Reviews

Urinary diversion after radical cystectomy for

bladder cancer: options, patient selection,
and outcomes
Richard K. Lee1, Hassan Abol-Enein6, Walter Artibani7, Bernard Bochner2,
Guido Dalbagni2, Siamak Daneshmand3, Yves Fradet9, Richard E. Hautmann10,
Cheryl T. Lee4, Seth P. Lerner5, Armin Pycha8, Karl-Dietrich Sievert11, Arnulf Stenzl11,
Georg Thalmann12 and Shahrokh F. Shariat1,13
1
James Buchanan Brady Foundation, Department of Urology and Division of Medical Oncology, Weill Cornell Medical
College, New York-Presbyterian Hospital, 2Urology Service, Department of Surgery, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer
Center, New York, NY, 3Keck School of Medicine, USC, University of Southern California (USC) Institute of Urology, Los
Angeles, CA, 4Department of Urology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 5Department of Urology, Baylor College of
Medicine, Houston, TX, USA, 6Department of Urology, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt, 7Department of Urology,
Verona University, Verona, 8Department of Pathology, Central Hospital of Bolzano, Bolzano, Italy, 9Urology Service,
Department of Surgery, Laval University, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada, 10Department of Urology, University of Ulm,
Ulm, 11Department of Urology, Universitätsklinikum Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany, 12Department of Urology, Inselspital,
Bern, Switzerland, and 13Department of Urology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
Extra-institutional Funding: None.

Context of an external stoma and preservation of body image

• The urinary reconstructive options available after radical without compromising cancer control. However, the
cystectomy (RC) for bladder cancer are discussed, as are the patient must be fully educated and committed to the
criteria for selection of the most appropriate diversion, and labour-intensive rehabilitation process. He must also be able
the outcomes and complications associated with different to perform self-catheterisation if necessary.
diversion options. • When involvement of the urinary outflow tract by tumour
prevents the use of an orthotopic neobladder, a continent
Objective cutaneous reservoir may still offer the opportunity
• To critically review the peer-reviewed literature on the for continence albeit one that requires obligate
function and oncological outcomes, complications, and self-catheterisation.
factors influencing choice of procedure with urinary • For patients who are not candidates for continent diversion,
diversion after RC for bladder carcinoma. the ileal loop remains an acceptable and reliable option.
Evidence Acquisition
• A Medline search was conducted to identify original
Conclusions
articles, review articles, and editorials on urinary diversion • Both continent and incontinent diversions are available for
in patients treated with RC. Searches were limited to the urinary reconstruction after RC.
English language. • Orthotopic neobladders optimally preserve body image,
• Keywords included: ‘bladder cancer’, ‘cystectomy’, ‘diversion’, while continent cutaneous diversions represent a reasonable
‘neobladder’, and ‘conduit’. alternative.
• The articles with the highest level of evidence were selected • Ileal conduits represent the fastest, easiest, least
and reviewed, with the consensus of all of the authors of complication-prone, and most commonly performed
this paper. urinary diversion.
Evidence Synthesis Keywords
• Both continent and incontinent diversions are available for bladder cancer, outcome assessment (health care), patient
urinary reconstruction after RC. In appropriately selected selection, radical cystectomy, urinary bladder neoplasms,
patients, an orthotopic neobladder permits the elimination urinary diversion

© 2013 BJU International | doi:10.1111/bju.12121 BJU Int 2014; 113: 11–23

Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd. www.bjui.org wileyonlinelibrary.com
Review

Introduction and reviewed. Reviews and other secondary data sources

Radical cystectomy (RC) for bladder cancer requires were excluded.
reconstruction of the lower urinary tract. Ureterosigmoidostomy
was the first widely used surgical technique for urinary diversion,
providing an effective diversion using the anal sphincter for Evidence Synthesis
continence. However, deterioration of renal function over time, Depending on the segment of bowel used to create a urinary
metabolic complications, and the increased risk for secondary diversion, specific metabolic consequences may ensue, as
malignancies limited its usefulness as a urinary diversion. outlined in Table 1. Postoperative bowel function may also be
Subsequent surgical advances have led to major improvements in altered. The ideal urinary diversion has yet to be developed
both functional outcomes and health-related quality of life (Table 2). Currently, urinary reconstruction falls into two
(HRQOL). We discuss the available reconstructive options after general categories: incontinent diversions, such as the ileal
RC for bladder cancer, criteria for selection, and the outcomes conduit, and continent diversions, including both cutaneous
associated with each option. reservoirs and orthotopic reservoirs connected to the urethra.

Evidence Acquisition Ureterosigmoidostomy

A Medline search was conducted to identify original English One of the first urinary diversions using bowel included the
language articles on urinary diversion after RC using the use of ureterosigmoidostomy, where the ureters were
keywords ‘bladder cancer’, ‘cystectomy’, ‘diversion’, anastomosed to the sigmoid. Its major advantage is the
‘neobladder’, and ‘conduit’. In all, 105 articles were identified potential for spontaneous emptying of urine with stool, i.e.
and those with the highest level of evidence were selected continence is maintained by the anal sphincter.

Table 1 Primary indications and metabolic consequences for use of bowel segments.

Bowel segment Primary indication Metabolic consequences Clinical symptoms

Gastric • Children requiring diversion (exstrophy, pelvic Metabolic alkalosis (↓ K and Cl, • Haematuria-dysuria syndrome
radiation) hypergastrinaemia) • Dehydration, lethargy, seizures, respiratory
• Renal insufficiency distress
Jejunum • Pelvic radiation Metabolic acidosis (↓ Na and Cl, ↑ K, • Dehydration, nausea/vomiting, weakness,
• Deficient ureteric length azotaemia) lethargy, seizures
• Compromised viability of other small or large
bowel
Ileum or ileal-colic reservoirs • Malignancies requiring removal of the bladder Metabolic acidosis (↑ Cl, ↓ bicarbonate, • Fatigue, anorexia, weight loss, diarrhoea,
• Severe haemorrhagic cystitis azotaemia) polydipsia
• Incontinence • B12 and fat-soluble vitamin deficiency
• Diarrhoea, urinary calculi, cholelithiasis
Colon (ureterosigmoidostomy) • Children requiring diversion (extrophy, pelvic Metabolic acidosis (↑ Cl, ↓ bicarbonate, • Fatigue, anorexia, weight loss, diarrhoea,
radiation) azotaemia) polydipsia
• No other bowel segment alternative • Pyelonephritis
• Adenocarcinoma at anastomotic site
Transverse colon conduit • Malignancies requiring removal of the bladder Metabolic acidosis (↑ Cl, ↓ bicarbonate, • Fatigue, anorexia, weight loss, diarrhoea,
• Small bowel not practical azotaemia) polydipsia
• Pyelonephritis
• Adenocarcinoma at anastomotic site

Table 2 Ideal characteristics of a urinary reservoir.

Characteristic Comments

Low-pressure system Higher internal pressure in the reservoir may overcome the
external sphincter mechanisms that maintain continence.
Stores a functional amount of urine (ª500 mL)
Reliable, complete continence Detubularisation of intestinal
segments limits the ability to generate a peristaltic pressure
wave. These waves can contribute to incontinence.
Complete voluntary control of voiding
No absorption of urinary waste products by Minimises the likelihood of metabolic complications.
the reservoir walls

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 Urinary diversion after radical cystectomy for bladder cancer

However, ureterosigmoidostomy is prone to detrimental upper technically able to catheterise the stoma over a lifetime cannot
tract changes in patients over time, e.g. ⱖ10 years [1,2]. In be overemphasised. Although these diversions have been largely
addition, the mixture of faecal and urinary streams predisposed supplanted by the orthotopic neobladder, they are still used
patients to a higher risk of bowel adenocarcinoma [3,4]. Several when continence is desired in the setting of non-functional
modifications of the ureterosigmoidostomy were developed to urethra or a positive intraoperative urethral margin obviating
decrease the significant complication rate associated with the the ability to perform orthotopic diversion.
procedure. The sigma rectum, or Mainz II pouch, consists of a
Results have varied in different institutions. Holmes et al. [10],
detubularised colon 6 cm both proximal and distal to the
for example, reported on 112 patients undergoing a modified
rectosigmoid junction, where the ureters are then implanted in
Indiana pouch over a 14-year period in a single institution
a non-refluxing fashion [5]. The objective of this pouch was to
series. In all, 90% of patients had complications, with
create a low-pressure reservoir to protect the upper tracts,
incontinence representing the most common (28%)
although the risk of adenocarcinoma still remained.
complication. In all, 58% of complications were related to the
Kock et al. [6,7] descried the use of an intussuscepted nipple efferent loop of the pouch, including stomal stenosis in 15%
valve stabilised with permanent staples, whereupon the distal and difficulty with catheterisation in 10%. Other problems
rectal segment is then opened and patched with ileum to included ureteroenteric anastomotic strictures (7%), gallstones
lower reservoir pressure. This confines urine to a smaller, (26%), kidney stones (6%), stones within the pouch (10%), and
distal segment of bowel and therefore controls the amount of small bowel obstruction (5%). In all, 26 (21%) patients
bowel to which the urine is exposed. The technique lowers the required an open operation, while 39 (31.2%) required a
risk of metabolic complications but the risk of tumour minimally invasive operation for treatment of their
formation remains [8]. The combination of these issues have complications.
led most practitioners to avoid ureterosigmoidostomy as a
Alternative pouch designs, particularly using the in situ
urinary diversion approach unless absolutely necessary.
appendix as the continence mechanism and catheterizable
limb, have reported improved outcomes with a lower rate of
Conduits major complications [11]. Reports using this mechanism or its
Conduits may be constructed using either colon or ileum. modifications in previously irradiated patients suggest that
However, ileal conduits have become the ‘gold standard’ for improved outcomes can be achieved using appropriate design
incontinent diversion and indeed remain the procedure of alterations [12,13].
choice for patients with contraindications to continent
diversion. Ileal conduits are relatively easy and quick to create,
minimising the rate of postoperative complications. Typically, Orthotopic Neobladders
the terminal 10–15 cm of ileum is preserved to maintain Orthotopic neobladders represent internal reservoirs
adequate absorption of bile salts, vitamin B12, and fat-soluble connected to the native urethra that rely upon the external
vitamins. The isolated segment of ileum used for diversion is striated sphincter for continence. Reservoirs are typically
exteriorised through the abdominal wall, where it serves as a constructed from detubularised small bowel and then
passive conduit for urine to drain into an appliance. The anastomosed to the native urinary outflow tract.
presence of a stoma and external appliance can negatively
affect a patient’s body image. In patients with foreshortened Orthotopic neobladders were initially limited to men, as
mesentery, e.g. obese patients, a Turnbull loop stoma may be women were thought to have an increased risk of local
used [9]. recurrence and voiding dysfunction with orthotopic diversion.
However, with experience and improved understanding of the
Continent Cutaneous Diversions female rhabdoid sphincteric mechanism, orthotopic diversion
has become more common in women, becoming the
Continent cutaneous reservoirs use a low-pressure pouch
procedure of choice for most patients after RC [14,15].
constructed of detubularised bowel with a functional
mechanism designed to prevent involuntary efflux of urine However, appropriate patient selection is critical to the success
flow. Reservoirs differ based upon the type of valve mechanism of orthotopic diversions. It should not compromise the
constructed, the type of catheterisable stoma created, and the cancer control of a potentially curative surgery, and it is
exact segment of intestine used. As such, many technical contraindicated if the urethra is non-functional or involved
variations exist, e.g. the Kock, Indiana, and Miami pouches. The with tumour. Like continent cutaneous diversions, orthotopic
most obvious advantage for this diversion lies in its continent neobladders require active patient participation to ensure
nature, dispensing with the need for an external appliance. proper maintenance of the reservoir. If medical or
However, it requires clean intermittent self-catheterisation psychosocial issues preclude this level of cooperation, the
(CISC) through the stoma both to empty the reservoir and patient may be better served by an incontinent ileal loop
irrigate retained mucus. The ability of the patient to be diversion.

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Table 3 Functional studies in men undergoing RC and orthotopic reconstruction.

Reference Number of Median Continence rate CISC

patients follow-up, needed (%)
(% male) months Day, % Night, % Time of
assessment*,
years

Barre, P; 1996 [16] 110 (100) 32 93 74 NR 1

Cancrini, A; 1996 [17] 96 (93) 28 98 74 1 NR
Elmajian, D; 1996 [18] 295 (100) 42 87 86 1 8
Hautmann et al. 1999 [19] 363 (100) 57 96 95 NR 6
Steven et al. 2000 [20] 166 (100) 32 98 80 3 NR
100 95 5 NR
Abol-Enein, H; 2001 [21] 450 (78) 38 93 80 NR NR
Madersbacher et al. 2002 [22] 176 (100) 95 92 70 5 NR
Carrion, R; 2004 [23] 138 (82) 41 91 70 NR 12
Sevin, G; 2004 [24] 124 (100) NR 92 90 4 NR
Stein, J; 2004 [25] 209 (81) 33 87 72 NR 25**
Total number 2127 93 83
(92%)

NR, not reported; *Time point at which all patients were assessed after surgery; **20% of men and 43% of women.

Role of Anti-reflux Mechanisms functional outcomes data is complicated by variability in the

definition of continence, method of assessing continence, and
Some urinary diversions, e.g. the hemi-Kock pouch, use an
timeframe of assessment relative to surgery.
anti-reflux mechanism to limit backflow of urine from the
reservoir into the upper urinary tracts. Although this In several large series comprised predominantly of men, day-
approximates the physiological anti-refluxing state of the and night-time continence rates ranged from 87 to 100%,
native bladder and ureters, the need for anti-refluxing and 70 to 95%, respectively (Table 3) [16–25]. In general,
anastomoses in urinary diversions is controversial. Proponents continence rates improve gradually postoperatively as the
cite the detrimental upper tract changes seen in patients ⱖ10 neobladder volume increases, with maximum control of voiding
years after creation of either freely refluxing ileal conduits or usually requiring several months. The Copenhagen group, for
ureterosigmoidostomy [1,2]. However, it should be noted that example, reported night-time continence rates of 75% at 1 year
reflux-associated complications with orthotopic neobladders and 94% at 3 years, respectively, in a series of 166 patients [20].
have been predominantly seen in patients with high- Daytime continence also returns more rapidly than night-time
pressure reservoirs; contemporary neobladder designs use continence [19,22]. The number of patients reporting
detubularised bowel segments configured to provide low simultaneous day- and night-time continence is lower, ranging
filling pressures. In addition, some neobladder designs, e.g. the from 12 to 58% (Table 4) [4,28–31].
Studer reservoir, use a long isoperistaltic proximal limb, which
Inadequate emptying of the neobladder in men is uncommon.
provides resistance to retrograde flow and therefore additional
The frequency and aetiology of this complication was
anti-reflux protection [26]. Finally, non-refluxing anastomoses
illustrated in a single institution series of 655 men reported by
may be prone to a greater risk of complications, e.g. stricture,
Simon et al. [27]. Incomplete emptying, defined by a residual
ischaemic fibrosis of the anti-reflux valve, or stone formation
urine volume of >100 mL, was observed in 75 (11.5%) cases.
from staples used to construct the valve system. For example,
This was due to mechanical obstruction, i.e. benign strictures
in a randomised trial of 60 patients undergoing orthotopic
of the neovesicourethral anastomosis or local tumour
neobladder diversion, construction of a non-refluxing
recurrence, in 52 (7.9%) patients. Of these, 14 patients
anastomosis was associated with a higher incidence of
required long-term catheterisation, while the remainder were
anastomotic strictures (10%) and secondary impairment of
able to resume complete bladder emptying after endoscopic
renal function compared with those with direct anastomoses
management. Of the 23 (3.5%) cases without a mechanical
[20].
obstruction, failure of bladder emptying was due to
dysfunctional voiding, requiring CISC or indwelling
Functional Outcomes catheterisation.
The functional goals of an orthotopic neobladder are to Daytime continence rates range from 75 to 93% in women
maintain day- and night-time continence and to allow at average follow-ups of 20–33 months; night-time rates
consistent emptying of the neobladder without the need for were also similar to men at 72–84% (Table 4) [32,33].
CISC, while preserving renal function. Formal comparison of One significant difference seen in women has been the

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 Urinary diversion after radical cystectomy for bladder cancer

Table 4 Functional outcomes in women undergoing RC and orthotopic reconstruction.

Reference Number Median Continence Catheterisation, Continent during

of women follow-up, rate, % % or n/N day and night,
months or n/N % or n/N

Ali-el-Dein, B; 2002 [4] 60 20 93 84 14

Arai, Y; 1999 [28] 12 33 10/12 6/12 4/12
Hautmann, R; 2000 [29] 42 NR 86* NR 47
Stenzl, A; 2001 [30] 102 24 82 72 12
Stein, J; 2002 [31] 88 30 75–78*,** NR 44–58**

NR, not reported; *Percentage of patients reporting continence both during the day and at night; **Range based on chart review and patient questionnaire.

Table 5 Issues affecting urinary diversion selection.

Cancer control General health Technical HRQOL

Risk of local recurrence Functional status Functioning urethra Compliance

Previous pelvic radiation Previous surgeries Tumour location Sexual function
Need for adjuvant therapy Renal/hepatic function Ability to catheterise Body image
Secondary malignancies Medical comorbidities Mesentery length Urinary function
Urethral or bladder neck involvement Status of gastrointestinal tract Bowel condition Family support
Body habitus Operative duration Daily maintenance

phenomenon of hypercontinence, leading to urinary retention. HRQOL. The authors identified the lack of preoperative
This is thought to be due in part to a posterior prolapse of the baseline assessment, the lack of longitudinal studies using
neobladder during Valsalva voiding. This has resulted in an valid and reliable measures, and the absence of a validated
increased need to perform CISC, ranging from 11 to 70%. instrument to measure bladder cancer-specific HRQOL, as
Techniques that have improved the anterior and posterior major limitations of currently published studies.
support of the neobladder have led to improved functional
outcomes [34].
Factors Influencing Choice of Procedure
The primary goals in selecting a urinary diversion are to
HRQOL
provide the lowest potential for complications and the highest
One of the primary reasons for selecting a continent diversion HRQOL, while allowing for the timely completion of
lies in the preservation of ‘normal’ body image. While some chemotherapy and therapeutic goals. The decision process is
reports have noted improvements in various specific aspects complex and involves consideration of issues related to cancer
of HRQOL, e.g. body image, with these reconstructive stage, patient comorbidities, treatment needs, and patient
techniques, few formal studies have documented an desires related to HRQOL (Table 5). While patient preference
improvement in overall HRQOL. In fact, most studies have is important, absolute and relative contraindications for the
failed to confirm superior outcomes in patients undergoing use of various bowel segments and continent urinary
orthotopic as opposed to other forms of diversion. For reservoirs do exist (Table 6). Patients should be informed that
example, the Vanderbilt group analysed RAND 36-Item Health intraoperative findings may dictate a change in the planned
Survey (SF-36) and Functional Assessment of Cancer form of urinary diversion, e.g. positive urethral margin
Therapy-General (FACT-G) questionnaires from 29 patients precluding orthotopic diversion. Even when an orthotopic
with an ileal loop conduit compared with 42 with orthotopic neobladder is planned, all patients should have a stoma site
neobladders [35]. Although there were advantages in HRQOL marked preoperatively by an enterostomal therapist in the
for those receiving an orthotopic neobladder, these patients event that orthotopic diversion becomes unfeasible.
were younger, and the differences could have been age-related.
In addition, a systematic overview conducted by the University
of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) group examined HRQOL
Surgical and Oncological Considerations
after RC and urinary diversion for bladder cancer [36]. Of the for the Lower Urinary Tract
15 published studies, examined, none were randomised; only The primary goal of RC for bladder cancer is control of
one of which was prospective in nature. The authors the underlying tumour, and effective resection must be
concluded that insufficient data were available to conclude that the highest priority. Disease extent and anatomical
any one form of urinary diversion was associated with a better considerations can therefore limit reconstructive options.

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Table 6 Absolute and relative contraindications for continent tumour at the bladder neck should not be taken lightly, as
cutaneous/orthotopic neobladder urinary diversions.
urethral recurrence in a female is equivalent to a pelvic
Absolute contraindications Relative contraindications recurrence, leading eventually to death. Furthermore, some
women will have periurethral gland involvement on final
Impaired renal function Associated comorbid conditions pathology despite negative urethral biopsies [19,50].
Impaired hepatic function Advanced age
Physical or mental impairment Need for adjuvant chemotherapy The management of urethral recurrence after RC remains a
to perform CISC
Positive apical urethral margin Prior pelvic radiation
total urethrectomy, including excision of the meatus. We
(for neobladder) follow patients with urinary cytology with either voided or
Unmotivated patient Bowel disease urethral wash cytology depending on the diversion and
Urethral pathology
Extensive local disease with soft tissue
cystoscope, and any patient with urethral-related symptoms,
extension and high risk of local abnormal discharge, or haematuria.
recurrence
Locally advanced bladder cancer and/or regional node-positive
disease initially represented an absolute contraindication for
a continent cutaneous or orthotopic urethral diversion for
It is therefore critical to have an honest and informed fear of difficulty in treating a local recurrence or giving
discussion with patients preoperatively about the risks and chemoradiation with a urinary reservoir. Ileal conduits became
benefits of all forms of urinary diversions in this context. the preferred diversion in this situation because of the
The reported incidence of urethral recurrence after RC ranges potentially quicker recovery time and lower risk of
from 0 to 18%, with a recent meta-analysis reporting an 8.1% perioperative complications. Nonetheless, continent diversions
overall incidence [37–40]. Most recurrences are detected ⱕ2 have been used successfully in carefully selected patients.
years after RC, although late recurrences have been reported. Hautmann and Simon [50] reported on patients with locally
Regular follow-up of the retained urethra is therefore advanced bladder cancer who underwent an orthotopic
recommended. neobladder reconstruction, among which 17 (43%) had
concomitant distant metastases. In all, 36 (91%) patients
Several risk factors have been associated with urethral died from disease, three (8%) from chemotherapy related
recurrence after RC, including multifocal disease, carcinoma in complications and one (3%) from unknown causes. In all, 40
situ, upper tract urothelial carcinoma, and involvement of the (93%) patients maintained satisfactory neobladder function
bladder neck or prostatic urethra [41–43]. In men, one of the until death. Local recurrence compromised the upper urinary
most important risk factors for urethral recurrence appears to tract, neobladder, and intestine in 24, 10, and seven cases,
be prostatic stromal invasion [37]. The University of Southern respectively, but removal of the neobladder was only required
California group reported a 5 year probability of urethral in one case due to enterovesicular fistula. Another
recurrence of 6% for patients without prostatic involvement treatment-related concern with continent diversion relates to
vs 15% for patients with superficial involvement vs 21% for chemotherapy. The start of adjuvant chemotherapy may be
those with stromal invasion of the prostate [44]. However, delayed due to the higher complication rate seen with
transurethral prostatic biopsy results do not always correlate continent diversions, although data are limited about the exact
with final pathology [45]. In addition, lower than expected proportion of patients who experience delay [51]. In addition,
urethral recurrence rates have been reported in patients who the toxicity of chemotherapy can potentially be increased from
were orthotopically reconstructed despite involvement of the longer dwell time of urine in the reservoirs, although this
the prostate. Thus, routine preoperative prostatic biopsies has been addressed by the use of both increased hydration and
are no longer recommended and instead, intraoperative the insertion of an indwelling catheter during active treatment
frozen sections of the distal urethral margin have been infusion [52]. Overall, urinary diversion with neobladder
recommended before proceeding with an orthotopic construction can be considered in selected patients with
neobladder [46,47]. regional metastases or locally advanced disease, as few such
In women, bladder neck involvement is associated with a patients will probably have complications that disrupt
higher incidence of urethral recurrence and therefore neobladder function. However, short life-expectancy and/or
represents an absolute contraindication to orthotopic an inability to perform CISC represent contraindications to
diversion [46,48,49]. Nonetheless, 50% of woman with orthotopic reconstruction [53].
supposed bladder neck involvement have no pathological An uncommon but important complication involves the
evidence of urethral involvement after urethrectomy. Some possibility of secondary malignancy associated with the urinary
investigators have proposed using an intraoperative frozen diversion itself. Specifically, all urinary diversions using bowel,
section of the urethral margin to determine whether an with or without separation of urine and faeces, may carry a
orthotopic reconstruction is possible [47]. However, the higher risk for intestinal tumour development compared with
decision to perform an orthotopic diversion in a female with the general population [3,4,54]. However, the median latency

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 Urinary diversion after radical cystectomy for bladder cancer

period is long at 10–13 years. Although the frequency of helpful in categorising the cause of the incontinence. Patients
malignancy is higher after ureterosigmoidostomy than with an with a poorly compliant, high-pressure reservoir may benefit
ileal conduit or continent diversion, long-term follow-up of from an initial trial of anticholinergics; refractory cases usually
large cohorts will be needed to estimate the incidence of require reservoir augmentation to decrease pressure and
such cancers with newer conduits and reservoirs [55,56]. increase capacity [70–72]. Incontinence secondary to
Patients undergoing urinary diversion, particularly incompetent continence mechanisms usually require open
ureterosigmoidostomy should therefore undergo regular revision. Minimally invasive approaches, such as injecting
colonoscopic surveillance starting between 5 and 10 years after bulking agents, can be helpful for appropriately selected, mild
surgery [57–59]. cases of incontinence.

Orthotopic Neobladder
Other Considerations for The Upper
Urinary Tract The lack of uniformity in defining voiding dysfunction and
incontinence, the often retrospective nature of assessment, and
The upper urinary tract is also at risk of physiological the lack of validated instruments for measurement in orthotopic
deterioration in up to 60% of patients [60]. This occurs usually neobladder series limit the ability to assess voiding dysfunction
from infection, stones, lack of ureteric motility, or obstruction at after orthotopic diversion. A recent meta-analysis of >2000
the ureteroenteric anastomosis. This has resulted in 6% of patients showed a 4–25% rate of CISC for incomplete emptying
patients with ileal conduits ultimately dying of renal failure, for [32]. Daytime incontinence was present in ª13% of patients. The
example [61]. It is of note difficult to discriminate whether rate of nocturnal incontinence is usually higher due to lack of the
abnormal renal units that were present before urinary diversion guarding reflex from loss of the native bladder and is in the range
caused the subsequent renal deterioration or whether the of 15–40%.
deterioration occurred due to the intrinsic abnormality for which
the urinary diversion was created. A unique aspect of voiding dysfunction should be considered
in women undergoing orthotopic reconstruction. Clinical
Patients with urinary diversions are also prone to bacteriuria experience has suggested that 16–25% of women choosing
and developing pyelonephritis [62]. Up to 17% of patients orthotopic reconstruction eventually experience urinary
with conduits experience acute pyelonephritis, with a 4% death retention [15,34,73,74]. Possible mechanisms for this
rate from sepsis. Interestingly, deterioration of the upper tracts include mechanical kinking of the pouch at the posterior
appears more likely when urine cultures are positive for pouch-urethral junction. Herniation of the pouch wall
Proteus or Pseudomonas [63]. Up to 12% of patients with through the prolapsed vaginal stump has also been proposed
urinary diversions are also at risk of developing renal calculi, as a possible mechanism for retention [34]. Technical
due to hyperchloraemic metabolic acidosis, pre-existing modifications, e.g. increased back-support of the pouch
pyelonephritis, and/or UTI with a urea-splitting organism through omental packing behind the reservoir, suspension of
[62,64]. the vaginal stump to the preserved round ligaments, and
suspension of the reservoir dome to the back of the rectus
Urinary Continence and/or Voiding abdominus muscles, have been proposed to reduce the
Dysfunction incidence of urinary retention.
Continent Cutaneous Diversion
Psychosocial and Medical
The reported rates of incontinence for patients with continent Considerations
cutaneous diversions vary significantly depending upon the
Multiple factors need to be considered when choosing the
criteria used to define incontinence and the differences in the
appropriate procedure for an individual patient. In choosing
duration of follow-up [10,33,65–67]. Day- and night-time
the appropriate procedure, the patient and his family should
continence rates with continent cutaneous reservoirs range
have realistic expectations about the outcome associated with
from 90 to 98% [68,69].
each reconstructive option. They should also understand
The most frequent and troublesome long-term complication the efforts that will be required on their part during the
associated with continent cutaneous diversions involves the rehabilitation process. In addition, patients must have
efferent limb and catheterizable stoma. The reported rate of sufficient manual dexterity to master CISC, if the decision is
stomal stenosis and difficulty in catheterising the stoma is made to proceed with a continent diversion. An enterostomal
4–15% [10,67]. nurse specialist can be invaluable in educating the patient and
family and assisting with the decision-making process [75].
Incontinence with a continent cutaneous diversion can be due
to uninhibited pouch contractions, poor pouch compliance, or Advanced age can complicate both the operative procedure
an incompetent continence mechanism. Pouch urodynamics are and subsequent recovery [76]. Age has been associated with

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higher postoperative complication rates, but disease-specific Complications

survival rates are similar [77–79]. As such, elderly patients are Surgery Related Complications
usually offered primarily ileal conduits, whereas orthotopic
neobladders tend to be reserved for younger, healthier patients Considerable variability exists in the reported early and
[80,81]. Elderly patients need to also be counselled that the long-term morbidity rates after urinary diversions. Morbidity
recovery of continence may take longer than in younger rates ⱕ30 days after surgery range between 20 and 56%, while
patients. For example, Madersbacher et al. [22] found that age long-term morbidity >30 days ranges from 28 to 94%
is an important determinant of long-term reservoir capacity, [22,65,89]. Diversion-related complications are specific to the
nocturia, and continence status in patients with ileal type of diversion and are generally categorised into those
neobladders. Similarly, Hautmann et al. [82] reported that involving the bowel anastomosis, those related to the type of
continence status at the 5-year follow-up approached 100% in reservoir/conduit, and those associated with the ureteroenteric
patients aged < 50 years but only 90% for those aged > 60 anastomosis [33].
years. One of the explanations for this difference may be
decreasing external urethral sphincter function with age or the Ileal conduits
decreased vigilance of elderly patients towards incontinence The ileal conduit is often chosen for patients with significant
[82,83]. Nonetheless, experienced centres have reported medical comorbidities in an effort to minimise postoperative
continence rates of >90% daytime and >80% night-time complications. Because of the greater prevalence of risk factors
continence in properly selected patients [84]. However, it in patients selected to undergo ileal conduit diversions, the
should be noted that physiological age appears to be more rate of surgical complications still approaches that of
relevant to patient outcome, and it is therefore recommended continent diversions performed in healthier patients. None
that no formal chronological age limit should be applied of the comparative studies control for the differences in
[85,86]. Rather, patient selection as determined by surgical comorbid status, and one can therefore assume that
fitness, motivation, and functional status is more appropriate. complication rates would be further increased if ‘sicker’
Our policy is to offer continent diversions to older patients if patients underwent continent diversion.
they are healthy and motivated enough to care for the
diversion. If an older patient becomes incapacitated and The overall rate of complications associated with conduits is
unable to care for the continent diversion, then an indwelling similar for ileum and colon segments among properly selected
Foley catheter may be placed into the diversion similar to patients [22,60,95,96]. The four most common complications
what might be done for the native bladder. reported are pyelonephritis in 5–23%, ureteric obstruction in
2–22%, urinary calculi in 3–16%, and stomal complications in
Obesity can also increase the technical difficulty of RC and 2–62% of cases in a series of 412 patients with a median
complicate orthotopic neobladder construction [87]. However, follow-up of 98 months [22,60]. The frequency of complications
the postoperative management of an ileal loop conduit or a increased over time from 45% at 5 years to 94% at >15 years.
continent reservoir is also more difficult in the obese patient, The most frequent complications reported were renal
and thus most surgeons therefore do not consider obesity to insufficiency in 27%, stomal problems in 24%, bowel problems
be a contraindication to reconstruction with an orthotopic in 24%, UTIs in 24%, ureteric obstruction in 14%, and urinary
neobladder [88]. Many, including the authors, feel that calculi in 9%. The impact of these complications upon
reconstruction to the urethra may be the least complicated patients can be significant. Renal insufficiency leads to
reconstructive option for the obese patient. However, obesity impaired clearance of drugs and medications. Complications,
may be associated with a higher incidence of a thickened e.g. stomal stenosis, can exacerbate renal failure and require
foreshortened mesenteric root, which can increase the revision surgery. Small bowel obstruction may require
difficulty of bringing an orthotopic urinary diversion inferiorly conservative measures, such as nasogastric tube drainage, or
to the native urethra. more aggressive treatments, such as exploratory laparotomy
Urologists should finally be aware that adequate renal and bowel resection. Ureteric obstruction may necessitate
function is required for the creation of any continent placement of stents or nephrostomy tubes, endoscopic
diversion. Continent diversion imposes an extra metabolic treatment of strictures, or surgical revision of ureteroenteric
burden upon the kidneys, as urinary excretion products are anastomoses. The presence of urinary calculi may require
resorbed through the mucosal surface. Typically, only mild lithotripsy and stent placement.
metabolic abnormalities will be seen in patients who have
Continent cutaneous diversions and orthotopic neobladders
normal renal function. However, for those patients with
more severe renal dysfunction (serum creatinine values of Continent urinary diversions involve multiple suture lines,
>2.0–2.5 mg/dL or 180–230 mM/L or estimated GFR of valve mechanisms, tapered limbs, and longer operative times
<40 mL/min/1.73 m2), an ileal loop conduit is preferred over than ileal conduits. As such, they are subject to a higher
the continent alternatives. incidence of urinary leaks in the early postoperative period

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 Urinary diversion after radical cystectomy for bladder cancer

Table 7 Comparison of complications in ileal conduits vs continent diversions.

Type of diversion Reference No. of patients Time from surgery, months % Complications

Ileal conduit Parekh et al. 2000 [66] 81 19 22

Gburek et al. 1998 [90] 66 20 18
Madersbacher et al. 2003 [60] 131 98 66
Continent diversion Parekh et al. 2000 [66] 117 20 12
Gburek et al. 1998 [90] 66 17 18
Shimogaki et al. 1999 [91] 8 59.9 0
Mills et al. 2000 [92] 15 19 13
Ali-el-dein et al. 1999 [93] 60 20.2 13
Hautmann et al. 1999 [19] 363 57 15.4–23.4*
Steven et al. 2000 [20] 166 32 23.5–37.4*
Studer et al. 1997 [94] 200 30–134 12–22*

*Early (ⱕ90 days) vs late (>90 days) complications.

Table 8 Early vs late complications in continent urinary diversions.

Complication type Early (≤30 days) % Long term (30 days to death) %

Reservoir-related Urinary leak 1.8–10

Pyelonephritis 0.9–13 Pyelonephritis 3–10
Upper tract calculi 3
Pouch calculi 5–35
Anastomosis-related Ureteric obstruction 0–6.3 Ureteral obstruction/stricture 2–30
Urethral or stomal stricture 2–14.3 Renal deterioration 0.4–10.5
Ureteric reflux <2
Bowel-related Faecal leak 1–2 Metabolic abnormalities 15–50
Prolonged ileus 2–11 Bowel obstruction 4–8
Other Wound infection 5
Wound dehiscence 5 Incisional hernia 0–10
Deep venous thrombosis 2–2.7 Deep venous thrombosis 0–6.3
Loss of continence mechanism 15–20
Hypercontinence (male vs female) 3–9 vs 10–50

and may be subject to pouch rupture at any time. Pouch represent contributory factors. However, it is not clear whether
rupture is treated initially with conservative measures, e.g. the loss of renal function exceeds that expected in an ageing
catheter drainage. If the urinary stream needs to be diverted population, as kidney function also naturally gradually
further, nephrostomy tubes can be placed. If these measures deteriorates in the elderly even in the absence of urinary tract
still prove insufficient, surgical revision of the urinary surgery [52]. Careful surveillance for evidence of obstruction
diversion can then be performed. or stone formation will allow for prompt intervention and
may prevent loss of renal function.
The complications seen with continent urinary diversions
differ in the early postoperative period compared with those
Infection
seen in the long-term and are specific to the type of reservoir
(Tables 7 and 8) [10,19,20,33,60,65–67,90–94,96]. If one Infectious complications can contribute to acute morbidity
combines the reported percentage of early and late and chronic renal insufficiency. Contributing factors include
complications in large institutional series associated with each the use of intestinal segments normally colonised with
procedure, the risk of having a significant complication over bacteria, incomplete emptying leaving residual urine as a
the lifetime of the patient is 18–36% for continent cutaneous nidus for infection, and the use of CISC that introduces
reservoirs and 10–18% for orthotopic neobladders. bacteria into the urinary reservoir. Although the presence
of small bowel intestinal mucosa appears to promote
asymptomatic bacterial colonisation, urosepsis rarely occurs
Diminished Renal Function
unless the patient has recurrent UTIs. This was shown in a
Compromise of renal function over time may be seen in series of 66 patients with orthotopic neobladders reported by
patients after urinary diversion. The development of Wood et al. [97]. Asymptomatic bacteriuria was seen in 78% of
urinary tract obstruction at the site of anastomosis or the 55 patients who voided through an orthotopic neobladder,
reservoir/conduit outflow, stones, and chronic infection but only 39% of patients developed symptomatic urinary

© 2013 BJU International 19

Review

infection. Urosepsis rarely occurred, except in the context of will allow for the timely institution of appropriate corrective
recurrent UTIs. Thus, patients do not require chronic therapy as needed.
suppressive antibiotic therapy unless a history of recurrent
UTIs exists. Those with acute infections should be treated with
appropriate antimicrobial therapy for limited periods only.
Conclusions
Urinary tract reconstruction after RC represents a complex
process that attempts to maximise HRQOL for patients after
Nutritional and Metabolic Abnormalities surgery. In appropriately selected patients, the creation of an
Resection of an ileal or colonic segment of bowel may result orthotopic neobladder permits the elimination of an external
in malabsorption of bile salts [98]. This can lead to lipid stoma and preservation of body image without compromising
malabsorption and gallstone formation. However, the ileal cancer control. However, the patient must be fully educated
segments used for urinary reconstruction are generally and committed to the labour-intensive rehabilitation process.
short enough to avoid this problem. For example, in one He must also possess adequate manual dexterity to perform
observational study of 114 patients without a history of CISC when necessary. When involvement of the urinary
symptomatic gallstone disease or previous cholecystectomy at outflow tract by tumour prevents the use of an orthotopic
the time of urinary diversion, 10% of men and 25% of women neobladder, a continent cutaneous reservoir may still offer
developed gallstones, an incidence consistent with that substantial advantages in terms of preserving body image
normally expected in the American population [99]. over an incontinent ileal conduit. For patients who are not
candidates for either type of continent diversion, the ileal loop
Resection of the ileum can also lead to inadequate absorption remains an acceptable and reliable option.
of the vitamin B12 intrinsic factor complex. Vitamin B12
deficiency may therefore ensue, manifested as either The choice of urinary diversion involves many different
megaloblastic anaemia or with neurological symptoms. The factors. It appears that HRQOL differences mainly stem from
incidence of vitamin B12 deficiency after urinary diversion is preservation of body image, particularly with orthotopic
unclear; long-term estimates range from zero to as high as neobladders. More detailed analysis of HRQOL differences
33% at 5 years after surgery [19,20]. This variability may be will require prospective studies with adequate baseline
due to the different methods of testing for vitamin B12 measures using validated instruments. It is important to note
deficiency (e.g. the Schilling test, serum vitamin B12 levels, that each type of urinary diversion comes with potential
methylmalonic acid and/or homocysteine levels, or overt complications, ranging from specific metabolic and nutritional
megaloblastic anaemia), as well as differences related to the abnormalities to infection, bowel obstruction, renal
length and section of ileum used for the urinary diversion deterioration, and pouch rupture. One must always be vigilant
[100,101]. The authors recommend that vitamin B12 levels be for urethral recurrence in orthotopic reconstruction, which
monitored annually beginning 3–5 years after diversion and carries a poor prognosis for patients.
that patients be evaluated for symptoms consistent with The ideal urinary diversion should successfully preserve renal
vitamin B12 deficiency. Replacement therapy should be function while managing urinary outflow and minimising
initiated as needed. morbidity to the patient. Much progress has been made in the
Electrolyte abnormalities may also result from the field of urinary reconstruction since the introduction of
reabsorption of excreted metabolites. For example, ureterosigmoidostomy. Newer urinary diversions are able
ureterosigmoidostomy and diversions using the ileum and to decrease the risk of secondary malignancy, provide
colon can result in severe hyperchloraemic hypokalaemic continence, and preserve body image to a much greater extent.
metabolic acidosis, although the severity of the acidosis is However, the quest for further improving urinary diversion
lessened in newer reconstructive procedures that limit the continues in an effort to benefit patients.
amount of time that urine is in contact with bowel mucosa
[98]. For example, a contemporary series of 363 men with ileal Conflict of Interest
neobladders reported by Hautmann et al. [19] reported only a
None declared.
1% rate of severe metabolic acidosis, although nearly one-half
of all patients required some form of alkalinizing treatment
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