compressive Rate of Duration of Method of due to rapid
Reference Temperatures compressive
strength [MPa] heating heating cooling cooling
strength
(compared to
natural
cooling) (%)
1.79min + 1h,
3.6min + 1h, 200, 400, 600 Air cooled
Awal, Shehu and ISO-834 fire 93.5, 86, 73.7
44.4 6.9min + 1h and 800°C under laboratory -
Ismail (2015) curve and 43.9%
and 27min + environment
1h
1.79min + 1h,
3.6min + 1h, 200, 400, 600
Awal, Shehu and ISO-834 fire 88.9, 81, 70.9 4.6, 5, 2.8 and
44.4 6.9min + 1h and 800°C Water spraying
Ismail (2015) curve and 40.5% 3.4
and 27min +
1h
Abramowicz and 270, 370 and
100, 137 and Cooled in open
Kowalski 25/30 2.7 °C/min 500°C 93, 80 and 50% -
(2005) 185min air
Abramowicz and 100, 137 and 270, 370 and Quenched with
25/30 2.7 °C/min 84, 75 and 45% 9, 5 and 5
Kowalski (2005) 185min 500°C water for 10 sec
Abramowicz and 112, 154 and 270, 370 and Cooled in open
45/50 2.4 °C/min 208min 500°C 92, 78 and 51% -
Kowalski (2005) air

Abramowicz and 270, 370 and Quenched with 90, 77.5 and
45/50 2.4 °C/min 112, 154 and 2, 0.5 and 2
Kowalski (2005) 500°C water for 10 sec 49%
208min

45
 (Table 2.6 Continued)
175min + 15h,
Botte and 350min + 15h 175, 350 and Spraying water
- 1°C/min and 600min + 87, 58 and 25% -
Caspeele (2017) 600°C for 5 min
15h
175min + 15h,
Botte and 350min + 15h 175, 350 and Quenched in
- 1 °C/min and 600min + 65, 44 and 24% 22, 14 and 1
Caspeele (2017) 600°C water
15h
133min + 1h
Chan, Luo and Natural cooling
35 6°C/min and 183min + 800 and 1100°C 42.8 and 31.4% -
Sun (2000) in the furnace
1h
133min + 1h
Chan, Luo and 800 and 1100°C Quenched in
35 6°C/min and 183min + 8.2 and 7.1% 34.6 and 24.3
Sun (2000) water
1h
Abdulhussei, 100, 200, 400 111, 116.6, 77.7
Abbas and 18 - Exposed for 2h and 700°C Cooled by air -
and 61%
Frayyeh (2018)
Abdulhussei, 100, 200, 400 Quenched in
Exposed for 104.5, 68, 54.5 6.5, 48.6, 23.2
Abbas and 22 - and 700°C water for 30
2h and 35.4% and 25.6
Frayyeh min
(2018)
Gupta, Siddique,
30, 60, 90, 120 102.8, 86.6,
Sharma and 52.5 5°C/min 150, 300, 450,
and 150min Cooled by air 73.3, 56.1 and -
Chaudhary 600 and 750°C
18%
(2017)
Gupta, Siddique,
30, 60, 90, 120 150, 300, 450, Quenched in 6.8, 16.6,
Sharma and 5°C/min 96, 70, 56, 36.1
52.5 and 150min 600 and 750°C water for 10 17.3, 20 and
Chaudhary and 12.3%
min 5.7
(2017)

46
 (Table 2.6 Continued)
173, 226 and 330, 430 and
Kowalski (2007) 38.9 1.9°C/min Cooled in air 86, 63 and 42% -
289min 550°C
173, 226 and 330, 430 and Quenched in
Kowalski (2007) 38.9 1.9°C/min 64, 47 and 34% 22, 16 and 8
289min 550°C water for 5 min
173, 226 and Quenched in
38.9 330, 430 and
Kowalski (2007) 1.9°C/min 289min water for 10 61, 44 and 35% 25, 19 and 7
550°C min
173, 226 and Quenched in
38.9 330, 430 and
Kowalski (2007) 1.9°C/min 289min water for 15 51, 40 and 29% 35, 23 and 13
550°C
min
173, 226 and Quenched in
38.9 330, 430 and
Kowalski (2007) 1.9°C/min 289min water for 20 45, 41 and 24% 41, 22 and 18
550°C
min
300min + 3h,
Li, Yang and 600min + 3h 300, 600 and Cooled in the 159.3, 108.5
131.7 1 °C/min -
Tan (2019) and 900min + 900°C furnace and 42.1%
3h
300min + 3h,
600min + 3h Quenched in
Li, Yang and 300, 600 and 109.6, 74.4 and 49.7, 34.1 and
131.7 1 °C/min and 900min + water for 15
Tan (2019) 900°C 35.6% 6.5
3h min
Karakoç (2013) 76.58 12-20°C/min 58-35 min + 1h 700°C Natural cooling 29% -
Karakoç (2013) 76.58 12-20°C/min 58-35 min + 1h 700°C Furnace cooling 30.2% -1.2
Karakoç (2013) 76.58 12-20°C/min 58-35 min + 1h 700°C Water cooling 41% -12
36min, 72 min,
109min, 200, 400, 600, 68, 76.8, 73.9,
Husem (2006) 85.1 5.5°C/min 145min and Cooled in air -
800 and 1000°C 48.5 and 24.6%
181min + 1h

47
 (Table 2.6 Continued)
36min, 72 min,
109min, 200, 400, 600, 67, 70.6, 66, 44 1, 6.2, 7.9, 4.5
Husem (2006) 85.1 5.5°C/min 145min and Cooled in water
800 and 1000°C and 0% and 24.6
181min + 1h
1.79min + 1h,
Peng, Bian, Guo, 3.6min + 1h,
ISO-834 fire 200, 400, 600 120.3, 84.4,
Zhao, Peng and 83.5 6.9min + 1h Natural cooling
curve and 800°C 53.8 and 28.7%
Jiang (2008) and 27min +
1h
1.79min + 1h,
Peng, Bian, Guo, 3.6min + 1h,
ISO-834 fire 200, 400, 600 Spraying water 97, 71.8, 39.5 23.3, 12.6,
Zhao, Peng and 83.5 6.9min + 1h
curve and 800°C for 5 min and 28.7% 14.3 and 0
Jiang (2008) and 27min +
1h
1.79min + 1h,
Peng, Bian, Guo, 3.6min + 1h,
ISO-834 fire 200, 400, 600 Spraying water 86.2, 59.8, 29.9 34.1, 24.6,
Zhao, Peng and 83.5 6.9min + 1h
curve and 800°C for 30 min and 14.3% 23.9 and 14.4
Jiang (2008) and 27min +
1h
1.79min + 1h,
Peng, Bian, Guo, 3.6min + 1h,
ISO-834 fire 200, 400, 600 Spraying water 83.8, 53.8, 32.3 36.5, 30.6,
Zhao, Peng and 83.5 6.9min + 1h
curve and 800°C for 60 min and 17.9% 21.5 and 10.8
Jiang (2008) and 27min +
1h
1.79min + 1h,
3.6min + 1h,
Peng, Bian, Guo,
ISO-834 fire 6.9min + 1h 200, 400, 600 Quenching in 86, 65.8, 32.3 34.3, 18.6,
Zhao, Peng and 83.5
curve and 27min + and 800°C water and 17.9% 21.5 and 10.8
Jiang (2008)
1h

48
 (Table 2.6 Continued)
30min + 3h,
60min + 3h 300, 600 and 122.5, 95.8 and
Aydin (2008) 45.6 10 °C/min and 90min + Cooled by air
900°C 31.5%
3h
30min + 3h,
60min + 3h 300, 600 and Quenched in 81.1, 69 and 41.4, 26.8 and
Aydin (2008) 45.6 10 °C/min and 90min + 900°C water 28% 3.5
3h
25min + 2h,
Shaikh and 50min + 2h,
75min + 2h 200, 400, 600 112.9, 92.5,
Vimonsatit 54 8 °C/min Cooled by air
and 100min + and 800°C 44.4 and 16.6%
(2016)
2h
25min + 2h,
Shaikh and 50min + 2h,
75min + 2h 200, 400, 600 Quenched in 92.5, 75.9, 43.5 20.4, 16.6, 0.9
Vimonsatit 54 8 °C/min
and 100min + and 800°C water and 14.8% and 1.8
(2016)
2h
16min + 3h,
33min + 3h,
Wang, Liu, Xu 50min + 3h 200, 400, 600 Natural cooling 82.5, 74.2, 47.7
60.3 12 °C/min
and Zhao (2019) and 66min + and 800°C in open furnace and 22.7%
3h
16min + 3h,
33min + 3h,
Wang, Liu, Xu 50min + 3h 200, 400, 600 Spraying water 77.4, 64, 48.4 5.1, 10.2, -0.7
60.3 12 °C/min
and Zhao (2019) and 66min + and 800°C for 30 min and 17.5 and 5.2
3h

49
Cheng, Kodur and Wang (2004) investigated the effects of high temperature on
strength and stress-strain relationship of high strength concrete (HSC). Stress-strain
curve tests were conducted at various temperatures (20, 100, 200, 400, 600 and
800°C) for four types of HSC. The variables considered in the experimental study
included concrete strength, type of aggregate, and the addition of steel fibres.
Results from stress-strain curve tests show that plain HSC exhibits brittle properties
below 600°C, and ductility above 600°C. The strain at peak loading increases with
temperature; from 0.003 at room temperature to 0.02 at 800°C. Further, the increase
in strains for carbonate aggregate HSC is larger than that for siliceous aggregate
HSC.

Petkovski (2010) experimentally studied the effects of different heat–load regimes

on the stress–strain behaviour of partially sealed concrete under multiaxial
compression, at elevated temperature. Concrete structures exposed to high
temperatures is practically always heated under stress. Yet, there are few
experimental studies in which the concrete was heated under stress and then loaded
to the peak, and most of these were performed under uniaxial compression. The
specimens were first heated (stressed/unstressed), then loaded to the peak in
multiaxial compression. In contrast with previous experimental research, the results
show that concrete heated under relatively low compressive stress has lower
strength and stiffness than concrete heated without load. The results suggested that
the presence of stress during first heating produces a specific damage, which could
be the cause for a major component of the load induced thermal strain (LITS) in
concrete.

Zheng, Li and Wang (2012) performed an experimental research on the complete

compressive stress–strain relationships for reactive powder concrete (RPC) with
various steel fiber contents after exposure to 20–900°C. The results indicated that
the compressive strength and elastic modulus of RPC increase at first, then decrease
with the increasing temperature, and the loss of elastic modulus is quicker than the
50
compressive strength. The peak strain and ultimate strain reach peaks at 600°C and

51
700°C respectively, and they increase exponentially before the peak points, but
decrease linearly after the peak points.

Anand, Arulraj and Aravindhan (2014) studied the stress-strain behaviour of

Normal Compacting Concrete (NCC) and Self Compacting Concrete at a
temperature of 900°C. A significant reduction in the Ultimate compressive strength
of SCC was observed during this study. The reduction was found to be more for
SCC compared to Normal compacting concrete. The reduction in the compressive
strength of SCC was found to be 81.5 % for M40 concrete when exposed to 900°C.

Aslani and Samali (2014) developed constitutive relationships for high-strength

FRSC subjected to fire. The proposed relationships at elevated temperature were
compared with experimental results. These results were used to establish
compressive stress–strain relationships.

Zheng, Luo and Wang (2015) presented the stress–strain curves of reactive powder
concrete (RPC) specimens in compression tested at increasing temperatures to study
the fire resistance of RPC. Stress–strain tests were conducted at various
temperatures (20, 200, 400, 600 and 800°C), and the decomposition phases and
microstructure changes were identified using X-ray diffract ion and a scanning
electron microscope (SEM). The compressive strength and elastic modulus of RPC
with steel fibres decrease with temperature, whereas the peak strain increases. The
energy absorption capacity increases at increasing temperature below 400°C, but
decreases above 400°C. The SEM images showed distinct structural changes
corresponding to the deterioration of RPC at elevated temperatures.

Chang, Chen, Sheu and Yao (2006) reported that the Compressive strength
decreases continuously with an increase in temperature. The reduction rate was

52
found to be

53
lower for the temperatures below 200°C. The residual strength at 200°C was around
90% of the original unheated value. However, the residual strength at 400, 600 and
800°C were around 65%, 40% and 15% of the strength of unheated specimens
respectively.

Arioz (2007) presented the effects of elevated temperatures on the physical and
mechanical properties of various concrete mixtures prepared using ordinary
Portland cement, crushed limestone, and river gravel. Specimens were subjected to
elevated temperatures ranging from 200 to 1200°C. After exposure, weight losses
and the compressive strength were found out. Test results indicated that weight of
the specimens significantly reduced with an increase in temperature. This reduction
was very sharp beyond 800°C. The effects of water/cement ratio and type of
aggregate on losses in weight were not found to be significant. The results also
revealed that the relative strength of concrete decreased as the exposure temperature
increased.

Fares, Remond, Noumowe and Cousture (2010) presented an experimental study on

the performance of self-consolidating concrete (SCC) subjected to high
temperature. Mechanical and microstructural properties were studied at ambient
temperature and after heating. For each test, the specimens were heated at a rate of
1°C/ min up to different temperatures (150, 300, 450 and 600°C). In order to ensure
a uniform temperature throughout the specimen, the temperature was held constant
at the target temperature for 1 h before cooling. In addition, the specimen mass was
measured before and after heating in order to determine the loss of water during the
test.

Ahmad and Abdulkareem (2010) experimentally studied the effect of high

temperatures on the mechanical properties of concrete containing admixtures.
Concrete was exposed to three levels of high temperatures (200,400,600)°C, for a
54
duration of one hour, without any imposed load during the heating. Mechanical
properties of concrete were studied at different high temperatures, including:

55
compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, modulus of elasticity and ultimate
strain. Test results showed a reduction in the studied properties by different rates for
different additives and for each temperature, the decrease was very limited at
temperature up to (200°C) but was clear at (400,600) °C.

Khaliq and Kodur (2011) presented the effect of temperature on thermal and
mechanical properties of self-consolidating concrete (SCC) and fiber reinforced
SCC (FRSCC). For thermal properties specific heat, thermal conductivity, and
thermal expansion were measured, whereas for mechanical properties compressive
strength, tensile strength and elastic modulus were measured in the temperature
range of 20 – 800 °C. The results showed that the temperature has significant
influence on thermal conductivity, specific heat and thermal expansion of SCC and
FRSCC. The proposed relationships for high temperature thermal and mechanical
properties can be used as input data in computer programs for evaluating the fire
response of SCC and FRSCC structures exposed to fire.

Anand and Arulraj (2011) found that the factors like Shape of specimen, size of
specimen, magnitude of temperature load applied on the specimen, time duration
maintained for heating, reference on time-temperature curve, rate of heating, rate of
cooling, time taken for hot test after curing period, time taken for load test after
heating, heat test on stressed/unstressed member, type of cooling adopted on heated
specimen by natural cooling or cooling by spraying water etc were the parameters
that influence the test results. Under elevated temperature, it is necessary that
several factors be taken into account for each experiment. Strength of concrete, type
of cement, type of aggregate, water cement ratio, density of concrete, percentage of
reinforcement, cover to the reinforcement etc were some of the important factors
that affect the performance of concrete at elevated temperature.

56
Aslani and Nejadi (2013) developed constitutive relationships for normal and high-
strength self-compacting concrete (NSCC and HSCC) subjected to fire to provide
efficient modeling and specify the fire performance criteria for concrete structures.
They were developed for unconfined NSCC and HSCC specimens that include
compressive and tensile strengths, elastic modulus, strain at peak stress as well as
compressive stress–strain relationships at elevated temperatures. The proposed
relationships at elevated temperature were compared with experimental results.
These results were used to establish more accurate and general compressive stress–
strain relationships.

Aslani and Samali (2014) developed constitutive relationships for high-strength

FRSC subjected to fire, with the purpose of given that capable modelling and to
specify the fire-performance criteria for concrete structures. The proposed
relationships at elevated temperature were compared with experimental results.
These results were used to establish compressive stress–strain relationships. Further
experimental results for tension and the other main parameters at elevated
temperature were needed in order to establish well-founded models and to improve
the proposed constitutive relationships, which are general, rational, and fit well with
the experimental results.

Godwin, Anand, Arulraj and Aravindhan (2016) studied the effect of elevated
temperature on different grades of Self Compacting Concrete (SCC). After heating
the specimens to 900ºC, samples were allowed to cool naturally in case of air
cooling and water was sprayed on the specimens in case of water cooling.
Compressive strength and Stress Strain behaviour of specimens were found. Higher
strength loss was observed for higher grade of SCC. It was found from the
experimental investigations that higher strain values were observed for the
specimens cooled by water as compared to specimens cooled by air and reference
specimen.

57
Anand and Arulraj (2014) studied the behaviour of SCC beams of various grades
exposed to elevated temperatures under flexural loading. The heated specimens
were cooled either by air or water. The research work was carried out for different
grades of concrete. It was found from the results that higher grades will result in
higher compressive strength and shear resistance. It was found that the reduction in
the compressive strength, tensile strength and the flexural strength of SCC
specimens slightly increases as the grade increases for all heating and cooling
conditions. The maximum reduction in the compressive strength, tensile strength
and the flexural strength was 79.8%, 82.9% and 82.2% respectively for the M40
grade specimens that are heated from room temperature to 900°C and cooled by
spraying water.

Chan, Peng and Anson (1999) carried out an experimental study on strength and
pore structure of high-strength concrete and normal strength concrete after exposure
to high temperature. After exposure to temperatures up to 1200˚C, compressive
strength and tensile splitting strength was determined. Results show that HSC lost
its mechanical strength in a manner similar to that of NSC. The range between 400
and 800˚C was critical to the strength loss. High temperatures have a coarsening
effect on the microstructure of both HSC and NSC. On the whole HSC and NSC
suffered damage to almost the same degree, although HSC appeared to suffer a
greater worsening of the permeability-related durability.

Hawileh, Naser, Zaidan and Rasheed (2009) has been developed a detailed finite
element model of a CFRP strengthened reinforced concrete T-beam. Nonlinear time
domain transient thermal-stress finite element analysis is performed using the
commercial software ANSYS to study the heat transfer mechanism and deformation
within the beam for fire conditions initiating at the bottom of the beam. To relate
the simulation to an actual case, are in forced concrete T-beam strengthened with
CFRP and fire-tested by other investigators is modelled. In addition, the mid-span
deflection increases nonlinearly during the fire exposure time due to the increase
58
in the total

59
strain on the tension side of the beams and due to concrete cracking. Successful FE
modelling of this structure provides an economical, alternative solution to expensive
experimental investigations.

Vasudevan and Kothandaraman (2011) studied the nonlinear behaviour of RC

beams due to involvement of various parameters using ANSYS. In this paper,
results of the four point bending analysis conducted with respect to concrete
constitutive properties, mesh density, use of steel cushion for the supports and
loading points, effect of shear reinforcement on flexural behaviour, convergence
criteria, and impact of percentage of reinforcement are analysed and discussed. The
outcome of this work will provide a wider platform for further usage of ANSYS in
the analysis of RC beams.

Sideris and Manita (2013) investigated the residual mechanical characteristics and
spalling resistance of fibre reinforced self-compacting concretes exposed to elevated
temperatures. A total of six different SCC and two normal concrete mixtures were
produced. The specimens produced were placed at the age of 120 days in an
electrical furnace and the heat was applied with a rate of 5˚C/min. The tested
temperatures were 300˚C and 600˚C. Once reached, the maximum temperature was
maintained for 1 hour. Then the specimens were naturally cooled down to ambient
temperature in the furnace. Compressive strength of SCC mixtures was also linearly
reduced, and it can be said that strength reduction illustrated parallel to the one
observed on NVC mixtures of the same strength category.

Badiger and Malipatil (2014) carried out four point bending analysis of reinforced
concrete beam using ANSYS 13.0. Finite element software is used for modeling
and analysis by conducting non linear static analysis. The results of the beam with
respect to mesh density, varying depths, use of steel cushions for support and
loading points,
60
effect of shear reinforcement on flexure behaviour, impact of tension reinforcement
on behaviour of the beam are analyzed and discussed.

Chu, Jiang, Sun and Zhang (2016) investigated mechanical and physicochemical
properties of Ferro-siliceous concrete subjected to elevated temperatures.
Mechanical and physicochemical properties of FSCs were studied at both ambient
and high temperatures (200, 400, 600, 800, and 1000˚C). Ultrasonic pulse velocity
(UPV) propagation in FSCs at different temperatures was determined by ultrasonic
testing technique, and the relationships between strengths and UPV of FSCs were
eventually obtained. The results indicated that, the critical temperature range of
FSCs was 400– 600˚C.

Moulika, Vasireddy and Raju (2017) modelled and analysed the has when subjected
to two point loads at one third span from each support, using Finite Element
Analysis tool, popularly called ANSYS software. While modelling RC beam for
flexure analysis the beam is to be modelled including shear reinforcement using link
180 element so as to reflect the field reality. Using the data obtained from the
numerical analysis of the beam, displacement, stress intensity and the crack pattern
in concrete are determined and there is a small variation in load vs displacement due
to building up of more shear force.

2.2.2 Effect of Elevated Temperature on Structural Behaviour of

Reinforced Concrete Beam

Hsu and Lin (2008) determined the temperature distribution in concrete beams
exposed to the time-temperature curve of standard fire. It was reported that the
results obtained had a good agreement with the measured values. The increase in
temperature, changes the temperature distribution across the cross section of beam.

61
El-Hawary, Ragab, Abd El-Azim and Elibiari (1996) carried out experiments on the
flexural strength of simply supported RC beams and evaluated the impact of fire
durations on the ultimate load and deflection. The results indicated that, the shear
strength of simply supported RC beams highly dependent on the fire duration and
thickness of concrete cover (El-Hawary, Ragab, Abd El-Azim, & Elibiari, 1997).
Phan and carino (2002) tested flexural behaviour of simply supported RC beams
with different concrete grades exposed to different fire durations. Zandi, Burnaz and
Durmuş (2012) carried out a nonlinear transient heat analysis of a reinforced
concrete cross-section exposed to standard fire using simplified finite element
method.

When exposed to high temperatures, such as fire, concrete undergoes a series of

changes in its chemical composition and physical structure. These changes occur
primarily in the hardened cement paste starting from the decomposition of calcium
hydroxide at 400°C, and continue until complete deterioration of the calcium-
silicate- hydrate gel at around 800°C. As a result of these changes, concrete
deteriorated gradually losing its strength (Arioz, 2007; Poon, Azhar, Anson, &
Wong, 2001; Thanaraj, Anand, & Arulraj, 2019; Varghese & Samuel, 2018) and
causing exposure of reinforcing steel to heat during the period of heating (Ünlüoğlu
et al., 2007). Thus, the mechanical properties i.e. the yield strength, ultimate
strength and modulus of elasticity of reinforcing steel bars decrease (Ünlüoğlu et
al., 2007) with increasing temperature. Beams are generally subjected to flexural
and shearing loads. The residual bending and shear capacities of fire-damaged RC
beams are important factors in determining the safety of RC structures. Both
concrete and steel undergo considerable changes in strength, stiffness and other
physical properties when subjected to extreme heating. Yamazaki et al. (1995)
developed the database on the behaviour of RC beams at high temperature. Salama,
Ghanem, Abd-Elnaby, El- Hefnawy and Abd-Elghaffar (2012) examined the
behaviour of fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) strengthened RC beams subjected to
an elevated temperature of 500°C for 3 hours. The strengthened RC beams

62
exhibited an increase in flexural strength by 78% when compared with concrete
without FRP. Kodur, Solhmirzaei,

63
Agrawal, Aziz and Soroushian (2018) evaluated the failure characteristics of ultra-
high performance fiber reinforced concrete (UHPFRC) beams subjected to flexural
and shear loading with a low tensile reinforcement ratio without shear
reinforcement. El-Hawary et al. (1996) investigated the flexural behaviour of RC
beams subjected to a temperature of 650°C for different time durations. A reduction
in ultimate load, and compressive strength and an increase in deflection were
observed for the beams subjected to elevated temperatures. Sullivan (2004) used
statistical analysis to determine the deterioration and explosive spalling of RC
beams in flexure at temperature of 700°C. The concrete with w/c ratio of 0.35 was
found to be more susceptible to explosive spalling than concrete with w/c ratios of
0.25 and 0.50. Kumar and (2003) carried out experiments on RC beams exposed to
fire for durations varying from 1 to 2.5 hrs. The results showed that the reduction in
initial stiffness of the beams was more than the ultimate stiffness and the reduction
was found to increase with increased duration of exposure.

Bending and shear capacities of RC beam section directly depend on concrete

strength grade and reinforcement provided. Exposure to elevated temperature
affects the shear carrying capacity of sections apart from moment of resistance of
the sections. El-Hawary et al. (1997) investigated the effect of fire exposure time
and the concrete cover thickness on the behaviour of the shear zone of RC beams
subjected to fire and cooled by water. It was reported that thin covers and prolonged
exposures affect the strength of concrete and reinforcing steel significantly. Topçu
and IşIkdağ (2008) studied the changes in the mechanical properties of the
reinforcement steel placed inside the mortar specimens after exposure to high
temperature. After exposing the reinforced mortar specimens to high temperatures,
the steel rods were taken out of the mortar specimen to determine the tensile
strength. The study concluded that the larger the cover thickness, the better the steel
bars are protected against high temperatures. Ünlüoğlu et al. (2007) investigated the
mechanical properties of structural reinforcement steel after the exposure to high
temperatures. For the temperatures up to 500°C, the reinforcing steel specimens

64
with cover had the

65
same yield strength and tensile strength compared with the reinforcing steel without
fire exposure. However, above 500°C, the reinforcing steel with cover loses its
strength capacities. Choi and Shin (2011) investigated the effect of temperature
distribution, concrete strength, cover thickness and heating time on the structural
behaviour of reinforced concrete beams. The test results showed that the
relationships between time and temperature distributions in the beam sections were
similar and unrelated to the strength of concrete. Bratina, Čas, Saje and Planinc
(2005) studied the behaviour of RC columns in fire. Temperature distribution on
sections was determined during fire and the data was used as temperature load to
perform the thermal analysis.

2.2.3 Effect of Elevated Temperature on Improved Structural Performance of

Reinforced Concrete Beam

Mladenovič, Šuput, Ducman and Škapin (2004) investigated the durability

properties like alkali silica reaction of mortar produced with expanded vermiculite,
expanded clay, expanded glass and perlite. It was observed that expanded
vermiculite did not reveal any potential alkali silica reaction. Schackow, Effting,
Folgueras, Güths and Mendes (2014) investigated the effect of air-entraining
admixtures on thermal and mechanical properties of lightweight concrete produced
by replacing sand with expanded polystyrene and vermiculite. It was found that,
with the addition of air- entraining admixtures unit weight and strength decreases,
whereas the thermal performance of concrete increases. Formosa, Haurie,
Chimenos, Lacasta and Rosell (2008) studied the performance of vermiculite and
magnesium by-product as aggregates in the manufacture of fire proof mortars, and
reported that mortar with magnesium by-product and vermiculite had effects. Silva,
Ribeiro, Labrincha and Ferreira (2010) studied the properties of mortar with
incorporation of vermiculite and perlite. Incorporation of perlite and vermiculite as
filler into mortar decreases mechanical properties of mortar due to lack of cohesion.
Also, perlite and vermiculite are responsible for voids and higher capillarity, water

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demand and shrinkage.

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Koksal, del Coz Diaz, Gencel and Alvarez Rabanal (2013) studied the properties of
cement based bricks modified with styrene acrylic ester copolymer. Expanded
vermiculite as lightweight aggregate was used for making the polymer modified
mortar test specimens. It was concluded that polymer–cement and vermiculite–
cement ratios on properties of brick are given. In these studies, compressive
strength seems low.

Sutcu (2015) investigated properties of brick mixtures containing vermiculite at

different proportions. Porous clay bricks by adding 2.5, 5, 7.5 and 10 wt.%
expanded vermiculite have been produced by semi-dry pressing process.
Vermiculite addition increases porosity resulting in an increased thermal
performance. Thermal conductivity of the porous samples with vermiculite of 10%
decreased from 0.96 to
0.65 W/mK by raising porosity. And the brick samples produced with vermiculite
addition could be used as an insulating material in construction applications.
Gencel, del Coz Diaz, Sutcu, Koksal, Rabanal, Martinez-Barrera and Brostow
(2014) used expanded vermiculite in production of lightweight gypsum composites.
It was observed that the thermal conductivity values decreases by depending on
vermiculite content in the composites.

Abidi, Nait-Ali, Joliff and Favotto (2015) studied thermo-mechanical behaviour of

plaster composite panels with perlite and vermiculite for thermal insulator and
passive protection under fire exposure in building construction, and found that the
thermal performance and fire resistance increased. Martias, Joliff and Favotto
(2014) proposed and compared: experimental, analytical and numerical to quantify
the impact of additives on the mechanical properties. Gypsum based composites
produced with minerals such as vermiculite, mica, glass fibers. It was reported that
both particles size distribution and amounts of additives had an effect on the
mechanical properties and fire resistance. Melo, da Silva, Coutinho, Sousa and
Perazzo (2012) produced gypsum composite using vermiculite for energy efficiency
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in building, and observed that the usage of vermiculite in gypsum composite and
plaster improved thermal performance. But, it is well-known that the major
limitation of gypsum plaster is its brittleness at room temperature and its poor
resistance to crack opening and propagation when it is exposed to fire.

Rahman and Babu (2016) performed an experimental investigation on light weight

cement concrete using vermiculite minerals. Three mixes were produced with the
cement content of 479 kg/m3 in M30 grade and water cement ratio is 0.40. More
over the group had proportion of 0%, 5%, 10%, as vermiculite replacement. Based
on results the compressive strength was decreased when increasing the percentage
of vermiculite. But 5 % of vermiculite added concrete gave a characteristic
compressive strength. Compare with conventional cube the cube with vermiculite
had less density. Mo, Lee, Liu and Ling (2018) found the incorporation of expanded
vermiculite lightweight aggregate in cement mortar. Expanded vermiculite mortar
enhanced resistance toward elevated temperature, as lower compressive strength
loss was observed compare to plain mortar. Water absorption of mortar was
increased when the expanded vermiculite dosage as partial sand replacement was
increase. Martias, Joliff and Favotto (2014) presented the Effects of the addition of
glass fibres, mica and vermiculite on the mechanical properties of a gypsum-based
composite at room temperature and during a fire test. The addition of vermiculite in
proportion of 25 % leads to a decrease of 80% of the Young modulus.

Gencel, del Coz Diaz, Sutcu, Koksal, Rabanal, Martinez-Barrera and Brostow
(2014) investigated the mechanical and thermal properties of gypsum composites
containing vermiculite and polypropylene fibres. The vermiculite was ground and
fine sized particles smaller than sieving intervals of 100-mesh (149 micron) were
used for plaster mixes. The vermiculite ratio as percentage, with an initial value of
10% and ranging from 0% to 20% and Polypropylene fibre ratio in percentage, with
an initial value of 0.5%, ranging from 0.01% to 1%. Vermiculite reduces the
compressive
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strength while PP fibres somewhat enhance the strength. The thermal conductivity
of our composites decreases with increasing vermiculite content.

Abidi, Nait-Ali, Joliff and Favotto (2015) studied of Impact of perlite, vermiculite
and cement on the thermal conductivity of a plaster composite material. This work
deals with the thermo mechanical behaviour of a new composite material used as
thermal insulator. The main disadvantage of plaster is its brittleness at room
temperature and its poor resistance to crack opening and propagation when it is
subjected to fire conditions as described in the standard curve ISO 834.The
temperature reaches after 240 min is around 1200°C. The value of thermal
conductivity decreases with the increase of the rate of porosity. Indeed, the air
present in the pore is an excellent insulator which improves the thermal insulator
behaviour of the composite the matrix is reinforced with 5 or 25 wt.% of
vermiculite the thermal conductivity decreases from 0.50W/mK to 0.45 and
0.23W/mK for volume pore fractions at 47%, 51% and 74% respectively.

Schackow, Effting, Folgueras, Güths and Mendes (2014) performed mechanical and
thermal properties of lightweight concretes with vermiculite and Expanded
Polystyrene (EPS) using air-entraining agent. Vermiculite was placed in water for
24 h before use, to not absorb water mixture. For the compressive strength, the
mixtures with higher value of 14.80 MPa and 15.55 MPa. It showed that lower
amount of air- entraining agent and smaller amount of lightweight aggregate
provided higher compressive strength for lightweight concretes. The density
obtained for vermiculite lightweight concrete ranged from 1.130 g/cm3 to 1.290
g/cm3. By comparing the EPS lightweight concrete and the vermiculite lightweight
concrete, vermiculite lightweight concrete had lower thermal conductivity.

Sun and Wang (2015) carried out an experimental study on utilization of

paraffin/expanded perlite materials to improve mechanical and thermal properties of

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cement mortar. In this experimental paper paraffin has good compatibility with
expanded perlite. The compressive and flexural strength of cement mortar decrease
with increasing amount of paraffin/expanded perlite materials. Cement mortar with
20 wt% paraffin/expanded perlite materials has good heat storage and thermal
stability.

Xu, Peng, Zhu and Chen (2016) Investigated the bulk density of EP is 61 kg/m3.
The water absorption ratio is 120% - 300% and the particle size is 0.1 mm - 2.5
mm. Addition of 30-40% ep by weight of cement. The more the EP dosages are, the
lower the compressive and flexural strength. Compared with the control sample the
compressive strength of modified samples reduced by 25% to 65% and the flexural
strength decreased by 17% to 45%.

Malhotra (1982) reported that concrete partially loses its strength at temperature of
200–250°C, but cracks start to occur at about 300°C where the concrete loses 30%
of its compressive strength, and the loss of strength continues with the increase in
the temperature.

Abrams (1971) proved with experimental study that, all concrete loses strength at
elevated temperatures, but the rate of reduction differs with the type of aggregate
used.

There are many different feasible approaches to protect reinforced concrete

structures from fire/ elevated temperature such as increasing the thickness of the
cover concrete, use different types of aggregate and finally adding coating.

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Zhou and Zhang (2003) reported that most concrete structures have coatings in their
members. Basically, the coatings can be classified into two categories: combustible
and non-combustible. For non- combustible coating, such as mortar rendering, it is a
retardant, which prevents fire heat penetrating to their inner structural members. So,
the fire safety of concrete structures is improved by this kind of rendering. Repeated
tests have confirmed that perlite–gypsum (PG) and perlite–Portland cement coating
are exceptionally effective in blocking or delaying the transmission of high
temperature (Zhou & Zhang, 2003). Perlite plasters provides up to 4–6 times more
resistance to heat transmission than ordinary sand plaster (Zhou & Zhang, 2003).
Many standard fire tests of coated materials have been made in recent years; they
afford a very practical and economical means of developing effective fire
protection.

The fire resistance of such concrete elements may be increased by protecting the
reinforcement bars from high temperature by increasing the thickness of the
protective layer, plastering with low heat-conducting materials (Hodhod, Rashad,
Abdel-Razek, & Ragab, 2009). Vermiculite plaster has four times more resistance
to heat transmission than sand plaster. Thus, it permits savings in heating and air
conditioning costs and conserves energy. It is as well fire retardant/non-combustible
and non-toxic as it provides up to 5 h fire protection with minimum weight and
thickness.

National building codes handbook recommends to use vermiculite and perlite for
fire resistance of concrete structures (Hutchings, 1998). Egyptian Code (EC) (2007)
and Arab Unified code (1997) recommend the use of 1.5 cm lime cement or gypsum
layer and gypsum with vermiculite as fire protection for beams and concrete
elements. The code of the Hashimiat Kingdom of Jordan (JC) (1989) recommended
to use dense concrete with cement sand layer as fire protection for concrete beams
and columns.

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