See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/384330565

Using Duolingo in Teaching and Learning Vocabulary: A Systematic Review

Article in Indonesian Journal of English Language Studies (IJELS) · September 2024

DOI: 10.24071/ijels.v10i2.8873

CITATIONS READS

0 377

2 authors:

Ridha Rouabhia Khalefa Kheder

Karabük University Karabük University
20 PUBLICATIONS 10 CITATIONS 3 PUBLICATIONS 2 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Ridha Rouabhia on 26 September 2024.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Vol. 10, No. 2, September 2024
e-ISSN 2715-0895, p-ISSN 2442-790X I Indonesian Journal of English Language Studies (IJELS)

Using Duolingo in Teaching and Learning

Vocabulary: A Systematic Review
Ridha Rouabhia1* and Khalefa Kheder2
1
Yahia Fares University of Media, Algeria
2
Karabuk University, Türkiye
*correspondence: baraa12400@gmail.com
https://doi.org/10.24071/ijels.v10i2.8873
received 16 June 2024; accepted 18 September 2024

ABSTRACT
This systematic review examines the extant literature on the efficacy of the Duolingo
application for vocabulary development in instructed second language (L2) contexts. Drawing
on several empirical studies, the review synthesises findings related to (a) the comparative
effectiveness of Duolingo versus traditional pedagogies, (b) the impact of Duolingo on learner
motivation and engagement, and (c) practical implications for classroom integration. While the
majority of evidence attests to measurable gains in receptive vocabulary knowledge, the
findings must be interpreted with caution due to methodological limitations, including small
sample sizes, short intervention periods, and construct underrepresentation. The motivational
appeal of Duolingo's gamified interface emerges as a prominent theme, corroborated by self-
report data. However, the limited research employing psychometrically robust motivational
measures precludes definitive conclusions about the temporal stability and transferability of
this motivational effect. Theoretically, the provision of individualised feedback aligns with
interactionist theories, yet the restricted opportunities for the negotiation of meaning raise
doubts about the depth of lexical engagement. Pedagogically, the reviewed studies advocate
the careful integration of Duolingo as a supplementary tool within formal instructional
contexts. However, optimal implementation strategies remain unspecified, necessitating
further classroom-based research employing mixed-methods designs. Significant gaps are
identified, including the lack of investigations into the differential impacts of Duolingo's
features, vocabulary transfer to authentic communication, and the development of self-
regulated learning strategies.

Keywords: classroom integration, Duolingo, gamification, learner motivation, vocabulary

acquisition

INTRODUCTION
The study of vocabulary is crucial to the mastery of English by students who care about
learning (Ajisoko, 2020). It is common to see students engage in sufficient vocabulary learning,
as this will greatly increase their learning of other skills and languages with ease. Learning
vocabulary is one of the keys to learning a language, as it finds its roots in learning various
languages. If a foreigner within a new environment decides to learn the language of the
environment without properly learning the vocabulary of that environment, the result will be
that the foreigner will find it difficult to understand the language (Puspita & Sabiqoh, 2017).
Thus, vocabulary learning is very important to any student who cares about learning a new
language or skills. Education is driven by learning, gaining skills, and understanding a
particular thing. Hence, learning English requires a unique technique or approach. Education
91

This work is licensed under CC BY-SA.

Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License
has received technological advancements just like other areas of life globally. The
breakthrough in technological advancement has solved the problem of English learning; this
technological advancement is based on the introduction of Duolingo.
The mission statement of the Duolingo Company is to make education free at all costs
and accessible to all with fun. Lest you wonder, the Duolingo app is designed as a game with
scientifically proven effectiveness that ensures the learning of languages possible (Ambara,
2020). Again, the platform created the Duolingo English Test (DET), which is convenient for
learning the language and has an option for certification that is widely accepted in over 200
universities worldwide. Duolingo is a mobile phone application software that makes learning
languages easy. This application is a new learning medium that has been created, can be
downloaded, and can be installed on a smartphone. As extracted from the Duolingo web page,
"Duolingo builds a world with free education and no language barriers. Users can learn
languages for free while simultaneously translating web" (Jaskova, 2014). The Duolingo
learner’s software has been developed to enable the learning of various languages like Arabic,
English, Spanish, Dutch, French, and other related languages that could be selected from the
app for easy learning of language vocabulary (García Botero, Questiner, & Zhu, 2019). Good
enough, the Duolingo platform has an educator form where various users could interchange
topics and subjects with any of them as either students or teachers to learn vocabulary in
different languages (Gafni, Achituv, & Rachmani, 2017).
Today, Duolingo is very effective in learning and teaching vocabulary. As the Duolingo
app allows learners to show a considerable response, which is excellent in the interest of
learners, the app makes vocabulary easy to understand and gives all learners fair practical
material that enables them to learn and practice better (Ajisoko, 2020). Duolingo has a way of
eliminating boredom in the learning process as it encourages the growth of new ideas in
learning. However, having given a philosophical introduction to the use of Duolingo in learning
and teaching vocabulary, this study will review the works of other scholars who have written
on the subject matter of Duolingo and vocabulary learning and teaching. The various pieces of
literature for review shall cover the study years of 2018 to 2020. The review shall contain the
authors' topics, research findings, and a critical section of all reviewed articles, as well as fill
the gap in the literature.

LITERATURE REVIEW
In a study conducted by Kusumadewi and Widyastuti (2018) on the effects of using
Duolingo towards student vocabulary mastery, the study was aimed at examining the effects
of using Duolingo apps to build students`s vocabulary mastery and the expectations from
teachers in using Duolingo to support an exciting language teaching experience. The study
employed the experimental research method with the aim of finding the two groups of x and y
where the effect of Duolingo is (x), and the controlled group is (y) for student vocabulary
mastery. However, the study adopted a true experimental approach, where only the control
group was used for a post-test. Again, the sampling method used was random sampling, in
which 30 students were within the control group class. The findings of the study revealed that
the use of the Duolingo application had a positive effect on students' English language learning
compared to other conventional methods used officially for students. Thus, students who use
the Duolingo app for the vocabulary mastery-learning course have higher scores than those
who engage in textbooks and other conventional means of learning and mastering vocabulary.
The study is limited by the technique used; only a post-test using an experimental design was
conducted, while the pre-test was neglected, which failed to address the treatment group.
Guaqueta and Castro-Garces (2018) conducted another similar study to investigate the
influence of using language-learning apps (Duolingo and Kahoot) as didactic tools in the
context of EFL to improve vocabulary building. The study used a mixed-methods approach
with a concurrent design for collecting, analysing, triangulating, and validating the qualitative
and quantitative data. The frame time for the study was six months, and the target group was

92
Vol. 10, No. 2, September 2024
e-ISSN 2715-0895, p-ISSN 2442-790X I Indonesian Journal of English Language Studies (IJELS)
high school students. The study's findings revealed positive prospects for students' learning and
building vocabulary, which they reported led to better improvement and growth in language
learning, which was beneficial not only for their current educational experience but also for the
future. Hence, they concluded by stating that the strategy (use of the Duolingo app) had a
positive influence on the students' learning generally and on enhancing and improving
vocabulary skills. A major limitation of the study is the target group. This makes the
recommendation likely unimportant in some scenarios. Furthermore, the sample size was
relatively small, and sampling issues were not adequately addressed. Again, the quantitative
aspects of the study were not efficient enough to establish an association or causality.
Astarilla (2018) conducted a descriptive mixed study by investigating university students'
perceptions towards learning English through the Duolingo application. A total of 135
university students in Pekanbaru, Riau, Indonesia, taking English Level II courses, formed the
study participants, with their information sourced through questionnaires and interviews. The
study timeframe was one semester, with meetings conducted during the semester. The sample
consisted of 66 female and 69 male students aged 19 to 21. The findings showed that there was
an overall positive perception by students towards using the Duolingo application in learning
English because it has several advantages in promoting students' learning process. However,
as with similar studies reviewed, the study did not take into account critical issues relevant to
quantitative conclusions, such as sampling, selection criteria, modelling and estimation
techniques, and instrument reliability. The study also did not succeed in accounting for the
effect of app usage time on learning English.
García Botero, Questiner, and Zhu (2019) investigated informal, out-of-class
engagement or learning activity with a MALL tool, that is, Duolingo, carried out research. An
invitation to use the application was given to 118 higher education language students who
accepted that their participation in the application would be tracked. The data used for the study
was obtained from the applications dashboard, semi-structured interviews, and questionnaires.
The study was also a mixed-methods study. Garrison's dimensions of self-directed learning
(motivation, self-management, and self-monitoring) served as the lens through which the
results were viewed. The findings showed discrepancies between what students think about the
application and what they do with it. The outcome of the questionnaires indicated that through
enjoyable activities and games, Duolingo can facilitate out-of-class learning, but the interviews
showed a lack of continuous enthusiasm and motivation, self-monitoring, and self-
management, reflected in the application's low use. However, the study is limited in ways, such
as the failure to account for factors that could affect the use of the app, such as socioeconomic
and psychological factors. Furthermore, about 273 out of the original 574 students reported not
using Duolingo. This should have been investigated to find out possible reasons for the actions.
Again, quantitative tools were largely descriptive and not associative or causal.
A study by Sousa, Barros Cardoso, and Toassi (2018) explored Duolingo's effectiveness
as a tool for learning English as a foreign language. The study concentrated more specifically
on improving writing vocabulary skills. The study employed an action research design of
experimental design that involved evaluating different control groups of different participants.
The participants in this study were divided into two groups: the experimental group of 23
students in the sixth grade (11 girls and 12 boys) and the control group of 28 students in the
sixth grade (11 girls and 17 boys). The ages of these participants ranged between 10 and 13
years. The findings showed that using the Duolingo application motivated students to learn
vocabulary through various engagements and developed more interest in classes as a result of
the demonstration of the use of the application. Results from this research indicate that using
Duolingo as a vocabulary learning tool appears to be a potential instrument for vocabulary
improvement. It also tends to positively influence motivational aspects since students are more
engaged using the app. The limitations of the study depend on the classes’ length, where the
period for teachers to fulfil the course plan as required is limited.

93
 Psychogyiou and Krrasimos (2019) conducted a study to explore the effectiveness and
efficiency of the Duolingo application for learning a foreign language and developing language
skills online. The study was a mixed study that consisted of both qualitative and quantitative
procedures and techniques. Quantitative data were generated by highly structured techniques,
such as questionnaires, while the qualitative data utilised were obtained via semi-structured
interviews to improve effectiveness. A total of 31 individuals were sampled and used for the
analysis and drawing of inferences. The results showed that most participants thought the
application improved their vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation learning. However, the
study had many methodological defects, making it short on policy inferences and
recommendations. For instance, the authors stated that there were quantitative techniques to be
used in the study, which was not reflected in the study. Furthermore, the study's sample size is
relatively small to make inferences from the results. Again, the study area and the data source
were not clearly stated and reflected in the study. In addition, the participants used in the study
were not more than 40 years of age, and the author failed to justify the reason or intuition for
the choice of characteristics of the participants.
In their study, Hidayati and Diana (2019) surveyed the use of Duolingo and Hello English
by 25 undergraduate students in their first and second years who were taking English language
subjects in their respective programs of study. Besides that, the research concentrated on
investigating students' motivation and interest in using the applications independently outside
the classroom to learn English. The study had a mixed design in which data were generated
through daily journals and questionnaires as instruments. The study lasted for 21 days. The
results indicated that the students were very interested in using the applications. In addition,
the students were very enthusiastic about the application and enjoyed its flexibility and
practicality. They also found no statistically significant difference between the motivation
groups concerning the time they spent using the applications. As with other studies reviewed,
this study also has limitations. Its limitations are also similar to those of other studies. This
includes issues of sampling, sample size, lack of justifications concerning the methods used,
and the target group of the study. Finally, they did not examine how the application’s use may
have translated into better learning or vocabulary development. Although the researchers
should be commended for trying to look into the app's time usage issues, they focused on time
as the explained variable.
Ali and Deris (2019) conducted a study focusing on issues such as teacher acceptance,
what application features are preferred, and possible problems with using the Duolingo
application for vocabulary learning in Saudi Arabian universities. The total sample consisted
of 20 females, with information elicited through questionnaires and interviews. The main
findings from the qualitative and quantitative analysis were that the teachers showed positive
attitudes towards teaching and learning through the use of vocabulary learning applications.
The challenges that users usually face contributed to the unsuitability of these applications and
teachers' reluctance to use them. However, as in other studies, the study is fraught with many
limitations. For instance, the period given for the use of the application before an empirical
examination is too short and cannot be relied upon. Furthermore, the quantitative tools used in
the study fall short of statistically viable conclusions. Usually, association and causality inform
statistical decisions. Again, all the respondents were females, which the researchers did not
give and provide a clear justification for this bias in the selection process. The sample size is
also relatively small, with the sample comprising only instructors.
At Ahmad Dahlan University, by eliciting information from the English Department
students, Pramesti and Susanti (2020) conducted a study to explore the students’ perceptions
of using the Duolingo application for learning English and to reveal the benefits and drawbacks
of Duolingo for learning English according to them. The qualitative research method was used,
and data were obtained through interviews. The sample used for the study was six students
from the English department. The findings showed that the participants have a positive
impression of using Duolingo in terms of accessibility, context, control, flexibility, blending,

94
Vol. 10, No. 2, September 2024
e-ISSN 2715-0895, p-ISSN 2442-790X I Indonesian Journal of English Language Studies (IJELS)
material, technical assistance, and cost. This app is easy to use and encourages students to learn
other languages. The participants also felt more comfortable and enjoyed learning English with
Duolingo. In addition, most of the students confirmed that using the Duolingo app is helpful
for learning English. Some of the highlighted advantages of the application include its
attractiveness, having fewer ads, and gaming content. While the disadvantages stress that it
cannot be used without internet access, there is no further explanation in grammar, and it cannot
be used primarily as a source of language learning. However, the study falls short of a policy
paper due to issues such as sample size. The sample size was only six participants, which is
very small. In addition, data analysis tools are not mentioned, and the data presented in this
research is in the form of written text from the interview transcript and documentation.
Using a sample of 60 undergraduate students at Syiah Kuala University, Inayah, Yusuf,
and Fibula (2020) investigated the perceptions of students toward using the Duolingo
application in learning English. Purposive sampling techniques were used to obtain the sample
for the study, and the data were collected through questionnaires and interviews. The study was
also mixed, comprising qualitative and quantitative instruments. The results indicated that most
students perceived using Duolingo to learn English positively. Furthermore, they found that
students' view concerning the app's use was that it was a useful and helpful application and a
motivational tool for learning English. Also noteworthy from the study was the discrepancy
among students' perceptions and their acts in using the application. However, the study noticed
the following limitations: First, the quantitative techniques, which are important for policy
formulation, are largely descriptive rather than associative or causal. The study is also tilted
towards a certain group: undergraduate students. In addition, the lack of a deep investigation
into students' motivations for using the app is one of the study's major limitations, with a small
sample size as well.
Aulia, Wahjuningsih, and Andayani (2020) conducted a study to explore the impact of
the Duolingo application on students' mastery of English vocabulary using a quasi-
experimental post-test design method. The respondents who formed the study sample were
eighth-grade students in one of the junior high schools in Jember. Two groups were formed for
the study. The treatment or experimental group used the Duolingo application, and the control
group was taught as usual by using flashcards as the medium. The data collected and generated
from the vocabulary test was analysed using an independent sample t-test using SPSS. The
findings indicated that the use of Duolingo has a significant impact on students' mastery of
vocabulary. The result of the analysis showed that a significant difference existed between
students who used the Duolingo application and those who did not. The students in the
experimental group, taught by Duolingo, have achieved better vocabulary skills than those in
the control group. This means that the application for language learning helps students increase
their vocabulary scores. The major limitations of the study include the scope of the study, which
was streamlined to only eight grades, for which no strong justifications were stated. In addition,
in the presentation of results, sensitive information such as descriptive statistics and
characteristics of the study population were not provided. Again, the total sample size used for
analysis was not equally determined. No model was clearly stated to determine whether other
control variables can influence vocabulary mastery.
Habibie (2020) also conducted a mixed study with the main objective of investigating
how Duolingo as an educational language tool can enhance the motivation of students to learn
English. The study sample consisted of 40 students in the Department of English, which
consisted of 30 females and 10 males. Data were collected using interviews and questionnaires.
The results of the analysis showed that the Duolingo application was quite effective and could
be used to enhance the motivation of students to learn English. However, the study is limited
in certain ways. For example, the period used to administer and collect data for measuring the
effectiveness of the application in motivating students was too short, being only three days.
This is unlikely to capture changes that would occur, especially for time-dependent factors.
Again, the balance of the sample seems to be tilted toward the females, which is likely to lead

95
to gender balance in the analysis and not reveal the true nature of the relationship. Furthermore,
the sample is also relatively small.
Araújo and Eddine (2020) also conducted a study on the usability and objectivity in the
learning process reviews of users of the Duolingo application. The research design employed
was quantitative, where the users' comments on the application were extracted from the Google
Play Store. Revising January 1, 2020, to January 31, 2020, which formed the period for the
study, 10,943 comments were extracted and returned for analysis. The results showed that the
learning application received a high rating. To be more precise, 85.13% of the users rated it
with the highest score, which ranged from 1 to 5. It was concluded that the application could
be used to teach a foreign language. This study is also fraught with many limitations. For
instance, it focuses mainly on the comments of the application users, which may not give a true
picture of the situation. Many questions can be raised concerning comments. For example, the
user experience may vary; some are likely to be emotional about their comments. Others may
just comment on “fulfilling all righteousness” and may not be users of the particular
application. Again, the quantitative techniques used in the study are descriptive rather than
causative.
At SMAN 2 Karangan, Ambara (2020) conducted another relevant study to determine
the influence of using the Duolingo app in teaching English to increase the ability of students
to learn vocabulary using a quantitative research design. The students of XI IPA 1 and XI IPA
2 at SMAN 2 Karangan formed the sample for the study. This study was conducted
experimentally with an experimental research design. Data collection methods were tests (pre-
test, post-test, and T-test). The major findings revealed that using the Duolingo application
significantly affected vocabulary mastery. The results indicated further that using the
application in teaching English had many positive effects on the students, chiefly that it
increased their understanding of the materials they used and that they were more motivated to
learn. Besides that, the results revealed that Duolingo application is more efficient in
vocabulary teaching than traditional methods. Like other studies reviewed, the study had
limitations too. These limitations included issues of sampling, the target population, the
technique of analysis that was not causative, and the study period.
Ajisoko (2020) investigated the use of the Duolingo application to increase students'
vocabulary and stimulate and create broad interest in learning English, mainly vocabulary,
using a quantitative research design that was pre-experimental research with a pre-test and
post-test. The study sample was nineteen learners in the Department of English education at
the Borneo University of Tarakan who were in the second semester of the 2018–2019 academic
year. The data used for analysis was generated using the questionnaire and test. The findings
showed the significance of Duolingo as an efficient and effective application for improving
English language learning, mainly vocabulary, in ways such as eliminating boredom, etc. The
main limitations of the study include a small sample size, sensitive information such as
descriptive statistics, and the characteristics of the study population not being made available.
Hernadijaya (2020) also conducted a study to explore using the MALL application,
Duolingo, to increase students' knowledge and desire to learn English vocabulary via mobile
devices. The research design used in the article was quantitative, which was quasi-
experimental. The participants of this study were seventh-grade extracurricular students in
SMPN 21 Surabaya. Thirty-four students were divided into two groups (EEC 1 and EEC 2).
The data were analysed using the t-test calculation in SPSS. The study's main findings proved
that Duolingo was effective in students' vocabulary mastery and could assist in the language
learning process. The researcher also stated further that the application could be considered a
beneficial language-learning app that can develop seventh-grade vocabulary skills. As with
most studies, the sample size is small, with the population being only seventh graders.
Dahlan and Nurbianta (2020) examined the utilisation of the Duolingo app and the
practice of vocabulary technique drilling for upgrading students' reading comprehension. The
purpose of the study was to ascertain any influence of using the Duolingo application on the

96
Vol. 10, No. 2, September 2024
e-ISSN 2715-0895, p-ISSN 2442-790X I Indonesian Journal of English Language Studies (IJELS)
student's reading comprehension and, again, to determine if there is any influence of the
Duolingo application and vocabulary enhancement on the student's reading comprehension.
The study employed the partial correlation method, which was used to check if all variables,
as noted in the objective, had a good correlation and were statistically significant. The findings
emanating from the study showed that all data in the Duolingo application, reading, and
vocabulary are normally distributed while reading and vocabulary establish a linear
relationship. In general, it could be concluded from the findings that Duolingo apps
significantly influence vocabulary enhancement and student reading comprehension among
tenth graders at SMA Muhammadiyah Tanjung Redeb. In summary, the study concludes that
using the Duolingo application has enhanced vocabulary building, which facilitates the
students' good reading comprehension and ability to understand the meaning. One of the
limitations of the study is that it failed to investigate other groups while focusing only on
upgrading students' reading comprehension.
Jaelani and Sutari (2021) aimed to describe students' perceptions of using the Duolingo
application as a medium for learning vocabulary. The participants were 30 second-grade
students from one junior high school in Bogor. Data was collected through a questionnaire and
interviews. The results showed that most students had positive perceptions of using Duolingo.
They found it an effective tool that was easy to use and could be accessed anytime, anywhere
to learn English vocabulary interestingly and understandably. Students felt interested and
motivated learning with Duolingo as it allowed them to be more active. Key advantages were
learning vocabulary at home easily and practically applying their English skills. However, one
main disadvantage was that Duolingo was difficult to use without an internet connection.
Duolingo proved a considerably interesting and effective medium for students to learn English
vocabulary.
Purwanto (2023) conducted a qualitative study to investigate students' perceptions of
using the Duolingo application for learning English vocabulary at Madrasah Tsanawiyah 01
Darussalam Kepahiang in Indonesia. Using questionnaires and interviews with 25 eighth-grade
students selected through purposive sampling, the study revealed overall positive perceptions
towards Duolingo. Students found the app easy to use, accessible, and motivating for
vocabulary learning, with over 80% agreeing it was user-friendly and increased their active
participation. Around 70-80% of students reported increased passion for memorising
vocabulary, better understanding of word meanings, and improved ability to apply English
skills daily. The gamification elements were perceived as engaging. However, limitations were
noted, such as difficulty using the app without an internet connection (77% agreed) and a lack
of detailed grammar explanations. Despite these drawbacks, the researcher concluded that
Duolingo was an effective vocabulary learning tool that enhanced students' interest and
engagement, recommending further research at other educational levels and for different
language skills.
Nasrul and Fatimah (2023) aimed to determine how the Duolingo application affects
English learning motivation and vocabulary enrichment for 10th-grade students at SMKN 1
Padang. It employed a quantitative pre-experimental research method with 22 students from
class X TKP A as the experimental group. Data were collected through a motivation
questionnaire and vocabulary enrichment test before and after implementing Duolingo in the
classroom for seven meetings. The results showed a significant increase in students' English
learning motivation and vocabulary enrichment after using Duolingo, with mean scores of
81.82 and 82.50, respectively, compared to 47.86 and 48.91 before using the application. The
paired sample t-test confirmed a positive effect, with sig. scores < .001 for both variables,
leading to the acceptance of the alternative hypotheses. Thus, the study concluded that using
the Duolingo application significantly enhanced the 10th-grade students' English learning
motivation and vocabulary enrichment in the teaching-learning activities.
Apoko, Dunggio, and Chong (2023) investigated students' perceptions of using the
mobile application Duolingo to improve English vocabulary mastery at the tertiary level in

97
Indonesia. A mixed methods approach was employed, involving 95 undergraduate students
from various faculties at private and public universities. Data were collected through online
questionnaires and semi-structured interviews. The findings revealed that students had overall
positive perceptions of using Duolingo to enhance their vocabulary, citing advantages such as
ease of use, accessibility, interesting features, and the ability to motivate continuous practice.
Students appreciated Duolingo's gamified learning system and found it effective for learning
everyday vocabulary through repetition. However, some limitations were noted, such as a lack
of in-depth explanations and advanced vocabulary. The researchers concluded that Duolingo
can be recommended as a supplementary tool for English vocabulary learning among
university students, though critical guidance from instructors is still needed to maximise
learning outcomes and sustain student engagement.
Irzawati and Unamo (2023) investigated students' perceptions and attitudes towards
using the Duolingo language learning app for learning English as a foreign language (EFL).
Twenty non-English major university students in Indonesia were surveyed and interviewed
after using Duolingo regularly for at least three months. The results revealed highly positive
perceptions and attitudes among the students. They found Duolingo easy, fun, engaging, and
motivating for learning English. Students believed it helped improve their listening, speaking,
reading, and writing skills, pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar. The gamification aspects
made learning enjoyable and reduced anxiety. Overall, students appreciated Duolingo's
accessibility, varied resources, and exercises. While a few drawbacks were noted, like high
data usage, the overwhelmingly positive feedback suggests Duolingo can be an effective
supplementary tool for EFL learning when teachers integrate it thoughtfully. The study
provides comprehensive insights into learners' views on Duolingo across multiple aspects of
language learning.
Fitri, Melani, Roza, and Reflinda (2023) investigated the Duolingo application's effect
on students' vocabulary mastery in the second grade of SMPN 1 Koto Besar in Indonesia during
the 2021/2022 academic year. A quantitative quasi-experimental study was conducted with 65
participants divided into an experimental group (32 students) that used Duolingo and a control
group (33 students) that did not. Pre-tests and post-tests were administered to assess vocabulary
knowledge. The results showed that the experimental group using Duolingo had significantly
higher post-test scores compared to their pre-test and compared to the control group's post-test.
Statistical analysis confirmed there was a significant effect of using Duolingo on vocabulary
mastery. The researchers concluded that Duolingo was an effective tool for improving English
vocabulary, attributed to features like gamification, pronunciation practice, reminders, and
challenges that kept students motivated and engaged in learning new words.
Borang, Maru, and Rorimpandey (2023) aimed to determine whether the Duolingo
Application could help students improve their vocabulary mastery, especially with adjectives.
The research was conducted quantitatively using a pre-test and post-test design with a written
test on 31 students from SMP Negeri 1 Manganitu class 8B. The results showed that students'
mean pre-test score was 43.32, with the highest score being 83 and the lowest 10. After
implementing the Duolingo Application for treatment, the mean post-test score significantly
increased to 79.80, with the highest score of 97 and the lowest of 63. The drastic improvement
indicates the successful use of the Duolingo Application in increasing students' vocabulary
mastery. The application's game-like features made learning vocabulary interesting and
engaging for students. The findings align with previous studies demonstrating Duolingo's
effectiveness in vocabulary learning, though with varying score ranges. Therefore, it can be
concluded that the Duolingo Application is an effective medium for enhancing students'
vocabulary ability.
Setiawati (2023) investigated the effectiveness of using the Duolingo application to
improve English vocabulary among students at Hasanuddin University. Employing a pre-
experimental design with pre-test, treatment, and post-test, the research involved 20 students
from the 2021 batch who voluntarily participated in a 6-day treatment using Duolingo.

98
Vol. 10, No. 2, September 2024
e-ISSN 2715-0895, p-ISSN 2442-790X I Indonesian Journal of English Language Studies (IJELS)
Quantitative data was collected through tests and questionnaires to assess vocabulary
improvement and student perceptions. The findings indicate a significant increase in students'
vocabulary scores from the pre-test (mean 58.75) to the post-test (mean 79), with a difference
of 20.25 points. Additionally, questionnaire results reveal positive student attitudes toward
Duolingo as an effective and engaging tool for vocabulary learning, especially for those with
below-average English proficiency. The study concludes that Duolingo can be a more effective
and interesting alternative to conventional vocabulary teaching methods.
Simanjuntak, Napitupulu, and Siahaan (2023) aimed to understand whether the Duolingo
application enhances the understanding of English vocabulary among first-grade students at
SMP Nusantara Lubuk Pakam. Employing a quasi-experimental design, the research involved
two classes: two classes: an experimental class using Duolingo and a control class using
conventional methods. The researchers also compared the pre-test and post-test results to gauge
the participants’ vocabulary gains. Results showed that the experimental class achieved
significantly higher post-test scores (mean: 83. 28), which implies that Duolingo positively
impacts vocabulary acquisition compared to the particular control class, whose mark was 41.
67. The pre- and post-vocabulary test scores were compared using the independent samples t-
test, and it was found that there was a statistically significant difference between the two groups
(Sig. 2-tailed < 0. 05), thus accepting the alternative hypothesis. For this reason, games such
as Duolingo prove a viable medium for strengthening students’ interest and performance while
learning English vocabulary at school. Despite this, the study also highlighted certain
limitations, including the need for a stable internet connection and additional equipment for
classroom implementation.

CRITICAL ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS

Comparative effectiveness of Duolingo in vocabulary acquisition
Comparing the extent to which Duolingo is effective in perhaps the most fundamental
component of language, vocabulary acquisition has been a cross-cutting finding in all the
reviewed articles. Many scholars have looked into how effective Duolingo is compared to
conventional learning techniques, and their studies have generated a common thread. In detail,
Kusumadewi and Widyastuti (2018) uncovered those students using the Duolingo app in
vocabulary mastery–learning courses got higher scores than those using books and other
traditional media. According to Aulia, Wahjuningsih, and Andayani (2020), there was a
significant difference in the students taught by Duolingo compared to one of the other students,
with the former being higher. Subsequent research has only reinforced these findings from
early observations. The authors Fitri et al. (2023) conducted an experiment on Duolingo and
obtained a rise in post-test scores in the experimental group compared with the pre-test and
post-test scores of the control group. Similarly, with the pretest used with high test items,
Simanjuntak, Napitupulu, and Siahaan (2023) detected significantly higher mean post-test
scores in the experimental class (83. 28) as opposed to the control class (41. 67) and under
traditional approaches.
The effectiveness of Duolingo varies across educational contexts and student
demographics, yet positive outcomes are consistently reported. Ambara (2020) found
significant effects on high school students' vocabulary mastery at the secondary school level,
while Hernadijaya (2020) demonstrated effectiveness with seventh-grade students. At the
tertiary level, Setiawati (2023) reported a significant increase in university students' vocabulary
scores post-Duolingo usage, with a mean difference of 20.25 points between the pre-test and
post-test. Notably, students with below-average English proficiency showed particular
improvement.
The comparative advantage of Duolingo often stems from its motivational and
engagement aspects. Guaqueta and Castro-Garces (2018) highlighted Duolingo's positive
influence on students' learning and vocabulary skills enhancement. Pramesti and Susanti (2020)
found that students experienced increased comfort and enjoyment in learning English with

99
Duolingo. Habibie (2020) concluded that the application effectively enhanced students'
motivation to learn English. Nevertheless, the effectiveness of Duolingo in various scenarios
is indisputable, although there are works that indicate that is far more beneficial when it is
applied as an additional tool. In their study on the effectiveness of free language learning apps,
Apoko, Dunggio, and Chong (2023) recommended Duolingo as a supplementary tool of
English vocabulary for university learners while urging tutors’ guidance from instructors to
maximise learning outcomes. This is a clear implication that there are variations of
effectiveness depending on the nature of the context, as it would emphasise the proper
implementation procedure. Other variables, which include internet connection, affirmed by
Jaelani and Sutari (2021) and Simanjuntak, Napitupulu, and Siahaan (2023), might also affect
Duolingo’s effectiveness. Also, the duration and intensity of Duolingo usage in experiments
were rather limited, variable, and varied from days to months, which could impact the results.
Thus, in terms of vocabulary acquisition, Duolingo performs better than traditional
learning methods. What makes it effective is especially observed in the capacity to motivate
and engage learners, which leads to improved vocabulary scores. Nonetheless, the best
outcomes seem to be obtained when it is well-integrated as a supplementary tool used in the
overall language learning approach, contingent on learner characteristics, skill development
stages, and the use of technology. Consequently, findings suggest that while Duolingo offers
significant advantages, its implementation should be strategic and context-sensitive to
maximise its potential vocabulary acquisition.

Methodological approaches and limitations

The literature about Duolingo discussed in this paper consisted of different
methodological approaches to vocabulary acquisition used in the reviewed studies. Such
approaches include experimental, quasi-experimental, mixed methods, and qualitative designs.
Each methodology provides information about Duolingo in learning foreign languages;
however, each has drawbacks that need critique. Kusumadewi and Widyastuti (2018) used the
experimental research method and had only a post-test for the control group. Although the
study provided the facility to make a direct comparison, the following shortcomings were seen:
a post-test-only design was adopted, thus excluding the pre-test, which is essential to determine
the baseline of the treatment group. It is for this reason that the study should be taken with
some caution. Aulia, Wahjuningsih, and Andayani (2020) employed a post-test-only quasi-
experimental design, similar to the current study, but the method imposed the same constraints
in comparing pre-existing knowledge gaps. To address this shortcoming, several researchers
employed pre-test and post-test designs. Ambara (2020), Ajisoko (2020), and Fitri et al. (2023)
integrated both into their research setups, making it possible for assessment of alterations in
assuming vocabulary knowledge. Nonetheless, these studies had small sample sizes. As for the
qualitative chosen studies, limitations such as small sample size can be identified: Ajisoko
(2020) had only nineteen participants, and Ambara (2020) relied on only two classes of one
school.
Mixed methods studies attempted to balance between quantitative data and qualitative
data. Guaqueta and Castro-Garces (2018) employed the concurrent mixed methods design,
which involved using qualitative and quantitative data to increase the reliability of results.
Qualitative studies like Pramesti and Susanti (2020) and Apoko, Dunggio, and Chong (2023),
coupled with interviews and open-ended questionnaires, provided rich data that could not
otherwise be obtained. As helpful as they are towards understanding user experiences, they do
not provide the statistically rigorous approaches required to measure Duolingo’s efficacy
conclusively. Another common drawback was the selected time frame being insufficiently long
for the research. Habibie’s (2020) study probably did not record any significant changes.
Duolingo was implemented for only four days, as reported in Borang, Maru, and Rorimpandey
research. This brief approach may not fully depict how the app may help the user progress in
learning more vocabulary over a considerable period. The other major challenge in the studies

100
Vol. 10, No. 2, September 2024
e-ISSN 2715-0895, p-ISSN 2442-790X I Indonesian Journal of English Language Studies (IJELS)
was related to sampling. Some research sources were often limited in demographic coverage
or centred on particular establishments. Without adequate reasons, male participants were
excluded from Ali and Deris’s study (2019). Academicians Inayah, Yusuf, and Fibula (2020)
and Irzawati and Unamo (2023) focused on the undergraduate students.
Several studies lacked robust sampling techniques. Hidayati and Diana (2019) and
Jaelani and Sutari (2021) adopted purposive and convenience sampling in their studies. Despite
being useful, all these methods incorporate sources of built-in selection bias and constrain
generalizability. Some sources of bias showed that controlling confounding variables was not
well done in most studies. Few researchers considered variables such as prior English exposure,
socio-economic background, or concurrent language learning activities. Dahlan and Nurbianta
(2020) used partial correlation to test several variables simultaneously, yet they failed to
account for the potential influence of other variables. Several publications raise validity issues,
especially due to some studies' overdependence on self-reported data. The study by Araújo and
Eddine (2020), which analysed Google Play Store user comments, is innovative, but their
research raises questions about data reliability since they depended on the comments users left
behind.
The diverse research methods allow a multifaceted view of Duolingo's effectiveness in
acquiring vocabulary, as well as reveal crucial drawbacks. Some significant limitations include
small sample sizes, brief study durations, narrow demographic focus, and limited variable
management that diminish the reliability and global applicability of many findings. For
practical application, future research would be ideal if they are conducted on larger samples
over the longer term, with stricter control of extraneous variables. Moreover, the integration of
vocabulary assessment in all studies also increased the value of standardised tools, which, if
used consistently, could improve comparison when evaluating the efficacy of Duolingo and
other similar applications.

Impact on student motivation and engagement

The impact of Duolingo on student motivation and engagement in vocabulary learning
emerges as a significant theme across the reviewed literature. Numerous studies have explored
how the gamification and interactive elements of the application influence students' enthusiasm
and sustained use for vocabulary acquisition. This section synthesises the key findings related
to these aspects.
Ajisoko (2020) reported that Duolingo effectively improved English language learning,
particularly vocabulary, by eliminating boredom. The application's design presents learning as
a game with scientifically proven effectiveness and ensures that language learning remains
possible and engaging (Ambara, 2020). Borang, Maru, and Rorimpandey (2023) further
emphasised that Duolingo's potential as an engaging learning medium significantly improves
vocabulary skills. The interactive nature of Duolingo fosters active participation among
learners. Kusumadewi and Widyastuti (2018) observed that students using Duolingo showed
considerable response and interest, finding vocabulary easier to understand due to the fair,
practical material provided by the app. Jaelani and Sutari (2021) reported that over 80% of
students agreed that Duolingo was user-friendly and increased their active participation in
learning. Accessibility and flexibility have been identified as motivational factors. Pramesti
and Susanti (2020) found that students felt more comfortable and enjoyed learning English
with Duolingo. Hidayati and Diana (2019) reported high interest and enthusiasm among
students, with flexibility and practicality being key attractions.
Duolingo's impact on sustaining learners' interest over time has yielded mixed results.
García Botero, Questiner, and Zhu (2019) found that while questionnaire responses indicated
Duolingo facilitated out-of-class learning through enjoyable activities, interviews revealed
challenges in maintaining continuous enthusiasm, reflected in low app usage over time.
However, when integrated into formal learning contexts, Guaqueta and Castro-Garces (2018)

101
reported that students perceived Duolingo as positively influencing their learning generally and
vocabulary skills enhancement specifically, indicating long-term motivational effects.
The competitive and rewarding features of Duolingo are particularly engaging. Setiawati
(2023) noted that students, especially those with below-average English proficiency, found
Duolingo effective due to its game-like interface. The challenges, reminders, and reward
systems motivated students to learn new words consistently. Irzawati and Unamo (2023)
corroborated this, finding that Duolingo's gamification aspects made learning enjoyable and
reduced anxiety. Interestingly, Inayah, Yusuf, and Fibula (2020) discovered a discrepancy
between students' positive perceptions of Duolingo as a useful, helpful, and motivational tool
and their actual usage. This suggests that Duolingo's motivational influence might extend
beyond direct app usage to general attitudes towards language learning.
Another aspect that has been associated with increased motivation corresponds with the
concept of the personalised learning environment. All the respondents supported Duolingo in
making it possible for learners to progress within the language learning application at their own
pace, as they noted this as a motivating factor to practice. However, the new aspects of the apps
were not motivating in all the parts that primarily constitute Duolingo. Several pieces of work
have reported on constraints that may reduce interest, including a lack of in-depth grammar
explanations (Nasrul & Fatimah, 2023), inability to use the application offline (Purwanto,
2023), and the learners’ vocabularic enhancement without concern for cultural references
(Simanjuntak, Napitupulu, & Siahaan, 2023).
The literature reviewed substantial evidence by showing a strong relationship between
the use of gamification and interactivity, which, in this case, was applied to Duolingo and
students' increased motivation and engagement rates when learning vocabulary. This is because
the constructed application has a variety of interactive elements, such as a game-like interface,
accessibility, flexibility, and a personalised learning experience. Difficulties maintaining long-
term motivation were mentioned, particularly for learners engaging in informal learning
contexts; studies regarding Duolingo's integration into formal education suggested that
motivation was maintained even in a formal educational setting. These insights confirm that
the operationalisation of motivational guidelines requires careful attention to gain the most
benefit from Duolingo’s motivational features. Given study limitations, future work can take
advantage of longitudinal designs to explore motivational changes more circularly and
reference different learning environments.

Practical implications for educators

The reviewed literature provides significant insights into the practical implications of
integrating Duolingo into classroom settings for vocabulary acquisition. This section examines
how educators can effectively incorporate Duolingo into their teaching practices, their potential
challenges, and the solutions proposed in various studies. Several researchers recommend
Duolingo as a supplementary tool in formal education. Apoko, Dunggio, and Chong (2023)
suggested its use for English vocabulary learning among university students, emphasising that
critical instructor guidance is still needed to maximise learning outcomes. This indicates that
while Duolingo can enhance vocabulary learning, it should complement rather than replace
traditional instruction.
Integration strategies vary across educational levels. Ambara (2020) found that using
Duolingo in teaching English at the secondary level increased students' understanding of
materials and motivation. Teachers can assign Duolingo activities as homework or additional
practice, engaging classroom learning. Hernadijaya (2020) demonstrated its effectiveness with
seventh-grade students, showing adaptability to younger learners. In tertiary education, García
Botero, Questiner, and Zhu (2019) further examined informal, out-of-class engagement and
identified challenges in maintaining continuous enthusiasm and difficulties in self-
management. Educators should monitor and encourage consistent usage by offering regular
check-ins and progress discussions, integrating achievements, and ensuring that Duolingo

102
Vol. 10, No. 2, September 2024
e-ISSN 2715-0895, p-ISSN 2442-790X I Indonesian Journal of English Language Studies (IJELS)
achievements are included in the learners’ performance assessment. The type of gamification
Duolingo presents unique opportunities. Setiawati (2023) states that gamification is effective,
especially for students with below-average proficiency. This can empower the learning process
and can be used by teachers to design classroom competitions or motivate students by assigning
prizes based on the progress in Duolingo. However, following such programs, educators have
to overcome certain difficulties. Jaelani and Sutari (2021) mentioned that internet connectivity
is a critical challenge. This raises the issue of whether enough technology is in place to support
the learning process. Having some lessons downloadable offline or offering contingencies that
students with little to no internet can engage in could help eliminate this.
Another issue is that language learning often reaches only sufficient but not deeper levels.
Nasrul and Fatimah (2023) highlighted the absence of in-depth grammar explanations, while
Simanjuntak, Napitupulu, and Siahaan (2023) noted the lack of cultural context. While
enhancing literacy in context, educators should use Duolingo with grammar explanations and
culturally authentic resources to offer a wider perspective on language learning. A call for a
strategic intervention emerged from the study conducted by Inayah, Yusuf and Fibula (2020),
evidenced by the students' perceptions and actual usage. Gaps between the formal classroom
and informal Duolingo learning can be dealt with by ensuring that learning goals are defined
and progress discussed often, as well as relating Duolingo activities to course material.
Another aspect where Duolingo can also assist educators is differentiation. As
highlighted by Irzawati and Unamo (2023), it is useful in enabling the learning process to suit
everyone’s learning capabilities. Assessment integration is crucial. For its part, Duolingo has
its evaluation measurements, but they must relate to the curriculum objectives. Guaqueta and
Castro-Garces (2018) also mentioned using Duolingo scores or progress as part of the
formative assessment while comparing it with the summative assessment based on traditional
assessment tools. Since Duolingo is primarily used individually, group work may be looked at
in terms of what they can offer. Hidayati and Diana (2019) stated that the students found it
highly enthusiastic. Teachers can use the learning pairs or small groups using the Duolingo
assignments so that the learners learn together and support one another. Professional
development is essential. In their study, Dahlan and Nurbianta (2020) showed how Duolingo
affects the aspect of vocabulary improvement and reading comprehension; therefore, it is
crucial to grasp its possibilities. Training on the features, creating guidelines on integrating
such tools into work, and developing ways to deal with the difficulties that may occur assist in
proper usage.

Gaps in the literature

Despite the considerable body of research on Duolingo's effectiveness in vocabulary
acquisition, several gaps remain in the existing literature. This section highlights these gaps
and outlines the potential focus of further research to answer unanswered questions and
strengthen the understanding of Duolingo as a language learning application. One significant
omission involves the lack of focus on longitudinal studies. It is worth mentioning that most
reviewed research studies concentrated on interventions covering a period of not more than
three months. For instance, Habibie’s (2020) study collected data over only three days, while
Borang, Maru, and Rorimpandey (2023) used Duolingo for only 4 days. While such brief
interventions might be helpful, they do not convey how Duolingo influenced the participants’
vocabulary retention and language proficiency development as they continued to learn
languages. Gathering data collected at the same intervals that are consistent with students’
progress over long periods, perhaps in terms of academic years, can give more evidence on
how and to what extent the gained vocabulary may persist, as well as the changes in learners’
interactions with the application as time progresses.
Another significant gap lies in the limited diversity of student populations studied. Many
researchers concentrated on specific demographics or single institutions. Ali and Deris's (2019)
study comprised only female participants, while Inayah, Yusuf, and Fibula (2020) and Irzawati

103
and Unamo (2023) focused solely on undergraduate students. This narrow focus restricts the
generalizability of findings. Future research should aim to include a broader range of
participants across different age groups, proficiency levels, cultural backgrounds, and learning
contexts. Comparative studies examining Duolingo's effectiveness across these diverse
populations would enrich the literature.
The specific features of Duolingo that contribute most to vocabulary learning remain
underexplored. While studies like Setiawati (2023) and Irzawati and Unamo (2023) highlighted
the motivational aspects of gamification, few have systematically investigated which particular
elements (e.g., points, levels, streaks, or leaderboards) have the greatest impact on vocabulary
acquisition. Experimental studies isolating these features and measuring their effects would
provide valuable guidance for app developers and educators. Integrating Duolingo with other
language learning resources and strategies requires further investigation. Most studies
examined Duolingo in isolation or compared it to traditional methods. However, as Apoko,
Dunggio, and Chong (2023) suggested, Duolingo's optimal use may be as a supplementary
tool. Research exploring various blended learning models, combining Duolingo with different
instructional approaches, could offer insights into the most effective integration strategies.
The current literature inadequately addresses the relationship between Duolingo usage
patterns and learning outcomes. While some studies, like García Botero, Questiner, and Zhu
(2019), tracked app usage, few have correlated usage patterns (e.g., frequency, duration, time
of day, or consistency of use) with vocabulary gains. Such analyses could reveal optimal usage
strategies and inform personalised learning recommendations. Moreover, there is a dearth of
research on transferring vocabulary learned through Duolingo to real-world language use. Most
studies relied on Duolingo's internal assessments or vocabulary tests closely aligned with the
app's content. Investigations into how well this vocabulary translates into improved
performance in authentic communication tasks would significantly contribute to understanding
Duolingo's practical efficacy.
The role of learner autonomy and self-regulated learning in Duolingo-based vocabulary
acquisition also warrants deeper exploration. Inayah, Yusuf, and Fibula's (2020) observation
of discrepancies between perceptions and actual usage hints at the complexity of self-directed
learning. Studies examining the development of learner autonomy through Duolingo and
identifying factors that promote or hinder self-regulation would be valuable. Additionally, the
literature lacks substantial qualitative investigations into learners' and teachers' experiences
with long-term Duolingo use. In-depth case studies and phenomenological research could
provide rich descriptions of the challenges, adaptations, and evolving perceptions associated
with prolonged engagement with the app. Finally, there is a notable absence of studies on
Duolingo's effectiveness for languages other than English. Given the app's multilingual
offerings, comparative research across different target languages could uncover language-
specific factors influencing vocabulary acquisition through Duolingo.
While existing research offers valuable insights into Duolingo's role in vocabulary
learning, significant gaps persist. Future studies addressing these gaps—through longitudinal
designs, diverse populations, feature-specific analyses, integrated approaches, usage pattern
correlations, real-world transfer assessments, autonomy investigations, qualitative
explorations, and cross-linguistic comparisons—would substantially advance the
understanding of Duolingo's potential and limitations in vocabulary acquisition. Such
comprehensive research would contribute to theoretical knowledge and provide evidence-
based guidance for educational practice.

CONCLUSION
The review of Duolingo's application in vocabulary acquisition yields insights of both
theoretical and pedagogical import yet simultaneously underscores the need for more rigorous
empirical investigation. The cumulative evidence, derived predominantly from quasi-
experimental studies, suggests that Duolingo facilitates measurable gains in receptive

104
Vol. 10, No. 2, September 2024
e-ISSN 2715-0895, p-ISSN 2442-790X I Indonesian Journal of English Language Studies (IJELS)
vocabulary knowledge that surpass those of traditional instructional methods. However, the
construct validity of these findings warrants scrutiny, given the frequent isomorphism between
the app's content and the assessment measures employed.
A recurrent theme in the literature is Duolingo's motivational efficacy, putatively
attributable to its gamified interface. Learners' self-reports indicate heightened task
engagement, but such introspective data must be interpreted judiciously. The relative paucity
of research utilising psychometrically robust instruments to quantify motivational constructs
and their temporal stability constitutes a significant lacuna.
From a theoretical standpoint, Duolingo's provision of immediate, individualised
feedback aligns with interactionist postulates on the facilitative role of negative evidence in
language development. Nevertheless, the app's limited affordances for the negotiation of
meaning and pushed output raise questions about the depth of processing and the transferability
of lexical gains to communicative contexts. The methodological landscape, while informative,
exhibits limitations that merit attention. Sample sizes are often modest, and participant profiles
tend towards homogeneity, typically comprising tertiary-level learners. This demographic
uniformity obscures potential interactions between individual difference variables (e.g.,
language aptitude, working memory capacity) and the efficacy of Duolingo-mediated learning.
Moreover, the preponderance of short-term interventions precludes insights into the
longitudinal trajectories of vocabulary development.
Integration of Duolingo into formal instructional settings emerges as a recurrent
recommendation. However, despite its intuitive appeal, this proposition requires more robust
empirical substantiation. Ideally, Classroom-based research employing mixed-methods
designs is imperative to delineate optimal implementation strategies and elucidate how teachers
might judiciously orchestrate Duolingo's affordances with complementary pedagogical
interventions. Significant knowledge gaps persist, notably in our understanding of the
differential impacts of Duolingo's myriad features, the extent of vocabulary transfer to
authentic communicative scenarios, and the app's role in fostering self-regulated learning. The
predominant focus on English as the target language further circumscribes the generalizability
of findings.
In sum, while extant research corroborates Duolingo's potential in lexical development,
it concurrently illuminates the imperative for more nuanced, theoretically grounded
investigations. Future studies must transcend mere efficacy comparisons to explicate the
complex interplay of learner variables, technological affordances, and pedagogical strategies
that mediate vocabulary acquisition in this digital milieu. Only through such multifaceted
inquiry can we construct a robust theoretical framework to inform evidence-based practices,
thereby optimizing Duolingo's contribution to instructed second language acquisition.

REFERENCES
Ajisoko, P. (2020). The use of Duolingo apps to improve English vocabulary learning.
International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning (IJET), 15(7), 149-155.
https://doi.org/10.3991/ijet.v15i07.13229
Ali, M. A., & Deris, F. D. (2019). Vocabulary learning through Duolingo mobile application:
Teachers acceptance, preferred application features and problems. International Journal
of Recent Technology and Engineering, 8(259), 79-85.
https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v11n2p61
Ambara, I. W. (2020). The effect of using Duolingo application in learning vocabulary at
SMAN 2 Karangan. Journal of English Language Teaching Learning and Literature,
3(1), 48-55.
Apoko, T. W., Dunggio, A. A., & Chong, S. L. (2023). The students’ perceptions on the use of
mobile-assisted language learning through Duolingo in improving vocabulary mastery at
the tertiary level. English Review: Journal of English Education, 11(1), 17-26.

105
Araújo, P. A. M., & Eddine, E. A. C. (2020). The reviews of users of the Duolingo application:
Usability and objectivity in the learning process. International Journal of Research -
GRANTHAALAYAH, 8(9), 5-15. https://doi.org/10.29121/granthaalayah.v8.i9.2020.
1326
Astarilla, L. (2018). University students' perception towards the use of Duolingo application in
learning English. Conference proceedings, 2(2541-30230), 1-9.
Aulia, H. R., Wahjuningsih, E., & Andayani, R. (2020). The effects of Duolingo application
on students English vocabulary mastery. English Language Teaching and Research
Journal, 4(2), 131-139. https://doi.org/10.371471/eltrj.v4i2.71
Borang, K. A., Maru, M. G., & Rorimpandey, R. S. (2023). The use of Duolingo application
to increase students’ vocabulary mastery. SoCul: International Journal of Research in
Social Cultural Issues, 3(1), 750-757.
Dahlan, M., & Nurbianta, N. (2020). Utilization of Duo lingo Application used and practice
drilling vocabulary technique for up-grading students’ reading comprehension. Journal
of English Education and Linguistics, 1(1), 45-58.
Fitri, Y., Melani, M., Roza, V., & Reflinda, R. (2023). The effect of using Duolingo application
toward students’ vocabulary mastery at the second grade of SMPN 1 Koto Besar.
Innovative: Journal of Social Science Research, 3(2), 8265-8279.
García Botero, G., Questier, F., & Zhu, C. (2019). Self-directed language learning in a mobile-
assisted, out-of-class context: Do students walk the talk?. Computer Assisted Language
Learning, 32(1-2), 71-97.
Guaqueta, C. A., & Castro-Garces, A. Y. (2018). The use of language learning apps as a
didactic tool for EFL vocabulary building. English Language Teaching, 11(2), 61-71.
Habibie, A. (2020). Duolingo as an educational language tool to enhance EFL students’
motivation in writing. British (Jurnal Bahasa dan Sastra Inggris), 9(1), 13-26.
Hernadijaya, N. S. (2020). The use of Duolingo application to enhance junior high school
students’ English vocabulary. RETAIN, 8(2), 17-20.
Hidayati, T., & Diana, S. (2019). Students motivation to learn English using mobile
applications: The case of Duolingo and Hello English JEELS. Journal of English
Education and Linguistics Studies, 6(2), 189-213.
https://doi.org/10.30762/jeels.v6i2.1233
Inayah, N., Yusuf, Q., & Fibula, N. (2020). Exploring undergraduate students perception
towards the use of Duolingo in learning English. Humanities & Social Science Reviews,
8(3), 76-85. https://doi.org/10.18510/hssr.2020.839
Irzawati, I., & Unamo, A. F. (2023). Students’ perceptions and attitudes towards the utilization
of Duolingo in EFL learning. J-SHMIC: Journal of English for Academic, 10(2), 123-
138.
Jaelani, A., & Sutari, D. R. (2021, January). Students’ perception of using Duolingo application
as a media in learning vocabulary. In Bogor English Student and Teacher (BEST)
conference (Vol. 2, pp. 40-47).
Kusumadewi, H., & Widyastuti, M. (2018). The effects of using Duolingo towards students'
vocabulary mastery (An experiment of junior high school students at Omega Sains
Institute). IJET (Indonesian Journal of English Teaching), 7(2), 172–186.
https://doi.org/10.15642/ijet2.2018.7.2.172-186
Nasrul, V., & Fatimah, S. (2023). The effect of using Duolingo application on students' English
learning motivation and vocabulary enrichment: An experimental research at SMKN 1
Padang. Journal of English Language Teaching, 12(3), 933-952.
Pramesti, P., & Susanti, A. (2020). Students' perception of the use of mobile application
Duolingo for learning English. International Journal of Scientifics & Technology
Research, 9(1), 1800-1804.

106
 Vol. 10, No. 2, September 2024
e-ISSN 2715-0895, p-ISSN 2442-790X I Indonesian Journal of English Language Studies (IJELS)
Psychogyiou, A., & Krrasimos, A. (2019). The effectiveness of learning a foreign language via
a distance learning tool: Testing the Duolingo application. Selected papers on
Theoretical and Applied Linguistics, 23, 364-380. https://doi.org/10.26262/istal.v23i0.
7354
Purwanto, A. A. (2023). Students’ perception on using Duolingo for learning English
vocabulary. JET (Journal of English Teaching), 9(1), 70-82.
Setiawati, A. D. (2023). The effectiveness of using Duolingo application in improving students’
English vocabulary: A study at Hasanuddin University batch 2021 (Undergraduate
thesis, Universitas Hasanuddin).
Simanjuntak, M. K., Napitupulu, F. D., & Siahaan, S. T. (2023). The effect of Duolingo
application in learning English vocabulary at first grade of SMP Nusantara Lubuk Pakam.
Innovative: Journal of Social Science Research, 3(5), 831–838.
https://doi.org/10.31004/innovative.v3i5.4928

107

View publication stats