Instructor: TRAN THANH TU Email: tttu@hcmiu.edu.vn
1 How many legs does this elephant have?
2 Is it moving?
3 Fallacies 1. Fallacies What of Relevance mistake!!!
2. Fallacies of Insufficient Evidence 4 What is a Fallacy? l A (logical) fallacy is an argument that contains a mistake in reasoning. l Fallacies can be divided into two general types: l Fallacies of Relevance Arguments in which the premises are logically irrelevant to the conclusion. l Fallacies of Insufficient Evidence Arguments in which the premises, though logically relevant to the conclusion, fail to provide sufficient evidence for the conclusion. 5 A statement is RELEVANT to another statement if it provides at least some reason for thinking that the second statement is true or false. Fallacies of Relevance l There are three ways in which a statement can be relevant or irrelevant to another: 1. A statement is positively relevant to another statement if it provides at least some reasons for thinking that the second statement is true.
l Example: - Dogs are cats. Cats are felines. So dogs are felines. - All dogs have five legs. Rover is a dog. So Rover has five legs. 7 Fallacies of Relevance 2. A statement is negatively relevant to another statement if it provides at least some reasons for thinking that the second statement is false.
l Example: - John is a high-school senior. So, John likely has a Ph.D. - Mai is two years old. So, Mai probably goes to college. 8 Fallacies of Relevance 3. A statement is logically irrelevant to another statement if it provides no reason for thinking that the second statement is either true or false.
l Example: - The earth revolves around the sun. Therefore, marijuana (one type of drugs) should be legalized. - Last night I dreamed that the Vietnamese Football team win the World Cup. Therefore, the Vietnamese Football team will win the World Cup. 9 Fallacies of relevance
l Do exercise 5.1 in page 121.
l Exclude examples. l Write answers in paper and submit as homework. à no need to submit! Date: Group: … Homework: 5.1 Answer: 2. … 3… 5… 10 … Fallacies of Relevance l A fallacy of relevance occurs when an arguer offers reasons that are logically irrelevant to his or her conclusion.
l Eleven Fallacies of Relevance:
1. Personal Attack 7. Bandwagon 2. Attacking the Motive Argument 3. Look Who’s Talking 8. Straw Man 4. Two Wrongs Make a Right 9. Red Herring 5. Scare Tactics 10. Equivocation 6. Appeal to Pity 11. Begging the Question 11 1. Personal Attack
Personal Attack (Ad Hominem)
When an arguer rejects a person’s argument or claim by attacking the person’s character rather than examining the worth of the argument or claim itself.
1. X is a bad person. 2. Therefore X's argument must be bad.
12 Pattern 1. Personal Attack - Examples
l "Bill says that we should give tax breaks to
companies. But he is untrustworthy, so it must be wrong to do that."
l Dr. Smith’s books about plant genetics are
worthless because he used to tell a lie at high school.
l Sam is divorced, so how can he make sound
financial decisions for the city? 13 1. Personal Attack l Not every personal attack is a fallacy Example: Mai has testified that she saw my client rob the Bank. But Ms. Mai has twice been convicted of perjury. In addition, you’ve heard Ms. Mai’s own mother testify that she is a pathological liar. Therefore, you should not believe Ms. Mai’s testimony against my client. l The fallacy of personal attack occurs only if: (1) An arguer rejects another person’s argument or claim (2) The arguer attacks the person who offers the arguments or claim, rather than considering the14
merits of that argument or claim.
2. Attacking the Motive Attacking the Motive When an arguer criticizes a person’s motivation for offering a particular argument or claim, rather than examining the worth of the argument or claim itself.
1. X has biased or has questionable motives.
2. Therefore, X’s arguments or claim should be rejected.
Pattern 15 2. Attacking the Motive - Examples l Professor A has argued in favor of academic tenure. But why should we even listen to Prof. A? As a tenured professor, of course he supports tenure.
16 2. Attacking the Motive l Not all attacks on arguer’s motives are fallacious Example: l Burton Wexler, spokesperson for the American Tobacco Growers Association, has argued that there is no credible scientific evidence that cigarette smoking causes cancer. Given Wexler’s obvious bias in the matter, his arguments should be taken with a grain of salt.
17 3. Look Who’s Talking Look Who’s Talking (tu quoque – And you, too) When an arguer rejects another person’s argument or claim because that person is a hypocrite.
l Example: My Dad’s always telling me not to talk on my mobile phone while I’m driving, but why should I take any notice of him? He’s always taking calls when he’s driving.
1. X fails to follow his or her own advice. 18
Pattern 2. Therefore, X’s claim or argument should be rejected. 3. Look Who’s Talking l It should be noted, however, that there is nothing fallacious as such in criticizing a person’s hypocritical behavior.
Example: l Jim: Our neighbor Joe gave me a hard time again yesterday about washing our car during this drought emergency. Patty: Well, he’s right. But I wish that hypocrite would live up to his own advice. Just last week I saw him watering his lawn in the middle of the afternoon. 19 4. Two Wrongs Make a Right Two Wrongs Make a Right When an arguer attempts to justify a wrongful act by claiming that some other act is just as bad or worse. l Examples: “I don’t feel guilty about cheating on Prof. A’s online quiz. Half the class cheats on his quiz.”
“Why pick on me, officer? Everyone else is using drugs.”
1. Others are committing worse or equally bad acts.
20 Pattern 2. Therefore my wrongful act is justified. 4. Two Wrongs Make a Right l Bill has borrowed Jane's expensive pen, but found he didn't return it. He tells himself that it is okay to keep it, since she would have taken his.
l Mother: Honey, it’s wrong to steal. How would
you feel if someone stole your favorite doll? Child: But you told me you stole your friend’s teddy bear when you were a little girl. So stealing isn’t really wrong.
à both: (4) two wrongs make a right and
21
(3) look who’s talking
4. Two Wrongs Make a Right l Bill has borrowed Jane's expensive pen, but found he didn't return it. He tells himself that it is okay to keep it, since she would have taken his.
l Mother: Honey, it’s wrong to steal. How would
you feel if someone stole your favorite doll? Child: But you told me you stole your friend’s teddy bear when you were a little girl. So stealing isn’t really wrong.
à both: (4) two wrongs make a right and
22
(3) look who’s talking
5. Scare Tactics Scare Tactics When an arguer threatens harm to a reader or listener and this threat is irrelevant to the truth of the arguer’s conclusion.
l Example: Gun lobbyist to politician: This gun-control bill is wrong for America, and any politician who supports it will discover how wrong they were at the next election.
Fear is a powerful motivator – so powerful that23it
Remember often causes us to think and behave irrationally. 5. Scare Tactics l Not all threats involve fallacies. Example: l Parent to teen: If you come home late one more time, your allowance will be cut.
l President John Kennedy to Soviet Premier Nikita
Krushchev: If you don’t remove your nuclear missiles from Cuba, we will have no choice but to remove them by force. If we use force to remove the missiles, that may provoke an all-out nuclear war. Neither of us wants a nuclear war. Therefore, you should remove your missiles from Cuba. 24 6. Appeal to Pity Appeal to Pity When an arguer attempts to evoke feelings of pity or compassion, where such feelings, however understandable, are not relevant to the truth of the arguer’s conclusion. l Example: Student to Lecturer: I know I missed half your classes and failed all my quizzes and assignments. First my cat died. Then my girlfriend told me she has found someone else. With all I went through this semester, I don’t think I really deserve an F. Any chance you might cut me some slack and change my grade to a C or a D?
1. P is presented, with the intent to create pity.
25 Pattern 2. Therefore claim C is true. 6. Appeal to Pity l Example: “Chúng tôi cảm nhận sâu sắc về vấn đề đạo đức ngành y, hy vọng các đại biểu và nhân dân nhìn nhận khoan dung với chúng tôi. Một năm ngành y khám bệnh cho 121 triệu lượt người, một con số lớn như thế nên không thể tránh khỏi những sơ xuất.”
1. P is presented, with the intent to create pity.
26 Pattern 2. Therefore claim C is true. 6. Appeal to Pity l Not all arguments that contain emotional appeals fallacious. Example: l "I should receive an 'A' in this class. After all, if I don't get an 'A' I won't get the fellowship that I want." l "I'm positive that my work will meet your requirements. I really need the job since my grandmother is sick." l Professor: "You missed the midterm, Bill." Bill: "I know. I think you should let me take the makeup." Professor: "Why?" Bill: "I was hit by a truck on the way to the midterm. Since I had to go to the emergency room with a broken leg, I think I am entitled to a makeup." Professor: "I'm sorry about the leg, Bill. Of course you 27
can make it up.“
7. Bandwagon Argument Bandwagon Argument (Peer Pressure) When an arguer appeals to a person’s desire to be popular, accepted, or valued, rather than to logically relevant reasons or evidence. l Example: - All the really cool IU students use iPhone. Therefore, you should, too. - All cool students dye hair and wear shorts to school. You must change your style right away!
1. Most (or a select group of) people believe or do 28X.
Pattern 2. Therefore, you should believe or do X. 7. Bandwagon Argument l Example: “Lúc ấy tôi thấy bia “vô chủ”, nhiều người lấy nên cũng vô tư làm theo. Đến khi công an vào cuộc điều tra chúng tôi lo sợ, cảm thấy xấu hổ với những người thân, hàng xóm. Từ khi bị công an mời lên, tôi rất hối hận và sợ hãi", anh Cường kể lại.
“Thực sự tôi nhặt bia với tâm
lý đám đông chứ không nghĩ mình đang hôi của. Sống hơn nửa cuộc đời rồi và giúp rất nhiều người khi bị rơi tài sản xuống đường, vậy mà chỉ một phút mất tỉnh táo, tôi đã phạm sai lầm", bị can Vinh nói. 29 7. Bandwagon Argument l Not all appeals to popular beliefs or practices are fallacious.
Example: l All the villagers I’ve talked to say that the water is safe to drink. Therefore, the water probably is safe to drink. l Lots of my friends recommend the Back Street Deli, so it’s probably a good place to eat.
à Premises are relevant to the conclusions
à No fallacy!!! 30 8. Straw Man Straw Man When an arguer misrepresents another person’s position to make it easier to attack.
l Example: Pete has argued that the New York Yankees are a better baseball team than the Atlanta Braves. But the Braves aren’t a bad team. They have a great pitching staff, and they consistently finish at or near the top of their division. Obviously, Pete doesn’t know what he’s talking about.
1. X’s view is false or unjustified [ but where X’s view
has been unfairly characterized or misrepresented 31 ] Pattern 2. Therefore X’s view should be rejected. 8. Straw Man
l Person A has position X.
l Person B presents position Y (which is a distorted version of X). l Person B attacks position Y. l Therefore X is false/incorrect/flawed.
Example: l Evolution is false! How could a mouse evolve into an elephant!? 32 9. Red Herring Red Herring When an arguer tries to sidetrack his audience by raising an irrelevant issue, and then claims that the original issue has been effectively settled by the irrelevant diversion.
1. Topic A is under discussion.
2. Topic B is introduced under the guise of being relevant to topic A (when topic B is actually not relevant to topic A). Pattern 3. Topic A is abandoned. 33 9. Red Herring l Example: l "I think there is great merit in making the requirements stricter for the graduate students. I recommend that you support it, too. After all, we are in a budget crisis and we do not want our salaries affected."
l You’re not being fair by denying me the opportunity
to have a make-up test. I’m paying for this course! 34 9. Red Herring l Example: l "I think there is great merit in making the requirements stricter for the graduate students. I recommend that you support it, too. After all, we are in a budget crisis and we do not want our salaries affected."
l You’re not being fair by denying me the opportunity
to have a make-up test. I’m paying for this course! 35 9. Red Herring l It is not a fallacy simply to change the subject or evade an issue.
Example: l Political opponent: Congressman Crookley, now that you have been convicted of bribery, extortion, and grand theft auto, isn’t it high time that you resigned from office? Representative Crookley: How’ bout those Yankees? A ten-game lead at the All-Star break! à no mistake in reasoning in the argument, no fallacy is committed (the speaker does not deny 36 the charge!) 10. Equivocation Equivocation When an arguer uses a key word in an argument in two (or more) different senses.
l Example: l It is crime to smoke grass. Kentucky bluegrass is a grass. Therefore, it is a crime to smoke Kentucky bluegrass. l Any law can be repealed by the proper legal authority. The law of gravity is a law. Therefore, the law of gravity can be repealed by the proper legal authority.
Fallacies of Equivocation can be difficult to spot
37 Remember Because they often appear valid, but they aren’t. 11. Begging the Question Begging the Question When an arguer states or assumes as a premise (reason) the very thing he is seeking to probe as a conclusion.
l Example: God is perfect because this is what the Bible says. The Bible cannot be wrong because it is the word of a perfect God.
Arguing in a circle – A because B, B because A. 38 Reason 11. Begging the Question - Examples l Bill: "God must exist." Jill: "How do you know." Bill: "Because the Bible says so." Jill: "Why should I believe the Bible?" Bill: "Because the Bible was written by God."
