REVIEW ARTICLE

Fungi and mycotoxins in cassava (Manihot

esculenta Crantz) and its products
Fungos e micotoxinas em mandioca (Manihot esculenta
Crantz) e seus produtos derivados
Laís Tiemi Ono1* , Marta H. Taniwaki1 

Instituto de Tecnologia de Alimentos (Ital), Departamento de Microbiologia, Campinas/SP - Brasil

1

*Corresponding Author: Laís Tiemi Ono, Instituto de Tecnologia de Alimentos (Ital), Departamento de
Microbiologia, Campus, Av. Cônego Antônio Roccato, 2880, Chácaras Campos dos Amarais, CEP: 13070-178,
Campinas/SP - Brasil, e-mail: tikenhaks@gmail.com

Cite as: Ono, L. T., & Taniwaki, M. H. (2021). Fungi and mycotoxins in cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) and its
products. Brazilian Journal of Food Technology, 24, e2020240. https://doi.org/10.1590/1981-6723.24020

Abstract
Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is a highly consumed food in the world, especially in developing
countries. Much of this tuber production comes from small farmers and it can suffer microbial infection
during pre-harvest in the field and/or postharvest if stored under inadequate conditions. This review
presented cassava production and the processing steps, resulting in products consumed in Brazil and other
countries. Studies on fungal occurrence, including toxigenic fungi, presence of aflatoxins and other
mycotoxins in cassava and its products carried out in several countries have been revised as well as the used
methodologies for mycotoxin detection.

Keywords: Mycobiota; Toxigenic fungi; Aflatoxins; Cassava tubers; Cassava flours; Cassava processing.

Resumo
A mandioca (Manihot esculenta Crantz) é um alimento muito consumido no mundo, principalmente nos
países em desenvolvimento. Grande parte da produção deste tubérculo vem de pequenos agricultores. A
mandioca pode sofrer a infecção microbiana antes da colheita no campo e/ou após a colheita, se estocada
sob condições inadequadas. Esta revisão apresenta a produção de mandioca e as etapas de processamento,
que resultam nos produtos que são consumidos no Brasil e em outros países. Estudos sobre a ocorrência
de fungos, incluindo os fungos toxigênicos, e a presença de aflatoxinas e outras micotoxinas na mandioca
e seus produtos, conduzidos em vários países, foram revisados, bem como as metodologias de detecção
das micotoxinas.

Palavras-chave: Micobiota; Fungos toxigênicos; Aflatoxinas; Tubérculos de mandioca; Farinhas de mandioca;

Processamento de mandioca.

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution,
and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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1 Introduction
Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) has great socio-economic importance; it is cultivated mainly in
developing countries, due to its ability to adapt to adverse conditions and its low cost. The composition of
cassava is favorable to the development of fungi and toxins, with a low presence of proteins and a high
amount of carbohydrates (Essono et al., 2009). Although few studies have been carried out in Brazil and
other developing countries on fungi and toxins in cassava and its products, they are highly consumed in these
countries and this issue should be considered for studying.
In 2018, world production of cassava reached more than 277 million tons. In tropical regions, it is
considered the third most important crop, after maize and rice. Cassava production in Africa represents more
than 60% of world production and among countries, Nigeria is in the first position, followed by Thailand.
Brazil is the third-largest cassava producer in the world (Adjovi et al., 2015; Food and Agriculture
Organization, 2020).
Generally, cassava production comes mainly from family farming, on a small scale, for local commerce.
Thus, it usually does not apply technology, research or studies, which results in lower production and a more
heterogeneous product. The highest level of productivity is usually achieved in large-scale production, with
the aim to sell to large companies, and which involves investment not only in mechanization, but in the
correction of acidity, fertilization, selection of plants, adequate spacing and weed control (Modesto Júnior &
Alves, 2014, 2016).
Cassava belongs to the Euphorbiaceae family, is originally from South America, and is believed to have
been spread to other continents through Portuguese immigrants. It has approximately 100 species, but only
one is commercially cultivated, Manihot esculenta Crantz. Mainly small farmers plant cassava, as their
cultivation does not require fertile soils or controlled acidity. This crop can withstand great variations in the
level of precipitation, temperature and altitude; in addition, its harvest can be carried out from six to twenty-
four months (Alves, 2002; Otsubo et al., 2002; Kouakou et al., 2016).
It is estimated that the average consumption of cassava and its products per person, according to data from
the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations (Food and Agriculture Organization,
2020), in 2017, was 13.81 kg/year. Quantities for the African continent reached 59.45 kg/year and for South
America, 27.87 kg/year.
Cassava productivity can be compromised in the event of the development of microorganisms. This
contamination occurs mainly under conditions of inadequate practices in the field, transportation and storage.
The use of susceptible varieties, contact with poor and contaminated soil, water and air are the main causes
of fungal contamination in field. This fact has an economic impact and causes a progressive fall in
productivity, since some microorganisms are able to survive in the soil for long periods, which can cause
damage in future harvests and produce mycotoxins (Peraica et al., 1999; Gomes & Leal, 2003; Ferreira
Neto et al., 2004; Notaro et al., 2013).
This review presented the general aspects of cassava and its main products, mycobiota and occurrence of
toxins, aiming to identify possible limitations and indicate where more research could be developed.

2 Production of cassava products

The way cassava can be prepared varies according to the country in which this food is consumed; each
region has particularities, resulting in many different products. In addition to being consumed in natura, this
tuber can be converted into fermented foods such as: gari; fufu; fermented chips; beers; beiju; and banu. Also
being consumed in non-fermented foods, such as: chips; pellets; and flours such as tapioca (Falade &
Akingbala, 2011; Adjovi et al., 2015;).
Below, there is the definition of the cassava products which are found most frequently and a flowchart
(Figure 1) showing the processing steps, resulting in products consumed in Brazil and other countries.

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Figure 1. Processing of cassava products.

The most consumed cassava derivative in West Africa is the gari. Produced handmade, it is obtained by
peeling, scraping, fermenting, pressing, sieving and roasting the cassava. There are several variations for the
types of gari products; they can be consumed immersed in water, can be drunk or sprayed on other foods,
and can also be diluted in water or milk and transformed into a dough (Adjovi et al., 2015; Escobar et al.,
2018).
Very popular in Nigeria, Ghana and other parts of Africa, fufu is prepared by immersing cassava roots in
water for 3 to 4 days. After softening and fermentation, they are crushed and left to stand for decanting and
drying. The obtained dough is usually consumed with soups (Ogbuji & David-Chukwu, 2016).
Kokonte is the product obtained through cassava chips, which are traditionally dried in the sun and then
crushed, forming flour (Wareing et al., 2001).
The cassava product most used in Africa and most consumed in Brazil, is flour, which can be processed
in different ways. In South America, the clean and peeled root is grated and pressed, obtaining a dough,
which is sieved, taken to the oven and baked (Cohen et al., 2007; Adjovi et al., 2015).
Other traditional Brazilian products are obtained by natural fermentation of moist starch extracted from
cassava tubers that gives rise to cassava starch, sour starch, and tapioca flour. For production, the clean tubers
are grated and pressed, and the filtered liquid is used to obtain the starch. In the case of cassava starch, it is
deposited at the bottom of the container for 18 to 24 hours, then removed and taken to dry in the sun for about
8 hours. Tapioca flour, in fact, originates from the rehydration of cassava starch. In the manufacture of sour
starch, the decanting stage is longer, remaining in the fermentation tanks for 15 to 40 days, which raises the
acidity of the final product. Finally, the residue is removed from the tanks and taken to dry in the sun
(Cohen et al., 2007; Adjovi et al., 2015).
Cassava products sold in Brazil can have different moisture content and water activity (aw) ranges. In a
study of Ono (2020), fresh cassava tubers presented aw varied from 0.922 to 0.996, and, because of the high
aw, they can only be stored fresh for a limited time or converted to products which are dried to a lower aw.

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Tapioca flour aw found in this study (Ono, 2020), varied from 0.372 to 0.997, among different brands,
showing a high vulnerability for fungal growth and mycotoxin production during its shelf life that can last
some months in the markets at ambient temperature. These brands rely on chemical preservatives such as
sorbic or propionic acids for their stability.

3 Mycobiota of cassava and its products

Studies carried out in Brazil on cassava mycobiota, analyzed 15 samples of cassava flour in Macapá, noting
that 80% of the samples were contaminated by Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus fumigatus and Penicillium
chrysogenum (Mesquita et al., 2017). Similarly, the genera Aspergillus and Penicillium were also found in
the Amazon by Gomes et al. (2007), when analyzing nine samples of different types of cassava flour. They
observed fungal count in all samples and of the total, 40% presented contamination by Penicillium spp. and
38% by Aspergillus spp. The genera Rhizopus, Cladosporium, and yeasts, were found in lower proportions.
Cassava is grown in direct contact with the soil, being susceptible to contamination by fungi present in it,
which can contaminate the surface and infect its tissues (Adjovi et al., 2015; Paul, 2015). In Nigeria, Sule &
Oyeyiola (2012) observed physical-chemical and also mycological characteristics in different types of soils
cultivated with cassava. They isolated Aspergillus, Acremonium, Brettanomyces, Botrytis, Byssochamys,
Cladosporium, Doratomyces, Geotrichum, Gliocladium, Humicola, Moniliella, Mucor, Monascus,
Neuspora, Oidiodendron, Penicillium, Papulospora, Piricularia, Rhodotorula, Rhizopus, Saccharomyces,
Trichoderma and Ustilago.
In Uganda, Kaaya & Eboku (2010) observed fungal counts in all 75 samples of cassava chips, varying
between 4.5x101 and 1.0x106 CFU/g with an average of 5.0x104 CFU/g. Rhizopus spp. was the most
prevalent, and they also identified the genera Mucor, Penicillium, Aspergillus and Fusarium. However, A.
flavus was the most found toxigenic fungus in 18.5% of the samples. In Nigeria, Jimoh & Kolapo (2008)
reported the genera Rhizopus nigricans, Aspergillus niger and Fusarium oxysporum in cassava chip samples.
Studies in samples of cassava chips in Benin found fungal contamination and the genera found were
Aspergillus, Fusarium, Penicillium, Mucor, Nigrospora and Rhizopus (Gnonlonfin et al., 2008).
Later, in the same place, Gnonlonfin et al. (2012) found 14 fungal genera in the samples of cassava
chips, with dominance of species Rhizopus oryzae, Nigrospora oryzae, Chrysonilia sitophila, C.
resinae, C. herbarum, A. niger and A. flavus. The mycobiota of cassava products (pellets, flours and
gari) analyzed in Nigeria, found Aspergillus spp., Penicillium spp., Mucor spp., Neospora spp.,
Choanophora spp., Cladosporium spp., Rhizopus spp., Rhodotorula spp., S. cerevisiae, F. oxysporium,
Botrydiplodia theobromae, Helminthosporium spp. and Trichoderma spp. Some Aspergillus species
such as A. section Flavi, A. niger, A. nidulans, A. terreus and A. fumigatus were identified (Aghimien
& Ikenebomeh, 2017).
In Ghana, 101 samples of kokonte were analyzed and their mycobiota were described by
Wareing et al. (2001). It was found that yeasts and Cladosporium spp. were the most frequent in the
samples, however, other fungi were also isolated, such as Aspergillus spp., Alternaria spp.,
Colletotrichum spp., Drechslera spp., Fusarium spp., Monilia spp., N. oryzae, Phoma sorghina,
Geotrichum spp., Aureobasidium spp., Mucor spp., Rhizopus spp., Penicillium spp., Paecilomyces
variotii and Wallemia sebi.
In a study on cassava spoilage, from Noon & Booth (1977) in Colombia, 120 cassava samples were
analyzed. After 11 days post-harvest, several microorganisms were found as following: Aspergillus
spp.; Botryodiplodia spp.; Fusarium spp.; Mucor spp.; Penicillium spp.; Rhizopus spp.; and
Trichoderma spp..
Table 1 shows a summary of the mycobiota of cassava and its products in different countries.

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Table 1. Mycobiota of cassava and its products in different countries.

Samples Nº samples Mycobiota Countries References

Cassava roots Aspergillus spp., Botryodiplodia spp., Fusarium spp.,

(after 11 days 120 Mucor spp., Penicillium spp., Rhizopus spp. and Colombia Noon & Booth (1977)
storage) Trichoderma spp.

Aspergillus spp., Alternaria spp., Cladosporium spp.,

Colletotrichum spp., Drechslera spp., Fusarium spp.,
Monilia spp., Nigrospora oryzae, Phoma sorghina,
Kokonte 49 Ghana Wareing et al. (2001)
Geotrichum spp., Aureobasidium spp., Mucor spp.,
Rhizopus spp., Penicillium spp., Paecilomyces variotii
e Wallemia sebi

Aspergillus spp., Penicillium spp., Cladosporium spp.,

Cassava flour 9 Brazil Gomes et al. (2007)
Rhizopus spp.

A. flavus, Aspergillus spp., F. verticillioides,

Gnonlonfin et al.
Cassava chips 100 P.chrysogenum, P. sorghina, M. piriformis, R. oryzae, Benin
(2008)
N. oryzae

Jimoh & Kolapo

Cassava chips 20 R. nigricans, A. niger, F. oxysporum Nigeria
(2008)

Aspergillus: A. aculeatus, A. candidus, A. clavatus, A.

flavipes, A. flavus, A. fumigatus, A. niger, A. nomius,
Cassava chips 72 Cameroon Essono et al. (2009)
A. ochraceous, A. parasiticus, A. tamarii, A. terreus, A.
versicolor

Aspergillus spp., Penicillium spp., Fusarium spp., Kaaya & Eboku

Cassava chips 75 Uganda
Mucor spp., Rhizopus spp. (2010)

Aspergillus spp., Cladosporium spp., Chrysonilia spp., Gnonlonfin et al.

Cassava chips 60 Benin
Nigrospora spp., Rhizopus spp. (2012)

Aspergillus spp., Acremonium spp., Brettanomyces

spp., Botrytis spp., Byssochamys spp., Cladosporium
spp., Oratomyces spp., Geotrichum spp., Gliocladium
spp., Humicola spp., Moniliella spp., Mucor spp., Sule & Oyeyiola
Cassava soil - Nigeria
Monascus spp., Neuspora spp., Oidiodendron spp., (2012)
Penicillium spp., Papulospora spp., Piricularia spp.,
Rhodotorula spp., Rhizopus spp., Saccharomyces spp.,
Trichoderma spp., Ustilago spp.

Cassava flour 15 A. niger, A. fumigatus and P. chrysogenum Brazil Mesquita et al. (2017)

Aspergillus spp., Penicillium spp., Mucor spp.,

Cassava
Neospora spp., Choanophora spp., Cladosporium
products Aghimien &
- spp., Rhizopus spp., Rhodotorula spp., S. cerevisiae, F. Nigeria
(pellets, flour Ikenebomeh (2017)
oxysporium, B. theobromae, Helminthosporium spp.
and gari)
and Trichoderma spp.

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4 Occurrence of toxigenic fungi, aflatoxins and other toxins in cassava and its
products
Some filamentous fungi are capable of producing secondary metabolites called mycotoxins, and their
toxicity can cause diseases and even death in humans and animals. Aflatoxins correspond to the group with
the highest occurrence in food and are considered to be grouped into Group 1, i.e., carcinogenic to humans
according to the International Agency for Research on Cancer (Peraica et al., 1999; International Agency for
Research on Cancer, 2002; Bennett & Klich, 2003).
The most frequently found aflatoxin-producing fungi are A. flavus, A. nomius and A. parasiticus, although
aflatoxins can be produced by other species. Currently, eighteen species in the A. section Flavi group are
recognized as aflatoxin producers: A. flavus; A. parasiticus; A. nomius; A. pseudonomius; A.
novoparasiticus; A. pseudotamarii; A. togoensis; A. pseudocaelatus; A. luteovirescens; A. minisclerotigenes;
A. arachidicola; A. sergii; A. transmontanensis; A. mottae; A. aflatoxiformans; A. austwickii; A. pipericola
and A. cerealis (Frisvad et al., 2019).
There are more than 20 known aflatoxins, however, the main forms in which they are presented can be
associated with AFB1, AFB2, AFG1 and AFG2, which refer to their fluorescent properties since AFB1 and
AFB2 show blue fluorescence, whereas AFG1 and AFG2 show green fluorescence (Taniwaki & Pitt, 2019).
The occurrence of mycotoxins in cassava and its base products has been reported in several consuming
countries, although most reports are on aflatoxins and aflatoxigenic species. In Cameroon, Essono et al.
(2009) analyzed 72 samples of cassava chips, evaluating for two months the influence of the product storage
time in relation to the quantification of aflatoxins. Initially 13 species of Aspergillus were isolated: A.
aculeatus; A. candidus; A. clavatus; A. flavipes; A. flavus; A. fumigatus; A. niger; A. nomius; A. ochraceus;
A. parasiticus; A. tamarii; A. terreus and A. versicolor. Of these species, A. flavus, A. nomius and A.
parasiticus, received special attention, for being aflatoxin producers. Of the total, 18 samples showed
aflatoxin contamination with a variation between 5.2 and 14.5 μg/kg. The first contaminated sample was
detected only after four weeks.
In a study conducted in markets in Tanzania and the Republic of Congo, by Manjula et al. (2009), samples
were obtained of 38 different types of cassava root (such as fresh, stored and smoked) and also samples of
chips and flour. They quantified aflatoxins AFB1 in different types of processing and storage time, obtaining
results that varied from 0.3 to 4.4 μg/kg for cassava chips and flour. The stored cassava samples showed the
highest concentration levels, with a range from 0.1 to 13 μg/kg. The contamination levels between fresh,
stored and smoked, presented no difference statistically. In addition, traces of fumonisin were quantified in
the samples, with low levels that varied between not detected to 0.07 μg/kg in the chips and flour samples.
In Nigeria, Aghimien & Ikenebomeh (2017) analyzed four types of samples of cassava products: pellets;
flours (industrial and local) and gari. The products were collected in three main markets in each of the six
chosen regions. The highest concentration of AFB1 was found in the local cassava flours, with levels reaching
83.54 ± 2.95 μg/kg, probably due to the type of processing and lack of good manufacturing practices.
However, 75% of the samples obtained results below 20 μg/kg, among them, 6% with values below the
detection limit. Investigating the presence of mycotoxins in four samples of cassava flour, in Benin,
Ediage et al. (2011) found aflatoxin B1 (< LOQ - 9 μg/kg) and aflatoxin B2 (< LOQ - 8 μg/kg). There were
fumonisin B1 (4-21 μg/kg), diacetoxyscirpenol (< LOQ - 6 μg/kg) and zearalenone (< LOQ - 12 μg/kg) in
these samples as well. The authors attribute the coexistence of aflatoxins and fumonisin due to possible stress
during cassava growth. Although the incidence of aflatoxins has been reported, some authors have not found
them in detectable quantities in their work, such as Gnonlonfin et al. (2008). When analyzing the total
presence of aflatoxins and fumonisin B1, they observed the absence of these mycotoxins in samples of cassava
chips in Benin.

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Muzanila et al. (2000) collected samples of cassava chips, which were later processed into flour, in villages
in Tanzania. Analyses were performed to check the production of aflatoxins, but none of the samples showed
contamination.
A study of kokonte, conducted in Ghana, showed that more than half of 101 samples had at least one
toxigenic fungal species with a count greater than 104 CFU/g, and these samples were tested for mycotoxins.
The samples with toxigenic fungi were tested as follows: A. flavus for aflatoxins; A. versicolor for
sterigmatocystin; Penicillium spp. for patulin, penicillic acid and cyclopiazonic acid; Fusarium spp. for
neosolaniol and T-2 toxin; and Phoma sorghina for tenuazonic acid. Neosolaniol, T-2 toxin and aflatoxins
were not present in any of the samples analyzed. The most common mycotoxins in kokonte samples were
sterigmatocystin, patulin and cyclopiazonic acid (Wareing, et al., 2001).
Adjovi et al. (2014) analyzed 36 cassava samples, finding A. flavus, A. parvisclerotigenus and A.
novoparasiticus, with the most toxin-producing strains; however, the presence of aflatoxins was not
observed. In this same study, the authors inoculated a highly aflatoxigenic strain of A. flavus in cassava, and
although the fungus developed, aflatoxins were not produced. The authors reported that possibly cassava may
have the capacity to block the production of AFB1 during pre-harvest; however, in this work it is suggested
that after heat treatment this ability may be compromised, since the molecule responsible for inhibition would
be thermosensitive. Therefore, it is important to ensure good storage practices for derived products, and in
this way, favorable conditions do not arise for the production of toxins.
Table 2 shows data on the occurrence of mycotoxins in cassava and products, mostly from African and Latin
American countries. Different methods for mycotoxin analyses have been used such as Thin Layer Chromatography
(TLC), Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA), High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) and
Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Validation of these methods has not always been
performed. In addition, the lack of confirmatory tests for mycotoxins put some of these findings in doubt.

Table 2. Occurrence of mycotoxins in cassava and its products from different countries.
Samples Nº samples Mycotoxins Incidence (%) min-max (μg/kg) Methods Countries References
Cassava chips 54 Total AFs 0 < LOD TLC Tanzania Muzanila, et al. (2000)
Kokonte 2 Total AFs 0 < LOD HPTLC Ghana Wareing et al. (2001)
Kokonte 10 Sterigmatocystin 100 170-1670 HPTLC Ghana Wareing et al. (2001)
Kokonte 11 Patulin 36 550-850 HPTLC Ghana Wareing et al. (2001)
Kokonte 11 Penicilic acid 45 60-230 HPTLC Ghana Wareing et al. (2001)
Kokonte 11 Cyclopiazonic acid 36 80-720 HPTLC Ghana Wareing et al. (2001)
Kokonte 18 T-2 0 < LOD HPTLC Ghana Wareing et al. (2001)
Kokonte 18 Neosolaniol 0 < LOD HPTLC Ghana Wareing et al. (2001)
Kokonte 8 Tenuazonic acid 37 20-340 HPTLC Ghana Wareing et al. (2001)
Cassava chips 100 Total AFs 0 < LOD HPLC Benin Gnonlonfin et al. (2008)
Cassava chips 20 Total AFs 0 < LOD TLC Nigeria Jimoh & Kolapo (2008)
Cassava chips 6 AFB1 100 0.4-4.38 ELISA Congo Manjula et al. (2009)
Cassava flour 3 AFB1 100 0.32-1.64 ELISA Congo Manjula et al. (2009)
Cassava chips 72 Total AFs 25 < LOD-14.5 ELISA Cameroon Essono et al. (2009)
Cassava chips 75 Total AFs 30 0-4.5 HPLC Uganda Kaaya & Eboku (2010)
Cassava flour 4 Total AFs 100 < LOQ-9.0 LC-MS/MS Benin Ediage et al. (2011)
Cassava flour 4 Diacetoxyscirpenol 75 < LOD-9.0 LC-MS/MS Benin Ediage et al. (2011)
Cassava flour 4 Zearalenone 75 < LOD-12.0 LC-MS/MS Benin Ediage et al. (2011)
Cassava flour 4 Fumonisin B1 100 4.0-21.0 LC-MS/MS Benin Ediage et al. (2011)
Cassava chips 60 Total AFs 0 < LOD HPLC Benin Gnonlonfin et al. (2012)
Cassava roots 36 AFB1 0 < LOD HPLC Benin Adjovi et al. (2014)
Pellets, flour and
72 Total AFs 94 < LOD-83.54 ELISA Nigeria Aghimien & Ikenebomeh (2017)
gari
LOD: Limit of Detection; TLC: Thin Layer Chromatography; HPTLC: High Performance Thin-Layer Chromatography; HPLC: High
Performance Liquid Chromatography; ELISA: Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay; LC-MS/MS: Liquid Chromatography-Mass
Spectrometry.

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5 Conclusion
In fact, significant fungal diversity in cassava tubers and cassava products has been reported and the
presence of Aspergillus species capable of aflatoxin production is of concern. In this review some studies
showed the presence of mycotoxins, especially aflatoxins in cassava and cassava based products. Different
methods for mycotoxin analyses have been used, however, validation of these methods has not always been
performed and the lack of confirmatory tests for mycotoxins put these findings in doubt. Further studies are
needed using more adequate methodologies for fungal identification, in order to determine aflatoxins and
mycotoxins with confirmatory steps and identify the compound that can apparently inhibit aflatoxin
production in fresh cassava tubers. These findings will contribute to a better understanding in the significance
of fungi and toxins in cassava and its products to consumer health.

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Funding: Fundação de Desenvolvimento da Pesquisa do

Agronegócio.

Received: Oct. 06, 2020; Accepted: June 22, 2021

Braz. J. Food Technol., Campinas, v. 24, e2020240, 2021 | https://doi.org/10.1590/1981-6723.24020 9/9