6.Chapter5
6.Chapter5
6.Chapter5
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How many legs does this elephant have?
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Is it moving?
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Fallacies
1. Fallacies What
of Relevance mistake!!!
2. Fallacies of
Insufficient
Evidence
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What is a Fallacy?
l A (logical) fallacy is an argument that contains
a mistake in reasoning.
l Fallacies can be divided into two general types:
l Fallacies of Relevance
Arguments in which the premises are logically
irrelevant to the conclusion.
l Fallacies of Insufficient Evidence
Arguments in which the premises, though
logically relevant to the conclusion, fail to
provide sufficient evidence for the conclusion.
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A statement is RELEVANT to another
statement if it provides at least some
reason for thinking that the second
statement is true or false.
Fallacies of Relevance
l There are three ways in which a statement can be
relevant or irrelevant to another:
1. A statement is positively relevant to another
statement if it provides at least some reasons for
thinking that the second statement is true.
l Example:
- Dogs are cats. Cats are felines. So dogs are
felines.
- All dogs have five legs. Rover is a dog. So Rover
has five legs.
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Fallacies of Relevance
2. A statement is negatively relevant to another
statement if it provides at least some reasons for
thinking that the second statement is false.
l Example:
- John is a high-school senior. So, John likely has a
Ph.D.
- Mai is two years old. So, Mai probably goes to
college.
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Fallacies of Relevance
3. A statement is logically irrelevant to another
statement if it provides no reason for thinking that the
second statement is either true or false.
l Example:
- The earth revolves around the sun. Therefore,
marijuana (one type of drugs) should be legalized.
- Last night I dreamed that the Vietnamese Football
team win the World Cup. Therefore, the Vietnamese
Football team will win the World Cup. 9
Fallacies of relevance
1. X is a bad person.
2. Therefore X's argument must be bad.
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Pattern
1. Personal Attack - Examples
Pattern 15
2. Attacking the Motive -
Examples
l Professor A has argued in favor of academic
tenure. But why should we even listen to Prof. A?
As a tenured professor, of course he supports
tenure.
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2. Attacking the Motive
l Not all attacks on arguer’s motives are
fallacious
Example:
l Burton Wexler, spokesperson for the American Tobacco
Growers Association, has argued that there is no credible
scientific evidence that cigarette smoking causes cancer.
Given Wexler’s obvious bias in the matter, his
arguments should be taken with a grain of salt.
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3. Look Who’s Talking
Look Who’s Talking (tu quoque – And you, too)
When an arguer rejects another person’s argument
or claim because that person is a hypocrite.
l Example:
My Dad’s always telling me not to talk on my mobile
phone while I’m driving, but why should I take any
notice of him? He’s always taking calls when he’s
driving.
Example:
l Jim: Our neighbor Joe gave me a hard time again
yesterday about washing our car during this drought
emergency.
Patty: Well, he’s right. But I wish that hypocrite
would live up to his own advice. Just last week I saw
him watering his lawn in the middle of the afternoon.
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4. Two Wrongs Make a Right
Two Wrongs Make a Right
When an arguer attempts to justify
a wrongful act by claiming that some other act
is just as bad or worse.
l Examples:
“I don’t feel guilty about cheating on Prof. A’s online quiz.
Half the class cheats on his quiz.”
l Example:
Gun lobbyist to politician: This gun-control bill is wrong
for America, and any politician who supports it will
discover how wrong they were at the next
election.
Example:
l All the villagers I’ve talked to say that the water is
safe to drink. Therefore, the water probably is safe
to drink.
l Lots of my friends recommend the Back Street
Deli, so it’s probably a good place to eat.
l Example:
Pete has argued that the New York Yankees are a better
baseball team than the Atlanta Braves. But the Braves
aren’t a bad team. They have a great pitching staff, and
they consistently finish at or near the top of their division.
Obviously, Pete doesn’t know what he’s talking about.
Example:
l Evolution is false! How could a mouse evolve into
an elephant!?
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9. Red Herring
Red Herring
When an arguer tries to sidetrack his audience
by raising an irrelevant issue, and then claims that
the original issue has been effectively settled by
the irrelevant diversion.
Example:
l Political opponent: Congressman Crookley, now
that you have been convicted of bribery, extortion,
and grand theft auto, isn’t it high time that you
resigned from office?
Representative Crookley: How’ bout those Yankees?
A ten-game lead at the All-Star break!
à no mistake in reasoning in the argument, no
fallacy is committed (the speaker does not deny 36
the charge!)
10. Equivocation
Equivocation
When an arguer uses a key word in an argument in two
(or more) different senses.
l Example:
l It is crime to smoke grass. Kentucky bluegrass is a grass.
Therefore, it is a crime to smoke Kentucky bluegrass.
l Any law can be repealed by the proper legal authority. The
law of gravity is a law. Therefore, the law of gravity can be
repealed by the proper legal authority.
l Example:
God is perfect because this is what the Bible says.
The Bible cannot be wrong because it is the word of a
perfect God.
Arguing in a circle
– A because B, B because A.
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Reason
11. Begging the Question -
Examples
l Bill: "God must exist."
Jill: "How do you
know."
Bill: "Because the
Bible says so."
Jill: "Why should I
believe the Bible?"
Bill: "Because the
Bible was written by
God."
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