Physics A - Thermal Physics

Text to read: University Physics”, Young & Freedman

• Ch. 17: Temperature and heat
• Ch. 18: Thermal properties of matter
• Ch. 19: The first law of thermodynamics
• Ch. 20: The second law of thermodynamics
Topics to cover
1 Thermal properties of matter
2 Heat and thermal energy
3 Kinetic theory of gases
4 The first law of thermodynamics
5 Heat Engines and the second law of thermodynamics.

Thermodynamics
Thermal Properties of Matter
Key Concepts
Thermal properties of matter involve the behavior of materials under the influence of tem-
perature changes. Key properties include heat capacity, specific heat, thermal expansion,
and thermal conductivity.

1. Heat Capacity and Specific Heat Capacity

• Heat Capacity (C): The amount of heat required to change the temperature of
a body by 1◦ C.
Q
C= ,
∆T
where Q is the heat added or removed, and ∆T is the change in temperature.
• Specific Heat Capacity (c): The amount of heat required to change the tem-
perature of 1 kg of a substance by 1◦ C.
C Q
c= = ,
m m∆T
Q = mc∆T,
where m is the mass of the substance.

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Example Problem
A 2 kg block of aluminum is heated from 20◦ C to 100◦ C. Calculate the heat absorbed by
the block. (Specific heat capacity of aluminum = 900 J/kg ·◦ C).
Solution:
Q = mc∆T
Q = 2 × 900 × (100 − 20)
Q = 144, 000 J.

2. Thermal Expansion
Thermal expansion describes the increase in size of a material when its temperature in-
creases. This phenomenon occurs because, as the temperature rises, the particles in a
substance move more rapidly and tend to occupy more space due to reduced intermolec-
ular forces.
• Linear expansion: Linear expansion of a substance is found to be proportional
to the temperature difference, ∆T , and initial length, L0 , of the object i.e;
∆L ∝ L0 ∆T
∆L = αL0 ∆T
where α is the coefficient of linear expansion.

Figure 1: An illustration of linear expansion.

• Area Expansion: Every linear dimension of an expanding area increases by the

same percentage as its temperature changes, including holes, assuming that the
expanding material is uniform. See the figure illustrating area expansion.
∆A = βA0 ∆T,
where β ≈ 2α for solids.
• Volume Expansion: Volume Expansion refers to the increase in the volume of a
substance when its temperature increases.
∆V = γV0 ∆T,
where γ ≈ 3α for solids.

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 Figure 2: An illustration of Area expansion.

Example: Problem1
A metal rod of length 2 m expands by 2 mm when heated from 25◦ C to 75◦ C. Calculate
the coefficient of linear expansion α.
Solution:

∆L = αL0 ∆T
∆L
α=
L0 ∆T
0.002
α=
2 × 50
α = 2 × 10−5 ◦ C−1 .

Example: Problem2
A steel container of initial volume V0 = 1000 cm3 is heated by ∆T = 50◦ C. The coefficient
of volume expansion is β = 36 × 10−6 K−1 . The change in volume can be calculated using
the formula:

∆V = βV0 ∆T
Substituting the given values:

∆V = (36 × 10−6 ) × (1000) × (50)

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 ∆V = 1.8 cm3
The new volume is therefore:

V = V0 + ∆V = 1000 + 1.8 = 1001.8 cm3

Heat and Thermal Energy

Key Concepts
• Heat is a form of energy transfer between systems due to a temperature difference.

• Thermal energy is the total internal kinetic energy of a system.

1. Heat Transfer
Heat transfer is the process by which thermal energy moves from one object or region to
another due to a temperature difference. It occurs through three main mechanisms:

• conduction

• convection

• radiation

Figure 3: Illustrations of conduction, convection and radiation.

Conduction: Heat transfer through a material due to temperature gradients. It occurs

due to the collision between neighbouring particles or molecules and the movement of free
electrons from the hot end to the cold one.
The rate of heat transfer along a metal rod depends on:

• the temperature difference ∆T

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 • the cross-sectional area A

• the inverse of the length, l.

The rate of heat transfer, H, can be expressed as:

dQ kA∆T
H= = .
dt l

Convection: The transfer of heat by the movement of a fluid (liquid or gas) particles.
It happens when warmer, less dense fluid rises and cooler, denser fluid sinks, creating a
flow that transfers heat. An example is boiling water.

Radiation: The transfer of heat through electromagnetic waves, without requiring a

medium. For instance, the heat we feel from the Sun is transferred by radiation.

Q = σϵAT 4 ,

where σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, ϵ is the emissivity, A is the area, and T is the
absolute temperature.

Example: Problem1
A metal plate of area 1 m² and thickness 0.01 m conducts heat at a rate of 100 W when
the temperature difference across its sides is 50◦ C. Calculate the thermal conductivity of
the material.
Solution:
kA∆T
Q= t
d
Qd
k=
A∆T
100 × 0.01
k=
1 × 50
k = 0.02 W/m◦ C.

Example: Problem2
A steel rod of length L = 2 m and cross-sectional area A = 0.01 m2 has one end main-
tained at a temperature of T1 = 100◦ C and the other end at T2 = 20◦ C. The thermal
conductivity of steel is k = 50 W/mK.

1. Calculate the rate of heat transfer through the rod.

2. If the rod is replaced by a material with half the thermal conductivity, how does
the rate of heat transfer change?

Relevant Formula
kA(T1 − T2 )
Q=
L

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2. Phase change and heat capacity
There are three states/phases of matter namely

• gas: very weak intermolecular forces characterised by rapid random motion

• liquid: intermolecular forces bind closest neighbours

• solid: strong intermolecular forces

Phase Changes: A transition from one phase to another is called phase change.

• Changes in the phase of matter involve absorption or emission of heat. Thus, the
transfer of heat into a system can change the temperature of the system, or the
phase, or both.

• For a temperature change, i.e no change in phase, the amount of heat Q that is
needed to increase the temperature of a mass m from T1 to T2 is proportional to
the temperature change ∆T = T2 –T1 :

Q = mc∆T

Where c is the specific heat of the material. Its unit is Jkg−1 k−1 .

• For a change in the phase of matter, heat is absorbed or released without change
in temperature as illustrated below.

Figure 4: Phase transition.

The heat absorbed/released during melting/freezing or vaporisation/condensation is known

as latent heat. In the latent heat of vaporization, for example, energy is required to give
molecules sufficient kinetic energy to break the intermolecular bonds that keep molecules
relatively fixed in the solid state, so that the molecules can move around and enter a
gaseous state.
Latent heat is given by the formula;

Q = mL

where L is the specific latent heat.

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Example Problem
How much heat is needed to completely melt 500 g of ice at 0◦ C? (Latent heat of fusion
of ice = 3.34 × 105 J/kg).
Solution:

Q = mL
Q = 0.5 × 3.34 × 105
Q = 167, 000 J.

0.1 Homeowrk
1 Define thermal conductivity

2 A metal rod of length 150 cm and cross-sectional area 2×10−4 m2 has one end
maintained at 473 K and the other at 273 K. If the thermal conductivity of the
material is 200 W/m.K, calculate the rate of heat transfer through the rod.

3 A 1 kg piece of ice at -10◦ C is placed in 2kg of water at 20◦ C. Assuming no heat

loss to the surroundings and the specific heat capacities of ice and water are 2100
J/kg/◦ C and 4186 J/kg/◦ C, respectively, and the latent heat of fusion of ice is
3.34×105 J/kg, calculate the final temperature of the system.

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Kinetic Theory of Matter
Introduction
The Kinetic Theory of Matter explains the behavior of matter in terms of the motion
of its particles—atoms, molecules, or ions. It postulates that:
• Matter is made up of tiny particles in constant motion.

• The properties of solids, liquids, and gases arise from the motion and interactions
of these particles.

Key Postulates
1. Matter consists of small particles (atoms, molecules, or ions).

2. Particles are in constant motion:

• In solids: particles vibrate in fixed positions.

• In liquids: particles slide past one another.
• In gases: particles move freely in all directions.

3. Intermolecular forces exist between particles, varying with the state of matter.

4. Temperature affects motion: the average kinetic energy of particles is directly pro-
portional to absolute temperature.

5. Collisions between particles are elastic.

States of Matter
Solids
• Particles are closely packed in a fixed structure.

• Strong intermolecular forces keep particles in place.

• Motion is restricted to vibrations.

Liquids
• Particles are close but can move past one another.

• Moderate intermolecular forces allow flow.

• Particles have more kinetic energy than in solids.

Gases
• Particles are far apart and move randomly.

• Intermolecular forces are negligible.

• Particles have the highest kinetic energy.

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Derivation: Pressure of a Gas Using Kinetic Theory
Step 1: Force on Container Walls
Consider a single gas molecule of mass m moving with velocity vx in the x-direction.

Figure 5: A particle moving with velocity vx in the x-direction.

• The change in momentum during a collision with a wall is:

∆p = 2mvx

• The time between collisions with the same wall is:

2L
∆t =
vx

• The force exerted by the molecule is:

∆p mvx2
F = =
∆t L

Step 2: Total Force and Pressure

• For N molecules, the total force is:

N m⟨vx2 ⟩
Ftotal =
L
where ⟨vx2 ⟩ is the average of vx2 for all molecules.

• Pressure is force per unit area. For a container of volume V = L3 , the area of one
face is L2 :
Ftotal N m⟨vx2 ⟩
P = =
A V
• Since molecules move equally in all directions, ⟨vx2 ⟩ = 13 ⟨v 2 ⟩, so:

1 N m⟨v 2 ⟩
P =
3 V
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Connection Between Kinetic Energy and Temperature
Step 1: Average Kinetic Energy
The average kinetic energy of one molecule is:
1
Ekin = m⟨v 2 ⟩
2
Substituting ⟨v 2 ⟩ into the pressure equation:
 
2 1 2
PV = N m⟨v ⟩
3 2

Thus:
2
P V = N Ekin
3

Step 2: Relating to Temperature

From the ideal gas law:
P V = N kT
Equating:
2
N Ekin = N kT
3
Solving for Ekin :
3
Ekin = kT
2
This shows that the average kinetic energy of a gas molecule is proportional to the
temperature.

Worked Example
Problem: A container of volume 2 m3 contains 4 × 1025 gas molecules at a temperature
of 300 K. Calculate the pressure inside the container.
Solution:

• Using the ideal gas law:

N kT
P =
V
• Substituting:
(4 × 1025 )(1.38 × 10−23 )(300)
P =
2
• Calculating:
1.656 × 104
P = = 8.28 × 103 Pa
2
Answer: The pressure inside the container is 8280 Pa.

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Worked Example:
Problem:
A gas contains 5 × 1023 molecules, each with a mass of 4.0 × 10−26 kg. The gas is at
a temperature of 300 K. Calculate the pressure exerted by the gas if the volume of the
container is 10 m3 .
Solution:

1. Use the Kinetic Theory Equation:

1
P = N m⟨v 2 ⟩
3
2. Relate Kinetic Energy to Temperature:

3kT
⟨v 2 ⟩ =
m
Substituting values:

• k = 1.38 × 10−23 J/K,

• T = 300 K,
• m = 4.0 × 10−26 kg,

We get:

3 × 1.38 × 10−23 × 300

⟨v 2 ⟩ = −26
= 3.105 × 103 m2 /s2
4.0 × 10
3. Calculate Pressure:
Now, substitute N = 5 × 1023 , m = 4.0 × 10−26 , and ⟨v 2 ⟩ = 3.105 × 103 :

1
P = × 5 × 1023 × 4.0 × 10−26 × 3.105 × 103
3

P = 2.07 Pa

Thus, the pressure exerted by the gas is 2.07 Pa.

Conclusion
The kinetic theory of gases connects the microscopic properties of gas molecules (like
their speed and kinetic energy) to macroscopic properties (like pressure, volume, and tem-
perature). By using the kinetic theory, we can derive the ideal gas law, which is essential
for understanding the behavior of gases. Additionally, the theory provides insights into
how temperature relates to the average kinetic energy of molecules.

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First Law of Thermodynamics and Kinetic Theory of
Gases
Definitions
• Heat (∆Q) is the thermal energy that flows from one body or system to another,
which is in contact with it, because of their temperature difference (∆T). Heat
always flows from hot to cold regions. For two objects in contact to be in thermal
equilibrium with each other (i.e., for no net heat transfer from one to the other),
their temperatures must be the same. If each of two objects is in thermal equilibrium
with a third body, then the two are in thermal equilibrium with each other - This
fact is often referred to as the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics.

• The Internal Energy (U) of a system is the total energy content of the system.
It is the sum of all forms of energy possessed by the atoms and molecules of the
system.

• The Work Done By a System (∆W) is positive if the system thereby loses
energy to its surroundings. When the surroundings do work on the system so as
to give it energy, ∆W, is a negative quantity. In a small expansion ∆V, a fluid at
constant pressure P does work given by:

∆W = P ∆V

Figure 6: Illustration of a gas in a cylinder with a movable piston.

First Law of Thermodynamics

This is a statement of the law of conservation of energy for a system where heat and
work are the methods of transferring energy for a system in thermal equilibrium. It
states that if an amount of heat ∆Q flows into a system, then this energy must appear
as increased internal energy ∆U for the system and/or work ∆W done by the system on
its surroundings. Mathematically, it is expressed as:

∆Q = ∆U + W,

where:

• ∆Q = Heat added to the system,

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 • ∆U = Change in internal energy,

• W = Work done by the system.

Figure 7: Q represents the net heat transfer—it is the sum of all heat transfers into and
out of the system. It is positive for net heat transfer into the system. W is the total work
done on and by the system. It is positive when more work is done by the system than on
it. The change in the internal energy of the system, ∆U, is related to heat and work by
the first law of thermodynamics, ∆U = Q - W.

The First Law of Thermodynamics and Some Simple Processes

• Heat transfer can be used to do work for us.

• A device that performs work due to heat transfer is called a heat engine.

– Examples include car engines and steam turbines used to generate electricity.

• Figure 8 (left) illustrates how the first law of thermodynamics applies to a typical
heat engine.

How a heat engine works: Figure 8 (right) illustrates one of the ways in which heat
transfer works; fuel combustion produces heat transfer to a gas in a cylinder, increasing
the pressure of the gas and thereby the force it exerts on a movable piston. The gas does
work on the outside world, as this force moves the piston through some distance. Heat
transfer to the gas cylinder results in work being done. To repeat this process, the piston
needs to be returned to its starting point. Heat transfer now occurs from the gas to the
surroundings so that its pressure decreases, and a force is exerted by the surroundings
to push the piston back through some distance. Variations of this process are employed
daily in hundreds of millions of heat engines.

Example Problem 1
A gas absorbs 500 J of heat and expands by doing 200 J of work. Calculate the change
in internal energy of the gas.
Solution:

∆Q = ∆U + W,
500 = ∆U + 200,
∆U = 500 − 200 = 300 J.

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Figure 8: Left: Schematic representation of a heat engine, governed, of course, by the
first law of thermodynamics. It is impossible to devise a system where Qout = 0, that
is, in which no heat transfer occurs to the environment. Right: a) Heat transfer to the
gas in a cylinder increases the internal energy of the gas, creating higher pressure and
temperature. (b) The force exerted on the movable cylinder does work as the gas expands.
Gas pressure and temperature decrease when it expands, indicating that the gas’s internal
energy has been decreased by doing work. (c) Heat transfer to the environment further
reduces pressure in the gas so that the piston can be more easily returned to its starting
position.

Example Problem 2
A gas is compressed such that its internal energy increases by 150 J while 50 J of heat is
lost. Determine the work done on the gas.
Solution:
∆Q = ∆U + W,
−50 = 150 + W,
W = −50 − 150 = −200 J.
Here, negative work indicates work is done on the gas.

Homework
Read about PV Diagrams and their Relationship to Work Done on or by a Gas.

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Question
Derive the relationship between specific heat capacities CP and CV for an ideal gas.

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Heat Engines and the Second Law of Thermodynamics
The Second Law of Thermodynamics
The second law of thermodynamics states that the total entropy of an isolated system
always increases over time, or, in a reversible process, it remains constant. It provides a
direction for thermodynamic processes, emphasizing that natural processes tend to move
toward a state of greater disorder or randomness. It sets limitations on the efficiency of
heat engines. It can be stated in two primary ways:

• Kelvin-Planck Statement: No heat engine can convert all the heat it absorbs
from a high-temperature reservoir into work. Some heat must be rejected to a
lower-temperature reservoir.

• Clausius Statement: Heat cannot spontaneously flow from a colder body to a

hotter body without external work being performed.

Heat Engines
Consider a device that uses heat transfer to do work, such a device, as noted in the
previous section, is called a heat engine (see the schematic illustration in Figure 9).
Gasoline and diesel engines, jet engines, and steam turbines are all heat engines that do
work by using part of the heat transfer from some source. Heat transfer from the hot
object (or hot reservoir) is denoted as Qh , while heat transfer into the cold object (or
cold reservoir) is Qc , and the work done by the engine is W . The temperatures of the
hot and cold reservoirs are Th and Tc , respectively.

Figure 9: a) Heat transfer occurs spontaneously from a hot object to a cold one, consistent
with the second law of thermodynamics. (b) A heat engine, represented here by a circle,
uses part of the heat transfer to do work. The hot and cold objects are called the hot
and cold reservoirs. Qh is the heat transfer out of the hot reservoir, wis the work output,
and Qc is the heat transfer into the cold reservoir.

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Cyclic Process
• A cyclic process is a thermodynamic process in which a system, such as the gas in
a cylinder, undergoes a series of changes and eventually returns to its original state
at the end of each cycle.

• Most heat engines, including reciprocating piston engines and rotating turbines,
operate using cyclical processes.

• According to the second law of thermodynamics, such engines cannot achieve perfect
conversion of heat transfer into work.

• To understand the limitations of converting heat into work, it is essential to analyze

the relationships among W , Qh , and Qc , and to define the efficiency of a cyclical
heat engine.

• In a cyclical process, the system returns to its initial condition at the end of each
cycle. Such a system’s internal energy U is the same at the beginning and end of
every cycle—that is, ∆U = 0.

Remember the first law of thermodynamics

∆U = Q − W,

where Q is the net heat transfer during the cycle (Q = Qh − Qc ) and W is the net work
done by the system. Since ∆U = 0 for a complete cycle, we have;

0=Q−W
so that
∆W = Q.
Thus the net work done by the system equals the net heat transfer into the system, or

W = Qh − Qc (cyclical process),
just as shown schematically in Figure 9(b).

Efficiency of a cyclic process

• In all processes, some heat (Qc ) is always lost to the environment, often significantly.

• This means we always get less work output than the energy input.

• The conversion efficiency (Eeff ) is defined as the ratio of useful work output to
energy input, or ”what we get” to ”what we spend.”

• For a heat engine, the efficiency is calculated as the net work output divided by the
heat transfer to the engine (Qh ):

W
Ef f = .
Qh

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 Since W = Qh − Qc in a cyclic process, we can also express this as;
Qh − Qc Qc
Ef f = =1− (cyclical process).
Qh Qh

This shows that an effciency of 1, or 100%, is possible only if there is no heat transfer to
the environment (Qc = 0). Note that all Qs are positive. The direction of heat transfer is
indicated by a plus or minus sign. For example, Qc is out of the system and so is preceded
by a minus sign.

Carnot Engine
The Carnot engine is a theoretical heat engine that operates on the Carnot cycle and
represents the most efficient engine possible for a given pair of temperatures. It serves as
a standard for real heat engines.

Steps of the Carnot Cycle:

1. Isothermal Expansion: The gas absorbs heat QH from the high-temperature reser-
voir (TH ) and expands isothermally, performing work.

2 Adiabatic Expansion: The gas continues to expand without heat exchange, reducing
its temperature to TC (cold reservoir).

3 Isothermal Compression: The gas releases heat QC to the cold reservoir while being
compressed isothermally.

4 Adiabatic Compression: The gas is compressed adiabatically, increasing its temper-

ature back to TH .

Efficiency of a Carnot Engine:

The efficiency (η) of a Carnot engine is defined as:

W
η= ,
QH
where W is the work done by the engine and QH is the heat absorbed from the hot
reservoir. For a Carnot engine:
TC
η =1− ,
TH
where TH and TC are the absolute temperatures of the hot and cold reservoirs, respec-
tively.

Worked Examples
Example 1: Calculating Efficiency
A Carnot engine operates between a hot reservoir at 500 K and a cold reservoir at 300 K.
Calculate its efficiency.

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 Figure 10: Schematic representation of the Carnot cycle on a P V diagram.

Solution:
TC
η =1−
TH
300
η =1− = 1 − 0.6 = 0.4 or 40%.
500

Example 2: Work Done by the Engine

If the Carnot engine in Example 1 absorbs 600 J of heat from the hot reservoir, how much
work does it perform?
Solution:
W = ηQH
W = 0.4 × 600 = 240 J.

Example 3: Heat Rejected to the Cold Reservoir

Using the same engine, calculate the heat rejected to the cold reservoir.
Solution:
QC = QH − W
QC = 600 − 240 = 360 J.

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