X\ jmowledge and attitudes that are necessary to meet the demands of life in general. {Thos learning adds new knowledge and new ideas and thereby helps us to deal with the environment more efficiently and effectively, It will not help us simply to deal with the environment in old ways; rather it guides us to deal with our problems in new ways also. Learning being purposive in nature, it direct towards. the end results, which satisfy us by releasing tension created by a particular need ee 2 In short it is said: Learning modifies and changes one’s_behaviour with reference to a particular goal. It establishes new relationship between a stimulus and a response. This involves new connections. It is a process of developing new method or technique to deal one’s problem. Considering these points, learning may be defined as “a process of effecting a change in behaviour which generally produces an improvement in our relations with our environment. Munn (1966) defines it as the process of being | modified more or less permanently, by what happens in the world around us by what we do, or by what we observe. In short all these help him to adjust to his physical and social ‘environment effectively and efficiently. Leafning is the act of acquiring new, or ‘ |modifying and reinforcing, _ existing knowledge, behaviours, skills, values, or preferences and may involve synthesizing different types of information. The ability to leam is possessed by humans, animals and some machines. Human learning may occur as part of education, personal development, schooling, or training, It may be goal-oriented and may be aided by motivation. The study of how learning occurs is part of Educational Psychology, Neuropsychology, Learning theory, and Pedagogy. Leaming may occur as a result of habituation or classical conditioning, seen in ‘many animal species, or as a result of more complex activities such as play, seen only in relatively intelligent animals. Learning may occur consciously or without conscious awareness. (Learning that an aversive event can't be avoided nor escaped is called leaned helplessness)There is evidence for human behavioural learning prenatally, in which habituation has been observed as early as 32 weeks into gestation, indicating that the central nervous system is sufficiently developed and primed for learning and memory to occur very early on in development. TYPES OF LEARNING 1) Classical Conditioning 2) oheran Conditioning 3) Latent Learning‘The Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov devoted his entire life to science. became famous for the scientific study of digestion in dogs. His showed that digestion started in the mouth and that saliva was an nt part of the digestive process. This led him to the discovery of the gland and the salivary reflex. found that putting food powder on a dog’s tongue would trigger the reflex. He won a Nobel Prize in 1904 for this work. It was another y, though, that made him famous in the field of Psychology. In his ,, Pavlov began to notice that some of his dogs were starting to salivate he put the food powder on their tongues. Some would salivate at the sight food powder or even the sight of the spoon used to deliver the powder. ‘of the dogs even began to salivate when they saw Pavlov’s assistant in the food. When Pavlov investigated further, he found that the longer hhad been in the laboratory, th likely they were to make these responses. New dogs Would only respond to the food powder itself.pvr tad tought of the salivary refer as eing Tike a elects ciuy thovgi iat ping the food onthe dog's tongue completed the cies and the dog o slate. He was amazed, then, when the response occured bie food powder arrived on the dog's tongue. Pavlov was astounded by this ney development. He concluded that the dogs were learning to respond to stimuli oe than the food powder. Like many good scientists, he was so fascinated by sn ‘unexplained event in the laboratory that he changed his whole area of stuly i stopped working on digestion and began studying what we now call Clawical Conditioning. In Pavlov’s honour, this kind of conditioning is sometimes call Pavlovian conditioning. Pavlov's experiments showed that his dogs cold be conditioned to salivate to a number of other stimuli. He tried the sound of » ™etronome and a number of other stimuli including a small bell. Ail he had tod was present these other stimuli repeatedly along with the food pos Repeatedly presenting food powder and ringing a bell at the same tine {« ‘cxample, will eventually result in a dog salivating to the sound of the bell. This * the basic form forall classical condit One simul Cin this cae food) already produces the response (salvation) T** fus is paired, or E on ‘resented together with, a neutral stimulus (the bel!) Ber conditioning, the bell does not produce the response ‘Over time, as the two stimuli fre presented together, the bell comes to produce the response (salivation). Be Wo SUALLY wae a more scientific term. We say that the dog has been conditioned to salivate to the sound of the bel food clicits Before conditioning, the ‘ation. Afler conditioning, we say that the bel elicits salivation, [When responses are elicited, they are automatic and involuntary. The bell and the food powder are the two stimuli. Salivation to the food and salivation to the bell are the two responses. Because the food powder produces the response before we have done any conditioning, we could say that it works on an “unconditioned” stimulus. Pavlov used tones, bells, buzzers, lights, geometric shapes, clectric shocks, and metronomes in his conditioning experiments. In a typical experiment, ‘food powder was placed in the dog’s mouth, causing salivation. Because dogs do ‘Rot need to be conditioned to salivate to food, salivation to food is an unleamed Fesponse, or uncon: Any stimulus, such as food, that without prior leaming will automatically elicit, or joned response (UR). ‘bring forth, an unconditioned response is called an unconditioned stimulus (US). ‘During the conditioning process, the researcher would present a neutral stimulus ‘Such as a mysical tone shortly before placing food powder in the dog's mouth. powder would cause the dog to salivate. Pavlov found that afier the tonepaired many times, usually 20 or more, the tone alone wy.) ‘ and the food were ed the tone the leaned stimulus, or conditions, clicit salivation. Pavlov call salivation to the tone the leamed Fesponse, oF Condition stimulus (CS), and response (CR). Extinction: - Pavlov found that without the food, salivation to the tone became weaker and weaker and then finally disappeared altogether process known g extinction. In classical conditioning, the weakening and eventual disappearance response as 4 result of repeated presentation of the conditioned stimulus without the ‘unconditioned stimulus. ‘Some research indicates that extinction is context-specific. When a conditioned response is extinguished in one setting, it can still be clicited in other setinss where extinction training has not occurred. Pavlov did not discover this because his experiments were always conducted in the same setting. ‘Spontaneous recovery: - After the response had been extinguished, Pavlov allowed the dog to rest for 20 minutes and then brought it back to the laboratory H rs fe found that the dog would again salivate to the tone. Pavlov called this recurrence spoytaneous ri : ey ‘covery. The reappearance of an extinguished res?°"™Pavlov found that a tone similar to the original conditioned ‘would produce the conditioned response (salivation), a phenomenon ‘generalization. But the salivation decreased the farther the tone was from ‘original conditioned stimulus, until the tone became so different thatthe dog yrder conditioning: - It is a form of leaming in which a stimulus is first, ‘meaningful or consequential for an organism through an initial step of and then that stimulus is used as a basis for learning about some new For example, an animal might first lear to associate a bell with food conditioning), but then learn to associate a light with the bell (second- g).out of the box- SKINNER’S OPERANT CONDITIO! ING In the 1930's, BLFSkinner began his influential experiments on what he jog perant conditioning. Skinner want better contol of the Tearing situation ian was provided by the “puzzle boxes” and mazes, then used to study instrmeny itioning, He wanted a way to study reinforced responding without breakiny the experiment up into discrete trials; and for convenience, he wanted to automate the instrumental learning situation. To do all this, he invented the skinner box, or, as it is often called, operant chamber. An operant chamber is a simple box with » device at one end that can be worked by the animal in the box. Forrats ats and ‘monkeys ,the device is a lever; for pigeons, the device id a small panel, called a “key”, which can be pecked.thr lever and key are really switches that activate, when positive reinforcement is begin used, a food delivery or water delivery ‘mechanism. Thus positive reinforcement is contingent upon pressing a lever or pecking a key. Since responses are positively reinforced, they increase in frequency. Here #s anfexample of the way conditioning is done in an operant chamber. ‘The first step in the operant conditioning of a hungry rat is to getit ©300n as it drops. This first step is necessary if the food reinforcement is to be later, when the rat will deliver the food pellets to itself by pressing a Next, the experimenter stops releasing the pellets, and the rat is left alone ox with the lever, which will release the pellets. After an initial period of ty, the rat, being hungry, begin to exploring the box. Eventually, it press accidently pellet of food released; that it reinforcement is contingent the lever. After eating the food pellet, the rat continues exploring, to groom it self from time to time. After a while, it presses the lever ‘and again a pellet is released, then it press a lever a third time. after a fourth or fifth press, the rat begins to press the lever more rapidly, t behaviour is in full swing. ‘Thus from the above experiment we see that reinforcement ‘important role in helping learning to take place in operant conditioning.Latent learning Latent learning is a form of learning that is not immediately expressed in an overt response; it occurs without an obvious reinforcement of the behaviour qr associations that are learned, Interest in latent le the phenomenon ‘seemed to conflict with the widely held view that reinforce reaming to occur. In a classic study by Edward C. Tolman, azes and their behaviour observed each day arming arose largely because was necessary for I three groups of rats were placed in m ‘The rats in Group 1 always found fo and the rats in Group 3 found no food for more than two weeks. od at the end of the amaze; the rats in Group 2 never found food; jved food on the eleventh. The Group } rats quickly for 10 days, but then recei earned to rush to the end of the maze; Group 2 rats wandered in the maze but did end, Group 3 acted the same as the Group 2 rats until not preferentially go to the food was introduced on Day 11; then they quickly learned to run to the end of the maze and did as well asthe Group 1 rats by the next day. This showed (ho the Group 3 rats had leamed about the organization of the maze, bi jut without the reinforcement of food. Until this study, it was largely believed that reinforcemen' twas necessary for animals to learn such tasks. Tolman coined the term cognitive map, which is an intemal representation (or image) of external environment®l iduals acquire large numbers of cus feature or landmark. He thought that in (ice. signals) from the environment and could use these to build a mental imag’ent (i.e. a cognitive map). By using this internal representation of @ space they could get to the goal by knowing where it is in a complex of jental features. Short cuts and changeable routes are possible with this Most of the experiments of Thorndike are concerned with learning motor Jeading towards a particular goal. Form the results he had obtained, he d at a conclusion that all learning takes place only by trial and error method. ‘was because that the perceptual field available was limited and it did not the solution. Kohler in one of his experiments on leaning put the chimpanzee by tan, inside a cage and kept a banana outside the cage at a distance. He used two sticks inside the cage. The chimpanzee could get the banana the longer stick. Accordingly, the chimpanzee used the longer stick banana. It was able to get the banana because it grasped the whole 0feavironment (i.e. a cognitive map). By using this internal representation of space they could get to the goal by knowing where it a complex of features. Short cuts and changeable routes are possible with thi also worked on latent learning, defined as learning which is not apparent ‘leamer's behaviour at the time of learning, but which manifests later when a ‘motivation and circumstances appear. ful learning Most of the experiments of Thomdike are concerned with learning motortn another experiment, he KePt the chimpanzee inside the cage along had a sharp edge and ano! 1d be made longer. The swith two sticks. ODE her had a hollow, so that thrusting the other, the stick com ‘could be reached only bY. ‘using any one stick: banana was kept at such a joining the two sticks together ‘and not by distance that it When the experiment started the tried various means of reaching the banana. while playing accidently sharp exiged stick fell into the hollow of the 1 away joined the two sticks firmly properly. The animal straight reached it and got it. The sudden idea leading to tual development of a motor skill see the situation as 4 ible because all the factors concerned with the solution ‘The solution was poss were within the perceptual eld of Jem and solving it is called insight. the animal. The suddenness and new way of Jooking at the probl ‘This is based on previous epics Italso involves @ ne’ relationships. sy way of perceiving logically the cause and effestrial and error Instrumental conditioning The basic principle of operant conditioning is that some behaviors can be ‘modified by their consequences. Behaviors that have positive consequences tend to occur more often. Those with negative consequences tend to occur less often. In 1898, E. L. Thorndike performed a series of classic experiments with cats. ‘These experiments laid the groundwork for later research in operant conditioning ‘Thomdike put the cats in a “puzzle box” and placed some food just outside the box. In order to escape from the box and get the food, the cats had to perform ‘Some simple act such as pressing a lever or pulling a string. When a cat was first placed in the box, it tried to escape by clawing or biting various parts of the cage ina random fashion, Eventually, the cat would stumble onto the correct response to release the ‘door. The next time the cat was placed in the box, it might escape 4 little sooner. After a number of trials, the cat would make the response as soon as it was placed 4 -~ ‘Thorndike made a graph (called a learning curve) of the time it took z_ ‘escape from the box. He noticed that the time dropped gradually and ‘offen the cat took longer to escape tha had on the previous trial. Thorndike that when the cat made the correct response, it was rewarded with escape1t Aseqy “stamped out” all the possible incorrect responses, HeFcaties 4 Uences is the law effect. Thorndike didn’t believe that the cats needed to “think” op bind of derstand, escape from the box. Their correct responses just became more likely oy, Cr ti Ime a a result of the law of effect. Thorndike called this instrumental condit ioning ‘because that cat’s correct responses were “instrumental” i IN getting them ou of the box. Throndike’s laws of learning The law of readiness When organisms both human and animal, are ready to form connections, to do so is satisfying and not to do so is annoying. Thorndike believed that readiness is an important condition of learning, because satiststien i a fi eadiness r frustration depends on an individual’ state of readiness. He stated that rea i ; ation sends is like an army sendjhg scouts ahead of a train whose arrival at one station en they signals ahead to open or close switches. Students can learn this only whe? are ready.1g ability. Otherwise imitation becomes impossible. THE CLASSIC BOBO DOLL STUDY low observational iment by Bandura (1965) illustrates hi a model that is not re An ex Jinforced or punished tearing can occur even by watchin Equal number of kindergarten children was randomly assigned to hich a person (the model) beat up an adult size watch one of three films in wi plastic toy called Bobo doll. In first film, the aggressor was rewarded with candy, soft drinks and praise for aggressive behaviour. In the second film the aggressor was criticized and spanked for the aggressive behaviour. ‘And in the third film there were no consequences for the aggressive behaviour. Subsequently, each child was left alone in a room filled with toys, including Bobo doll. The child’s betiaviour was observed through one way mirror. Children who watched the films in which the aggressors behaviour cither was reinforced or went unpunished imitated aggressor’s behaviour more than did the children who saw the aggressors behaviour being punished. Bi vi jandura bgfieves that when a child observes behaviour but makes n° observabli . rvable response, the child may still have acquired the modelled response in cognitive form.ghelaw of exercise The law of exercise states that any connection is strengthened in proportion to the number of times it occurs and its proportion to the average ‘vigour and duration of the connection. Conversely, when a connection is not made ‘perween a stimulus and a response for some time, the connection’s strength decreases. He realised that practise alone was not enough for improvement. There must also “be srengthening of the bond by reinforcement, that isthe law of effect must also “operate. of effect Jlaw of effect states that, responses accompanied by satisfaction are more ‘connected with a situation; responses accompanied by discomfort have ‘connections weakened. tional learning In observational learning the leamer observes a model and makes ses and experiences the consequences. Sometimes mimics or imitates shortly after observing them. Although higher animals may leam a I by observing and attempting to copy the performance of others, they jon is to be possible, the activity to be imitated (learn to imitate. If imiyw of exercise The law of exercise states that any connection is strengthened in tion to the number of times it occurs and its proportion to the average ‘and duration ofthe connection. Conversely, when a connection is not made 4 stimulus and a response for some time, the connection’ strength ‘that practise alone was not enough for improvement. There must also ‘of the bond by reinforcement, that is the law of effect must also of effect of effect states that, responses accompanied by satisfaction are more ‘connected with a situation; responses accompanied by discomfort have tional learning _ In observational learning the leaner observes a model and makes and experiences the consequences. Sometimes mimies or imitates shortly after observing them. Although higher animals may leam a ‘observing and attempting to copy the performance of others, they {0 imitate. If imitation is to be possible, the activity to be imitatedsfer of learning ‘Transfer of learning is the dependency of human conduet, learning, or would transfer leaning in one context to another, similar context ~ or :. "improvement in one mental function" could influence a related one. Their “tery implied that transfer of leaming depends on how similar the learning task transfer tasks are, or where “identical elements are concemed in the . ‘and influenced function", now known as the identical element theory. , transfer of learning is usually described as the process and the effective to which past experiences (also referred to as the transfer source) affect and performance in a new situation (the transfer target). However, there ‘controversy as to how transfer of learning should be conceptualized and what its prevalence is, what its relation is to leaming in general, and itexists at all, Leaming of one skill often influences the learning of another skill. ¢ may be positive or negative. If the first learning facilitates the , it is known as positive transfer. Transfer takes place from one ‘another within the same class of materials.ceed pean on woes ite Bevel Seaning same class of materials. In fact the Jy or Kannada or Hindi it improves his those languages. If the first For eg. Leaming, of the other samples of the ini belived that if student learas Engi ‘educational system memory power for learning other subjects taught in subsequent leaming and retards the progress of the later learning interferes with ix known as negative transfer or habit interference. For eg. A man ‘who learnt to type ona special typeof keyboard finds it more difficult eam to use standard key board. Bilateral transfer Bilateral transfer or cross education is another form of positive transfer of Jcaming in which one part ofthe body facilitates learning by another part of the body. For eg. Leaming to trace the star pattern in the right hand facilitates earning to trace the same pattern in the left hand. Ewert in one of his studies on bilateral transfer of training sclected two ‘equivalent groups of subjects 1) controlled group 2) experimental group. ING CURVES. A learni is learning eurve is a graphical representation of the changing rate v! learning i ig. It presents a clear picture of the progress of quality. Learning cu" @For eg. Learning mazes, wordlist, poetry etc., usually affect favourably learning ofthe other samples of the same class of materials. In fact the educational system it is believed that if a student learns English or Kannada or Hindi it improves his memory power for leaming other subjects taught in those languages. If the first Jearing interferes with subsequent learning and retards the progress of the latter it is known as negative transfer or habit interference. For eg. A man who learnt to type on a special type of keyboard finds it more difficult to lear to use 2 standard key board. Bilateral transfer Bilateral transfer or cross education is another form of positive transfer of Jearning in which one part of the body facilitates learning by another part of the body. For eg. Leaming to trace the star pattem in the right hand facilitates Jeamning to trace the same pattern in the left hand. Ewert in one of his studies on bilateral transfer of training selected two equivalent groups of subjects 1) controlled group 2) experimental group.‘# variety of curves depending upon the behaviour being leamt, the employed to measure learning and the amount of beginning of leaning still possible at the time of experiment. Generally the learning scores d in the graph are time score, error score and accomplishment score of and error scores that at the maximum and show a gradual fall or slope in the curve with cach successive tail. It indicates gradual in the time and space scores as the learner progress. On the other hand lishment curve starts at the bottom and rises up gradually with each trail. The slope in the learning curve indicates the rate of improvement. ‘curve shows not only the rate of improvement but also the direction1, Curve of Equal Retention ‘This curves essentially a straight line. I indicates that each tral yields the lefinitely. 2. CURVE OF INCREASING RETURN: In the beginning of leaming each trail brings more improvement than the preceding trail but this happens only for a short period this trend cannot go on indefinitely. wy, e/, 3. CURVE OF DECREASING RETURN: Most of the experiments 0” Jearning yield the curve, It indicates the occurrence of greatest amount 0! 2°n in the early trails continue until a point is reached beyond ch practical brings no further improvements. Then the curve levels of the performance has reached top level. D CURVE: In the early stage of learning there is a lot of experiment and hence it shows increasing retums from practice. is familiar to the subject, practice is likely to yield an S-Shaped is curve incorporates all the other types of learning curves. ve shows J level of learning. 1) Initial Level 2) Intermediate Level 3) Final LevelFACTORS INFLUENCING LEARNING Intellectual factors: Success in school is ‘The term refers to the individual mental level. generally closely related to level of the intellect. Pupils with low intelligence often encounter serious difficulty in mastering schoolwork ‘Sometimes pupils do not learn because of special intellectual disabilities 'A low score in one subject and his scores in other subjects indicate the possible presence of a special deficiency. Psychology reveals to use tho: ‘an individual possess different kinds to intelligence. Knowledge of the nature of the pupils intellect is of considerable value in the guidan: the diagnosis of the disability. The native capacity of the individual 's °! the prime importance in determining the effectivengés of the, lear" process,) Leaming factors Factors owing to lack of mastery of what has been, faulty methods of work ‘or study and narrowness of experimental background may affect the Jeaming process of any pupil If the school proceeds too rapidly and does ‘at constantly check up on the extent to which the pupil is mastering what being taught, the pupil accumulates a number of deficiencies that interfere with successful progress. In arithmetic, for instance, knowledge ‘of basic addition is essential to successfull work in multiplication. Weakness in addition will contribute directly to the deficiency in Betaltplicstion. Likewise, failure in history may due to low reading ability or weakness in English. Similarly, because of faulty instruction, the pupil may have leamed "inefficient methods of study. Many other kinds of difficulty which are "directly related to learning factors may interfere with progress. yysical factors this group are included such factors as health, physical lopment, nutrition, visual and physical defects, and glandular nality, It is generally recognized that ill health retards physical and development, and other physical defects are seriously handicapped eloping skills such as reading and spelling. It has been demonstrated glands of intemal secretion, such as the thyroid and pituitary 24. glands, affect behavior. The health of the learner will likely affect hi ability to learn and his power to concentrate. ‘Mental factors ‘Attitude falls under mental factors attitudes are made up of organic and kinaesthetic elements. They are not to be confused with emotions that are characterized by internal visceral disturbances. Attitudes are more or less a large part in the mental organization and in the of definite sort. They play general behavior of the individual. Attitudes are also important development of personality. Among these attitudes, interest, cheerfulness, affections, prejudice, open mindedness, and loyalty. Attitudes exercise « stimulating effect upon the rate of learning and teaching and upon the progress in school. ‘The efficiency of the work from day to day and the rapidly with which itis achieved are influenced by the attitude of the leamer. A favourable mental attitude facilitates learning. The factor of interest is very closely related i nature to that of symbolic drive and reward. Emotional and Social factors, Personal factors, such as instincts and emotions, and social factors, such cooperation and rivalry, are directly related to a complex Psychology ° motivation. It is a recognized fact that the varioys“responses °! "individual to various kinds of stimuli are determined by a wide variety of tendencies. ‘Some of these innate tendencies are constructive and others are harmful. | For some reason a pupil may have developed a dislike for some subject because he may fail to see its value, or may lack foundation. This dislike results in a bad emotional state. ‘Some pupils are in a continuing state of unhappiness because of their ‘teacher and classmates. This is an unwholesome attitude and affects the Jearning process to a considerable degree. This is oftentimes the result of training. Social discontent springs from the knowledge or decision ‘that one is below others in welfare. _ Teachers personality The teacher as an individual personality is an important elements in the earning environment or in the failures and success of the learner. The way in which his personality interacts with the personalities of the pupils being through the influence of his moral personality and example, strictly ing, personality is made up of all the factors that make the individual he, is the complgx“pattern of characteristics that distinguish him 25from the other of his kind. Personality is the product of many integrating forces. In other words, an individual's personality is a composite of his physical appearance, his mental capacity, his mental capacity, his emotional behavior, and his attitudes towards others. Effective teaching and learning are the results of an integrated personality of the teacher. Generally speaking, pupils do not like @ grouchy teacher who cannot contro; hs temper before the class. It is important foe a teacher with @ temper to create enthusiasm and to radiate light and sunshine to those about him. Pupils love and a happy. sympathetic, enthusiasticy and cheerful teacher. Effective teaching and leaming are the results of love for pupils. sympathy for their interests, tolerance, and a definite capacity for understanding, ‘The teacher must therefore recognize that in all his activities in the classroom he is directly affecting the behavior of the growing and learmint organism. Physical conditions needed for leaning is under environmental factor ‘One of the factor that affect the efficiency of learning is the condition in which learning takes place. This includes the classroom, textbooks. equipment, school supplies, and other instructional materials in the cr and the home, the conditions foe leaming must be favourable and adéqua'« 26uf teaching is produce the desired results. it cannot be denied that the type and quality of instructional materials and equipment play an important part in the instructional efficiency of the school Hes difficult to do a good job of teaching in a poor type of building and Without adequate equipment and instructional material. A school building eps claseroom has no merit when built without due regard to its educational objectives and functions. LEARNER RELATED FACTORS The leamer is the key figure in any learning task. How he will learn or what will achieve through a particular learning act depends on his own characteristics and way of learning. Such th ings or factors associated with him can be described as follows; A) Learner’s physical and mental health: People who did not keep up with satisfactory physical health have to suffer adversely in terms of the gain in learning. Similarly, the mental state and health of the leamer at the time of learning become potent factor in deciding the outcome of = B) Basic potential of the learner: 2lepends heavily upon his asic potential to undergo such lowing: Process of leaning 4 Jearning. Potential may consist of the fol abilities and capacities for learning & thing. 1, Leamer’s innate s of general intelligence and specific 2, Leamer’s basic potentials in term: standing and skills related to particula attitudes related to the learning of a knowledge, unde 1 learning arca. 3, Leamer’s basic interests, aptitudes and particular thing or area. ©) Level of aspiration and achievement motiv: One has to maintain the level of aspiration and achievement motivation to «a reasonable level neither too high earning frustration for non-achievement nor too low as not to try for things for which he is quite capable. D) Goals of life: The philosophy and immediate as well as ultimate goals of one’s life affect the process and products of learning E) Readiness and will power: Leamer’s readit : readiness and power to lear is a great deciding factor in the results of le arming. If he has a will to learn something then, h¢ will himself fin’ the way for effective learning. 28of teaming depends heavily upon his asic potential to undergo such reaming. Potential may consist ofthe following! snnate abilities and capacities for learning # thing. 1, Leamer’s general intelligence and specific 2, Leamer's basic potentials in terms of ‘and skills related to particular learning lated to the learning of « knowledge, understanding ao 4, Leamer’s basic interests, aptitudes and attitudes rel particular thing or area. ©) Level of aspiration and achievement motivation: One has to maintain the level of aspiration and achievement motivation to ‘a reasonable level neither to0 high earning frustration for non-achievement nor too low as not to try for things for which he is quite capable. D) Goals of life: ‘The philosophy and immediate as well as ultimate goals of one’s life affect the process and products of learning. E) Readiness and will power: Leamer’s readiness and power to learn is a great deciding factor in t! results of learning, If he has a will to leam something then, hé will himself fn"! the way for effective learning. 28INTRODUCTION TO MEMORY The Human Memory is an important part of what makes us truly human, yet cone of the most elusive and misunderstood of human attributes. The popular image of memory as a kind of tiny filing cabinet full of individual memory folders in which information is stored away, or pethaps as a neural super computer of huge capacity and speed, Our memory is located not in one particular place in the brain, but is instead a brain wide process in which several different areas of the brain act in conjunction with one another (distributed processing). The human memory stores, encodes and retrieves information. Each element of a memory is encoded in the same part of the brain that originally created that fragment, and recall of a memory effectively reactivates the neural patterns generated during the original encoding. It can be described as a complex web in which the threads symbolize the various elements of a memory, that join at nodes or intersection points to form a whole rounded memory of a person, object or an event. Neither is memory a single unitary process but there are different types of memory. Our short term and long term ‘memories are encoded and stored in different parts of the brain. > Memory Encoding Encoding (or registration): the process of receiving, processing and combining information. Encoding aos uot jon from the outside world to reach our 1senses in the forms of chemical and physical stimuli. In this first <1, 0 the eneo, ‘must change the information so that we may put the memory process When information comes into our memory system (from sensery int) needs to be changed into a form that the system can cope with, so that it can, stored. Think of this as similar to changing thety money into a differ; ‘currency when they travel from one country to another. For example, a wo.) which is seen (in a book) may be stored if it is changed (encoded) into a soy ‘or a meaning (i.e. semantic processing). ‘There are three main ways in which information ean be encoded (chan!) 1. Visual (picture) 2. Acoustic (sound) 3. Semantic (meaning) repeating it to ourself we are using acoustic coding (by sound), Fvidence suggests that this is the principle coding syste 4 ‘s System in short term ‘memory (STM) is acoustic coding. When a person ig Presented with a list of numbers and letters, they will try to hold them in | S™ by Tehearsing them (verbally). Rehearsal is a verbal process regardless of a the Hist of items saatjs presented acoustically (someone reads them out), or visually (on a sheet of ), oF visually (on a sheet of paper): ‘The principle encoding system in long term memory (LTM) appears to be semantic coding (by meaning). However, information in LTM can also be coded both visually and acoustically. > Memory Storage Storage: the creation of a permanent record of the encoded information. Storage is the second memory stage or process in which we maintain information over periods of time. This concems the nature of memory stores, i.e. where the information is stored, how long the memory lasts for (duration), how much can be stored at any time (capacity) and what kind of information is held. The way we store information affects the way we retrieve it. There has been a significant amount of research regarding the differences between Short Term ‘Memory (STM) and Long Term Memory (LTM). Most adults can store between 5 and 9 items in their short-term memory. Miller (1956) put this idea forward and he called it the magic number 7. He though that short-term memory capacity was 7 (plus or minus 2) items because it only had a certain number of “slots” in which items could be stored, _ te Miller didn’t specify the amount of information that can be held in cach slot. Indeed, if we can “chunk” information together we can store a lot 33is thought to be unlimited Information can only be stored for a brief duration in STM ( LTM can last a lifetime. > Memory Retrieval MODELS OF MEMORY + The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model ‘+ The Levels-of Processing Approach © Tulving’s ModelTHE ATKINSON-SHIFFRIN MODEL, Aa ssetural model that suggests three storage systems (places); Sensory Store, Short-Term Memory (STM), Long-Term Memory (LTM).Information moves Atrough these systems under the control of various cognitive processes (attention, rehearsal, ete.)- Sensory Memory is a large capacity storage system that records information from each of the senses with reasonable accuracy, Leonie memory is single, visible, pre-categorical, high capacity, quickly decaying memory that holds incoming visual information for further processing, Ulric Neisser coined the term jeonic memory 1967. Echoic memory also termed by Neisser 1967, is the auditory ‘equivalent of iconic memory. It is the auditory information persistence in the form of ‘an echo that can be attended after the original stimulus is no longer present. Atkinson and Shiffin’s model proposed that materials from sensory memory then passes on to short term memory. Short term memory contains only the small amount of information that are actively using. Atkinson and Shifftin proposed that verbal information in STM are fragile-though not fragile as those in sensory memory — and they can be lost from memory within about 30 seconds unless they are somehow repeated. According to this model, material finally passes from short term memory to Jong term memory. Long term memory has a large capacity and contain memories that are decades old, in addition to memories that arrived several minutes ago. Atkinson and Shififin proposed that information in LTM is encoded semantically, in terms of its menting. Memories in LTM are relatively permanent, and they are not likely to be lost. IS‘THE LEVELS-OF-PROCESSING APPROACH ‘This approach suggests that deeper levels of processing produce better 1.1. than shallow levels (Craik& Loékhart, 1972). Depth is interpreted in ter, ing -A dimension which starts with the physical characteristics, thr, verbal-acoustic, to semantic, This approach proposes that deep, meaningful ki of information processing lead to more permanent retention than shallow, sens, kinds of processing. Levels-of-processing approach was proposed by Craik Lockhart in 1972.Craik and Lockhart proposed that people can analyze stimuli 4 number of different levels. The shallow levels involve analysis in terms « Physical or sensory characteristics, such as brightness or pitch. The deep level, involve analysis in term of meaning. When we analyze for meaning, we may think of other, related association, images, and past ‘experiences related to the stimulus ‘The by-product of all this analysis is a memory trace, If lus is analyzed ai a very shallow level, then that memory trace will be fragile and may be fckly forgotten. However, if the stimulus is analyzed at a very en thas memory trace will be durable: It will be remembered, BF av about rehearsal, the process of cycling information through kinds of rehearsal. Maintenance rehearsal merely rep that has already been carried out. On contrast elaborative ry deeper, more meaningful analysis of the stimulus. If we selating the word boOK 10 another word in the Hist. If we are using shal maintenance rehearsal, then increasing reheg eae earsal time will not influence the call 'Ve more times will not make it any more 1g deep el tater. Simply repeating the word book f memorable, However if we are laborative rehearsal, then in rehearsal time will be helpful. During this time we can dig out all kinds of ee SH memories to enrich the stimulus, and later rca will be more accurate, A particular deep level of processing occurs wh process information in terms of our personal experience is called In Depth: Sel Reference Effect. This personal framework for new information isan important topic in the levels of processing approach, Specifically, the self-reference effect points out that people recall more information when they try to relate that information to themselves. The mental processes involved in the self-reference task seem to increase the chances that an item will be recalled. TULVING’S MODEL: EPISODIC, SEMANTIC, AND PROCEDURAL MEMORY. Endel Tulving in 1972 focuses on the nature of the material that is stored in memory. Episodie memory stores information about when events happened and the relationship between those events. This information refers to our personal. have a dental appointment at 3:30 tomorrow, a is the organized knowledge about the world. Semantic memory fairly constant knowledge structure, in contrast to the changing events a4