BHIC-131

School of Social Sciences

Indira Gandhi National Open University
Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110068
EXPERT COMMITTEE
Prof. Makkhan Lal Prof. P. K. Basant Prof. Kapil Kumar (Convener) Dr. Sangeeta Pandey
Founder Department of History & Culture Chairperson, Faculty of History Faculty of History
Director and Professor Faculty of Humanities and School of Social Sciences School of Social Sciences
Delhi Institute of Heritage, Languages IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
Research and Management Jamia Millia Islamia
Prof. D. Gopal
New Delhi New Delhi
Director, SOSS, IGNOU
New Delhi
Course Coordinator : Prof. Nandini Sinha Kapur
COURSE TEAM
Prof. Nandini Sinha Kapur Dr. Abhishek Anand Dr. Suchi Dayal

COURSE PREPARATION TEAM

Unit No. Course Writer Unit No. Course Writer
1 Dr. Suchi Dayal, Academic Consultant Prof. Kumkum Roy, Centre for Historical Studies
Faculty of History School of Social Sciences
School of Social Sciences Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi
IGNOU, New Delhi
and Dr. T. N. Rai, Department of Ancient History
Dr. Milisa Srivastava and Archaeology
Academic Consultant Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi
School of Tourism, 12 Dr. Suchi Dayal, Academic Consultant
Hospitality and Services Management Faculty of History
IGNOU, New Delhi School of Social Sciences
2 Dr. Deepak K. Nair IGNOU, New Delhi
Assistant Professor, Department of History Prof. P. Shanmugam, Department of Ocean
SGND Khalsa College Engineering, IIT Chennai
University of Delhi, Delhi
13***** Prof. Kumkum Roy, Centre for Historical Studies
3,4* Prof. B. P. Sahu, Department of History School of Social Sciences
University of Delhi, Delhi Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi
Dr. Mrityunjya Kumar, Department of History Prof. Ajay Dandekar, Department of History
Shaheed Bhagat Singh College Director (School of Humanities and
University of Delhi, Delhi Social Sciences), Shiv Nadar University
Late Prof. M. D. N. Sahi, Department of History Gautam Buddha Nagar, U.P
Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh Prof. Aloka Parasher Sen, Department of History
5,6** Prof. P. K. Basant School of Social Sciences
Department of History & Culture University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad
Faculty of Humanities and Languages 14 Dr. Kavita Gaur, Assistant Professor
Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi Department of History
7,8,9*** Prof. Kumkum Roy, Centre for Historical Studies Shyama Prasad Mukherjee College
School of Social Sciences University of Delhi, Delhi
Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 15,16,17 Dr. Rajan Gurukkal, Professor and Director
Late Prof. M. L. K. Murty ****** School of Social Sciences
Former Head at the Centre for Regional Studies Mahatma Gandhi University, Kottayam, Kerala
University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad Prof. H. P. Ray (Retired)
Dr. Sudeshna Guha, Department of History, Centre for Historical Studies
School of Humanities and Social Sciences School of Social Sciences
Shiv Nadar University Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi
Gautam Buddha Nagar, U.P. Prof. Raghava Varier
10,11**** Prof. P. K. Basant Department of History
Department of History & Culture University of Calicut, Kerala
Faculty of Humanities and Languages
Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi
* These Units have been adopted from EHI-02 INDIA: EARLIEST TIMES TO 800 A.D., Block-1: ENVIRONMENT AND EARLY
PATTERNS OF ADAPTATION.
** These Units have been adopted from EHI-02 INDIA: EARLIEST TIMES TO 800 A.D., Block-2: HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION.
*** These Units have been adopted from EHI-02 INDIA: EARLIEST TIMES TO 800 A.D., Block-3: EVOLUTION OF EARLY
INDIAN SOCIETY: 2000 B.C. TO 1000 B.C.
**** These Units have been adopted from EHI-02 INDIA: EARLIEST TIMES TO 800 A.D., Block-4: INDIA: 6TH TO 4TH CENTURY
B.C.
***** This Unit has been adopted from EHI-02 INDIA: EARLIEST TIMES TO 800 A.D., Block-5: POLITY, SOCIETY AND
ECONOMY: 320 B.C. TO 200 B.C.
****** These Units have been adopted from EHI-02 INDIA: EARLIEST TIMES TO 800 A.D., Block-7: STATE AND SOCIETY IN
SOUTH INDIA: 200 B.C. TO 300 A.D.

Content, Format and Language Editing: Prof. Nandini Sinha Kapur, Dr. Abhishek Anand

COVER DESIGN
Mr. Tilak Raj Mr. Yashpal
Assistant Registrar (Pub.) Section Officer (Pub.) Dr. Abhishek Anand
IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi Dr. Suchi Dayal
School of Social Sciences
IGNOU, New Delhi

September, 2019
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2019
ISBN : 978-93-89499-83-4
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission
in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
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 Course Contents
Pages
Course Introduction 7

UNIT 1 Sources of Ancient Indian History 11

UNIT 2 Archaeology as a Source and Prominent Archaeological Sites 39

UNIT 3 Indian History: Physical Features, Formations and Characteristics 62

UNIT 4 Hunter-Gatherers: Archaeological Perspective,

Origin of Agriculture and Domestication of Animals 91

UNIT 5 Harappan Civilization: Chronology, Geographical Spread,

Diffusion and Decline 123

UNIT 6 Harappan Civilization: Material Characteristics, Nature of Contacts,

Society and Religion 148

UNIT 7 Chalcolithic and Early Iron Age 184

UNIT 8 The Early Vedic Society 227

UNIT 9 Changes in the Later Vedic Phase 242

UNIT 10 Janapadas and Mahajanapadas: Rise of Urban Centres,

Society and Economy 256

UNIT 11 Buddhism, Jainism and other Religious Ideas 295

UNIT 12 Alexander’s Invasion 313

UNIT 13 Establishment of Mauryan Rule and Magadhan Territorial Expansion 324

UNIT 14 Administrative Organization, Economy and Society 344

UNIT 15 Early State Formation in Deccan and Tamilaham 376

UNIT 16 Agrarian Settlements, Agrarian Society, Expansion of Trade and

Urban Centres – Peninsular India 392

UNIT 17 Growth of Tamil Language and Literature 422

 Guidelines for Study of the Course

In this Course we have followed a uniform pattern for presenting the learning
material. This starts with an Introduction to the Course underlining the significant
developments in a chronological order and covers 17 Units. For the convenience
of study all the Units have been presented with a uniform structure. Objectives as
the first section of the Unit have been included to help you find what you are
expected to learn from the study of the Unit. Please go through these objectives
carefully and keep reflecting and checking them after studying a few sections of the
Unit. Introduction of the Unit introduces you to the subject areas covered and
guides you to the way the subject-matter is presented. These are followed by the
main subject area discussed through Sections and Sub-Sections for ease of com-
prehension. In between the text some Self-Check Exercises have been provided.
We advise you to attempt these as and when you reach them. These will help you
assess your study and test your comprehension of the subject studied. Compare
your answers with the Answer Guidelines provided after the Summary. The Key
Words and unfamiliar terms have been explained subsequently. At the end of each
Unit under Suggested Readings we have also provided a list of books or articles as
references. These include the sources which are useful or have been consulted for
developing the material for the concerned Unit. You should try to study them; they
will help you in understanding and learning the subject matter in an all-inclusive
manner.
COURSE INTRODUCTION
The discipline of history is a changed field today. The historians have gone beyond
studying and writing about kings, their kingdoms and personal achievements. They are
moving towards new areas of enquiry and investigation and raising questions pertaining
to various aspects and dimensions of society like how did it evolve and what changes
took place? A large amount of new data has come to light in the past three decades,
leading to fresh interpretations and perspectives in many cases. An attempt has been
made in the present Course BHIC-131: History of India from the Earliest Times
up to c. 300 CE to incorporate such aspects while retaining the earlier arguments
wherever valid. The chronological span of this Course closes before the Gupta period.
There can be alternative interpretations of the past. It is the historians’ duty to recognize
with due humility that the information which has been handed down from generation to
generation is not static. They should be able to explain historical situations and such
explanations should draw on analysis of the evidence and derive from logic of the
argument. New sources of evidence such as archaeology are important to study in
order to arrive at a more nuanced understanding of the past. The purpose of this Course
is to introduce to you and familiarize you with the stages in the way the history of India
has unfolded from earliest times till c. 300 CE. It not only introduces the student to new
ways of looking at the existing evidence but also attempts at explaining the past human
activities and their interconnections. Thus, the changes in society, economy, polity, religion,
technology etc. from the earliest times till c. 300 CE have become the focus of this
course.
The Course is divided into 17 Units, each taking up a major topic, theme or development
which is considered significant during the aforementioned period. The emphasis is on
the transitions from one phase to another, specificities of various cultures and civilizations,
evolution of regional patterns etc.
Unit 1 deals with the sources of ancient Indian history, because before we get to what
happened in the past it is imperative to know about the sources on the basis of which
we “re-construct” our past. Archaeology is an important source, particularly for the
periods for which there are no written documents. Sometimes its purpose is to
corroborate written evidence and where it does not it provides an alternative view. It is
also argued that inscriptions and literary texts mostly represent voice of the elite –
kings, Brahmanas, court-poets etc. Hence, sometimes the archaeological sources are
deemed more reliable and authentic as they may voice the sentiments of what the
common folks felt, saw and lived. With the aid of a historian’s interpretations it becomes
possible to deal with complications that arise from the nature of archaeological and
literary evidence. There cannot be a one-to-one corroboration since archaeological
data substantially is in the form of artefacts (material remains left by humans) whereas
the textual records are more abstract.
Unit 2 discusses the nature of archaeology as a source, the sophisticated methods of
excavation and exploration and how techniques from the scientific disciplines are being
used in the analyses of archaeological data. They enable us in dating the evidence and
understanding past human behaviour, settlements, production processes and past
technologies, trade and exchange, subsistence and diet and aspects of social life such
as status, religion, rituals and so on. Issues like how the archaeological sites are formed,
methods of fieldwork and data collection as well as an elucidation of some of the major
excavated sites of the Indian subcontinent of the period delineated by this Course have
been dealt with. 7
 Geography and its impact on the unfolding of historical processes are the concern of
Unit 3, as for the study of the history of a country an understanding of its physical
features and how it determined and influenced the birth and evolution of human cultures
and civilizations are absolutely necessary. Such parameters as settlement patterns,
population density and trade, formations of regions have been given due importance.
Environmental settings change and how such changes affect historical evolution is a
worthy subject of study. Uneven pattern of growth, both between and within macro-
regions, may be explained on the basis of the availability or non-availability of resource
potentialities and the form and extent of human and technological intervention.
With Unit 4 we begin tracing Indian history with the pre-historic Hunter-Gatherers. An
attempt is made to make you understand the various ways to reconstruct their history;
about their subsistence-pattern, the kinds of tools they used, their art such as the cave-
paintings which throws light on many aspects of their lives etc. It also deals with the
advent of agriculture and cultivation of crops, beginnings of the domestication of animals,
beginnings of village settlements, introduction of metals and manufacturing of new types
of tools, use of pottery etc.
Unit 5 and 6 offer a detailed study of the Harappan civilization: its discovery, chronology,
geographical extent and climatic aspects of the settlement patterns, diffusion and decline,
chief sites and material remains which characterized them, uniformities in the material
features of these sites, nature of contacts with the outside world, trade and exchange
networks, society and subsistence related characteristics, main occupations, nature of
ruling classes, dress and food-habits, script and language, religious practices, modes of
burial, problems faced by the scholars to understand its decline and the theories put
forward by them for the same etc. Though many students are familiar with this civilization
we have emphasized how important it was in Indian history by looking at its art and
architecture, drainage system, transition from early Harappan to mature Harappan,
evidence of its survival and continuities post its decline etc.
Unit 7 discusses Chalcolithic and Iron age cultures: the various post-Harappan pottery-
making cultures that can be clubbed and classified differently as pre-Iron (such as
Ochre Coloured Pottery culture) and Iron age cultures (such as Painted Grey Ware
culture and Northern Black Polished Ware culture). Iron ushered in the PGW phase
and was later associated with the 6th century BCE urban phase in north India. The Unit
also deals with the early farming communities and the subsequent Iron age in south
India with special reference to the Megalithic burials and their various aspects. The
interplay of locality and region that underlines some of the Chalcolithic settlements
becomes an important feature of the later historical change.
Units 8 and 9 throw light on the Vedic period. For the first time we have texts such as
the Vedic corpus which can be studied to cull crucial information on polity, economy,
society, religion etc. of the Vedic era. The economy was mainly pastoral; agriculture
assuming secondary importance. Society was tribal and basically egalitarian. Clan and
kinship relations formed its basis. One must remember that between c. 1500-1000
BCE the society was constantly evolving and newer elements in the economic, social,
political and religious sphere were operating to transform its structure.
The later Vedic period encapsulated changes which can be seen in the position of raja,
emergence of well-defined political units, stratification of society, new religious trends
etc. By mid-1st millennium BCE the society was changing from a pastoral nomadic
lifestyle evidenced in the Rigveda to a settled agricultural society, but iron was yet to
play an important role in agriculture. Both literary and archaeological sources have to
8 be interpreted together to get an overall picture of the period.
Sixth century BCE (dealt with in Unit 10) witnessed the shift to the establishment of
kingdoms, oligarchies and chiefdoms in north India for the first time in Indian history.
The changes in polity were accompanied by urbanization and the transition to kingdoms
was a pronounced departure in the formation of state. The Mahajanapadas which
emerged as regions where new kinds of socio-political developments were taking place
were located in distinct geographical zones; several of them situated in middle Gangetic
valley which was a rice growing area, whose output exceeded the production of wheat
and which, thus, supported a greater density of population. A Mahajanapada like
Magadha also had easy access to crucial resources like the metal ores which may be
related to the emergence of middle Gangetic valley as the focus of politico-economic
power. The fact that so many Mahajanapadas were contiguous to each other in this
geographical zone meant that an ambitious leader could try and conquer the prosperous
neighbouring territories, retain control over them and consolidate his power. No wonder,
Magadha emerged as the most powerful kingdom in the subsequent period.
Unit 11 gives the background to the emergence of new religious ideas during c. 6th
century BCE in north India. The contestation between established Brahmanical
orthodoxy and social unrest resulting from the same intensified, giving rise to parallel
religious movements/systems like Buddhism and Jainism, Ajivikas etc. They posed a
direct challenge to the existing Vedic religion. The Unit also underlines their significance
and their influence on contemporary society. They brought about a significant change in
the attitude of people who now began to question the age-long supremacy of Brahmanical
religion.
Meanwhile, the north-western part of the Indian subcontinent, which attracted the
attention of invaders quite early in Indian history, witnessed Achaemenid ascendancy
which ended with the conquest by Alexander of Macedon in 330 BCE. His invasion of
India in 327 BCE marked an important phase which opened the north-west to Greek
influence (subject-matter of Unit 12). You will know that Arrian’s accounts are the
main source of Alexander’s campaigns. He has left in his Indike some factual, some
fanciful account of India which is based on the accounts of other travellers.
Units 13 and 14 focus on another benchmark of early Indian history – the Mauryas.
We outline the territorial expansion of the kingdom of Magadha which will provide an
understanding of how and why it was possible for Magadha to become an “empire”.
Then, the origin and dynastic history of the Mauryas have been discussed. Constituents
of the state, the vast administrative apparatus and its elaborate mechanism of
administration comprising various tiers have been highlighted. Different types of sources
are correlated to understand the nature of Mauryan state. The Arthashastra underscores
essential matters pertaining to governance, Ashokan inscriptions reveal the royal
proclamations of Ashoka and Megasthenes’ account envisions workings of the state
and society in the court of Chandragupta Maurya. Social and economic processes of
the earlier period continued and expanded in this period. Royal policies that appeared
to consolidate and weave the vast heterogeneous empire in one thread are discussed.
The establishment of first political empire by Chandragupta Maurya who succeeded
the Nanda throne ushered in a new age. Ashoka and his Dhamma, his edicts, his
welfare policies, his imperial ideology became the hallmarks of this period. Unit 14
also highlights the emergence of different types of principalities such as Shungas and
Kanvas, the Indo-Greeks, the Shakas and Pahlavas and Kushanas in the north-west
and north; tribal polities like Yaudheyas and Arjunayanas in the Indo-Gangetic divide;
the process of state formation in Odisha and Deccan i.e. during the Satavahanas and
the economy and society of post-Mauryan period which can be characterized as the
period of diverse and dynamic polities. 9
 The emergence of Satavahana dynasty which founded the earliest state in Deccan and
the state-formation in south India (Tamilaham/Tamilakam) becomes the theme of
Unit 15. Tamilaham constituted various eco-zones (Tinais). You will know about
their subsistence-pattern, the basis of clan ties and kinship in the political authority,
different levels of political control and various details of the chiefdom-resembling political
formation. Expansion of overland and maritime trade networks provided additional
revenues to the rulers and also resulted in the prosperity of a large number of towns and
cities throughout the Deccan in this period. Consequently, Unit 16 discusses the spread
of agrarian settlements in Deccan and south India from c. 200 BCE to 300 CE, different
forms of subsistence prevalent in different parts of south India, nature of the ownership
of land, revenue income from agriculture and redistribution of resources in agrarian
settlements, organization of agrarian society, introduction of new elements and beginnings
of change. The purpose of this Unit is also to throw light on different dimensions of the
expansion of trade and urban centres during the aforementioned period with special
emphasis on the nature of exchange which determined the character of trade at various
levels in early peninsular and south India. It focuses on the kingdom of the Satavahanas
and the regions far south under Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas as well as the less important
local chieftains.
After reading the last Unit – Unit 17 – you will know about the antiquity of Tamil
language and literature, Tamil heroic poems and their main features, techniques of their
composition and their classification and codification into anthologies, problems of their
dating, their literary merits and other compositions of the period between c. 2nd century
BCE-3rd century CE known as the Sangam period. Another point you will be acquainted
with is the level of literary and linguistic development of classical Tamil.

10
UNIT 1 SOURCES OF ANCIENT INDIAN
HISTORY*
Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Literary Sources
1.2.1 Vedic Literature
1.2.2 Kautilya’s Arthashastra
1.2.3 Epics
1.2.4 Puranas
1.2.5 Sangam Literature
1.2.6 Biographies, Poetry and Drama
1.2.7 Buddhist and Jain literature

1.3 Archaeological Sources

1.3.1 Coins
1.3.2 Inscriptions
1.3.3 Monuments

1.4 Foreigners’Accounts
1.5 Summary
1.6 Key Words
1.7 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
1.8 Suggested Readings

1.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you should be able to understand and explain:
 the different types of sources for the reconstruction of ancient Indian history;
 the problems associated with the use of literary sources;
 the difference between primary and secondary sources;
 different types of religious and non-religious texts and their utility for a historian;
 why the archaeological sources are more reliable than literary sources in the Indian
context; and
 historical consciousness in early India and the sense of history among Indians.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Writing of history is not like writing a story. It is a narration of the past based on a
variety of sources. The many types of sources today are aided by various modern

* Dr. Suchi Dayal, Academic Consultant, Faculty of History, School of Social Sciences, IGNOU,
New Delhi and Dr. Milisa Srivastava, Academic Consultant, School of Tourism, Hospitality and
Services Management, IGNOU, New Delhi. 11
History of India scientific techniques like Absolute dating methods (Carbon-14 dating), environmental
from the Earliest studies, geological analysis etc. that provide a scientific basis to verify/correlate various
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
sources. Even in the case of myths the recent discoveries have helped to authenticate
their veracity. For example, in the case of the ancient city of Dwarka it was believed
that it was a myth mentioned in the Mahabharata. However, recent underwater salvage
archaeologists have unearthed the remains of a submerged city which seems to be
ancient Dwarka. Similarly, in the case of Sanauli, a recently excavated archaeological
site in the Baghpat district of western Uttar Pradesh the discovery of ‘chariot’ remains
bring out new dimensions to the archaeology of Mahabharata. Of course, the findings
are still being established and await further study. What is important to realize here is
that archaeology has been adding up to our knowledge of the past and what was till
now considered unchartered territory is now being subjected to scientific analysis.
The sources are an important part of writing history. It is on the basis of sources that we
reconstruct our past. The praxis of history requires a historian to study and interpret
them in detail. The historians continuously work on unraveling the past by discovering,
investigating, exploring, analyzing, considering and reconsidering the sources. Any
remnant of the past can serve the purpose of a source.
We have a variety of sources for reconstructing the history of ancient India. Broadly,
they can be classified under two main categories:
i) Literary
ii) Archaeological
Under the literary sources can be included the Vedic, Buddhist and Jain literature, the
Epics, Puranas, Sangam literature, ancient biographies, poetry and drama. Under the
broad head ofArchaeology we may consider epigraphic, numismatic and architectural/
archaeological remains that are recovered as the result of archaeological explorations
and excavations.
In Indian history there is a primacy accorded to the written records. However,
archaeological artifacts in the form of temple remains, coins, house remains, post holes,
pottery, silos etc. also constitute an important category of evidence. For all the three
periods of Indian history – ancient, medieval and modern – the archaeological evidence
has acquired a lot of significance. It is indispensable for those periods which did not
have any writing; for example, the prehistoric and proto-historic period of Indian history.
The sources can also be divided into primary and secondary. All archaeological artifacts
recovered from the earth or written documents in the form of temple records; talapatra
(palm-leaf manuscripts); inscriptions on palm leaves, pillars, rocks copper plates, pot
sherds etc. together constitute what are called the primary sources. These are used by
the historians to write articles, books or any form of written history which are used by
the subsequent researchers and are, hence, called the secondary sources.
The written primary sources are of two kinds:
i) Manuscript sources/ Inscriptions
ii) Published material.

1.2 LITERARY SOURCES

Certain questions have to be kept in mind while studying the ancient Indian texts. For
example, why were they composed and for whom? What was their social and cultural
12
context? A text may represent an ideal and may not be an accurate description of what Sources of Ancient
was happening at that time. There are some crucial aspects which need to be taken Indian History
care of when one is studying the ancient Indian texts for historical information. Upinder
Singh has pointed out that if a text was composed at a specific period its use as a
historical source is less problematic. However, the exercise becomes much more complex
if its composition extends over a long period of time. For example, in the case of the
epic Mahabharata it is difficult to bracket it as a single text composed at a specific
point of time. In such cases the historian has to sift through various chronological layers
and look critically into the various additions and interpolations. The language, style and
content of a text have to be analyzed. In the case of both the epics – the Ramayana
and the Mahabharata – critical editions have been made where different manuscripts
of these texts have been analyzed and an attempt has been made to identify their original
core. Such undertakings have helped historians immensely.
There has also been much debate about the reliability of ancient Indian literature for
reconstructing history. Since most of the ancient Indian literature is religious in nature;
for example, the Vedic, post-Vedic, Puranic and Epic literature; some scholars have
claimed that the ancient Indians did not possess a sense of history. What these early
western scholars were looking for was chronology, evidence, a clean narrative and
dates in the Indian texts. What they found instead were fables, rituals, prayers etc.
However, recent research into the historical traditions of India has made it clear that
different societies embody historical consciousness in different ways. Ancient India
possessed a strong oral tradition as opposed to a written tradition. The historical
consciousness that we glimpse was of an embedded type which has to be prised open
for analysis.
We come to know from the writings of Hiuen Tsang, the Chinese pilgrim, that each
kingdom of India had its own officials and departments for the maintenance of official
records which kept the records of various aspects of the kingdom including important
events. This practice seemed to have continued for a long time after him as can be seen
in a large number of land-grants and local chronicles which record the genealogies of
the kings and their several virtuous deeds.
Since most of the early Indian literature contains much that deals with religion, theology,
cosmology, cosmogony, magic, rituals, prayers and mythology there are problems
associated with dating these texts. This is because their period of composition and
compilation differ by a wide margin. As their subject matter is theology or religion it is
difficult to understand them historically. The Vedas, Upanishads, Brahmanas, Shastra
literature, Sutras, Puranas etc. deal broadly with non-secular themes. However, despite
these limitations such texts have been fruitfully used to arrive at an understanding of the
past.
We will now be studying these different categories of ancient Indian literature as the
sources of Indian history.

1.2.1 Vedic Literature

The earliest known literature from the Indian subcontinent is the Vedic literature. The
word veda is derived from the Sanskrit root ‘vid’ which means ‘to know’. Veda means
knowledge. They are oral literature par excellence. They are traditionally regarded as
Shruti i.e. ‘heard’ or revealed texts: words said to have been uttered by the god Brahma
in the ears of the First Man. They were handed down from one generation to the next
with emphasis on accurate memorization. Vedic literature is in a language different from
the classical Sanskrit. It can be called the Vedic Sanskrit. Its vocabulary contains a
13
History of India wide range of meanings and has different grammatical usages. It has a definite mode of
from the Earliest pronunciation in which the emphasis changes the meaning entirely. This is the reason
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
why an elaborate means to protect and preserve the mode of pronunciation of the
Vedas was devised. By the means of Ghana, Jata and other types of pathas we can
not only determine the meaning of the mantras but also can hear the original tone in
which these were sung thousands of years ago. It is on account of these pathas that no
interpolations in the Vedas were possible, as the emphasis was on oral transmission.
The Vedic literature consists of three different classes of literary works:
a) The Samhitas or collections, namely the collections of hymns, prayers, incantations,
benedictions, sacrificial formulas and litanies. The following four Vedic Samhitas
are known to us:
1) Rigveda Samhita: The collection of the Rigveda. It is the knowledge of the songs
of praise (rik) and consists of 1028 hymns (suktas) constituting 10 books
(mandalas). Books 2-7 are of an earlier date and books 1, 8, 9, and 10 are later.
They deal with a variety of issues related to the customs, social norms and
formations. Despite the ritual content of the Rigveda the historians have been able
to successfully build on themes like the pastoral economy, the position of the clan-
chief (raja), the status of vish, meanings of terms like bhaga and bali, social
classes etc.
2) Atharvaveda Samhita: It encompasses a range of topics over its 20 books of
which the first seven primarily deal with incantations, poems, spells and charms to
be spoken by the one seeking some benefit or more often by the one who would
pronounce them on their behalf for all sorts of healings to cure various illnesses,
ailments and injuries. Books 13-18 throw light on the rites of passage like those
for initiation into learning (upanayana), marriage and funerals. Royal rituals and
the duties of the court-priests are also incorporated. Thus, its contents are studied
to obtain information on the social and cultural mores of the Vedic period. A
significant section also talks about herbs and nature-derived potions as medicine.
3) Samveda Samhita: The collection of the Samveda i.e. the knowledge of the
songs or melodies (saman). The Indian classical music has its roots in the Samveda’s
sonic and musical dimensions in general and the structure and theory of chants in
particular. It is also sometimes referred to as the musical version of the Rigveda
because barring the musical creativity and melodic novelty reflected in the 75
verses the rest have been borrowed from the Rigveda. It also mentions instruments
like Vina (lute). The rules and suggestions for playing various instruments are
encoded in a separate compilation known as the Gandharva-Veda which is an
Upaveda: a supplement or appendix to the Samaveda.
4) Yajurveda Samhita: The collection of the Yajurveda i.e. the knowledge of the
sacrificial formulas (yajus) for worship-rituals like Agnihotra (welcoming the three
primary seasons – Spring, Monsoon and Autumn – by offering butter and milk to
fire), Vajapeya and Rajasuya (on victory of a king and his coronation respectively
by offering butter and Sura – an alcoholic drink – to fire), Agnichayana (uttering
incantations for building altars and hearths, largest in the shape of an outspread
eagle or falcon, dedicated to the fire-god Agni) and so on. It also yields crucial
information on agriculture, economic and social life. For instance, a significant
1
The Yajurveda is divided into the “white” or “bright” (Shukla) Yajurveda and the “black” or
“dark” (Krishna) Yajurveda. The former denotes the well arranged and clear verses whereas
14 the latter refer to the unarranged, unclear, mingled hymns.
 verse in the Shukla Yajurveda1 lists the crops deemed important in those times Sources of Ancient
such as wheat, rice, barley, sesame, millets, sorghum, kidney-beans etc. It is the Indian History
largest collection of primary Upanishads – the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad,
the Katha Upanishad, the Isha Upanishad, the Maitri Upanishad, the Taittiriya
Upanishad and the Shvetashvatara Upanishad – out of which the various
schools of Hindu philosophy have emerged and developed. For example, the
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad contains the earliest extensive discussions on the
Hindu concept of dharma, karma and moksha (literally it means liberation from
the vicious cycle of life and death but it is also taken to signify emancipation from
sorrow, freedom or self-realization).
Six vedangas (limbs of the Vedas) were evolved for a proper understanding of the
Vedas. These are:
i) Siksha (phonetics),
ii) Kalpa (rituals),
iii) Vyakarana (grammar),
iv) Nirukta (etymology),
v) Chhanda (metrics), and
vi) Jyotish (astronomy).
Each vedanga has developed a credible literature around it which is in the sutra form
i.e. precepts. This is a very precise and exact form of expression in prose which was
developed by the ancient Indians. Panini’s Ashtadhyayi – a book on grammar in eight
chapters – is the final culmination of this excellent art of writing in sutras (precepts) in
which every chapter is so precisely interwoven.
Besides the Vedas, texts like the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the Upanishads are
also included in the Vedic literature and are known as the later Vedic literature. The
Brahmanas elaborate on Vedic rituals, and the Aranyakas and Upanishads give
discourses on different spiritual and philosophical problems.
b) Brahmanas: These are voluminous prose texts which contain theological matter,
especially the observations on sacrifice and the practical or mystical significance
of sacrificial rites and ceremonies.
c) Aranyakas and Upanishads: The Aranyakas represent the etymologies,
identifications, discussions, descriptions and interpretations associated with the
ritual-sacrifices of the Vedas so that they can be properly performed. For example,
the Aitareya Aranyaka contains specific statements on how one who follows the
Vedic prescriptions and performs the sacrifices correctly goes to the abode of
gods while the one who violates them is born into the lower worlds of existence as
reptiles, insects etc. The 1st chapter of the Taittriya Aranyaka is famously called
the “Surya Namaskar” which was later elaborated in the Yoga-sutras. Additionally,
the Aranyakas also offer an insight into the deep philosophies of life. The word
Aranya means forest or wilderness. It is believed and held by some that they were
meant to be studied in a forest in the Vanaprastha (retired to forest/forest-dwelling)
stage of life, hence the name Aranyaka.
The term Upanishad is formed by the joining and the combination of roots
upa meaning “by” and ni-shad meaning “to sit down”. It, thus, denotes “sitting
down near”, implying a pupil sitting near the preceptor, receiving the pearls of 15
History of India spiritual wisdom. Other connotations include “esoteric doctrine”, “secret doctrine”,
from the Earliest “mystic meaning”, “hidden connections” etc. Monier-Williams in his Sanskrit
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
Dictionary defines it as “setting to rest ignorance by revealing the knowledge of
the supreme spirit”. The Upanishads comprise some of the key philosophical
aphorisms of Hinduism – such as the Brahman (highest entity or ultimate reality)
and the Atman (soul or self) – some of which are mentioned also in the parallel
heterodox religious traditions like Buddhism and Jainism. They played a momentous
part in the evolution of spiritual ideas in ancient India; embodying and signifying a
transition from the Vedic ritualism to new convictions on abstract philosophy and
spirituality. They are synonymously known as Vedanta: the last parts or chapters
of the Vedas and also stand for “the highest purpose of the Vedas”. With their
translation in the early 19th century they also began attracting the attention and
impression of a western audience. Fascinated by their philosophical tenets Arthur
Schopenhauer called the Upanishadic theosophy “the production of the highest
human wisdom”.
The Aranyakas are recognized as the karma-kanda: ritualistic action or the
sacrifice-section of the Vedic literature on external sacrificial rituals, whereas the
Upanishads are acknowledged as the gyaan-kanda: knowledge production or
the spirituality-section of the Vedic literature on internalized philosophical doctrines.
Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam meaning in Sanskrit “the world is one family” is
inscribed on the entrance-hall of the Parliament of India and has been taken from
the Maha Upanishad. “Vasudha” connotes the earth, “eva” denotes indeed
and “kutumbakam” implies family. It has been used in the verse which describes
the characteristics of a person who has achieved the highest level of spiritual
upliftment and who is capable of attending to his worldly duties without clamping
on to material possessions and temptations. It is believed that Gandhi’s vision of
holistic development, respect for all forms of life and the conflict resolution strategy
based on non-violence was derived from this ancient Indian dictum.
Atithi Devo Bhava, a mantra representing the dynamics of the guest-host
relationship in the Indian value-system, literally meaning “the guest is god”, is a
central idea showcasing Indian hospitality. It is taken from the Taittiriya
Upanishad. The worship of one’s deity in traditional Hinduism involved five steps
(Panchopchara Puja) which are also the five formalities deemed to be observed
while receiving guests: providing pleasant fragrance (Dhoop), lighting a lamp
(Dipa), offering edibles (Naivedya), smearing Tilak (religious mark on the
forehead) and flower (Pushp) offering.
Satyamev Jayate, variously translated as “truth alone triumphs”/“truth alone
conquers”/“truth stands invincible”/“the truth prevails”, is a phrase borrowed from
the Mundaka Upanishad. As a slogan it was popularized and brought into
widespread national usage by Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya as the president of
the Indian National Congress in 1918. It was declared as the national motto of
India on the occasion of Independence. It is inscribed on the base of our
national emblem: the Lion Capital of Ashoka. We also find it on the obverse of
the Indian currency.
The whole Vedic literature is considered to have been revealed by god and therefore,
considered sacred. Chronologically, it spans thousand years, with some belonging to
an earlier period and some portions to a later period. The Rigveda is the oldest document
of India. Books II-VII of the Rigveda are the earliest and are also called the Family
16 Books because each is ascribed by tradition to a particular family of sages (rishis).
When we refer to the early Vedic literature we essentially refer to Books II-VII of the Sources of Ancient
Rigveda believed to have been composed between c. 1500-1000 BCE. The later Indian History
Vedic literature includes Books I, VIII, IX and X of the Rigveda; Sama Veda; Yajur
Veda; Atharva Veda; Brahmanas; Aranyakas and Upanishads. These were
composed between c. 1000-500 BCE.
Though most of the Vedic literature contains songs, prayers, theological and theosophical
matter, these have been used by historians to cull out political, religious and social data
of much historical value. Information about processes like the transition from a pastoral,
pre-class/caste society in the Rigveda to agrarian, class, caste society and formations
of political territories in the later Vedic period has been obtained from these texts.
Then, there is a category of texts – the Sutras – which form part of the post-Vedic
literature. These have been classified as smriti: memorized rather than heard (shruti)
texts. The suggested meaning is that these were composed by humans – the great sages
– and, as such, do not enjoy the sanctity of the Vedas though they are considered
authoritative in their own right. The Sutra texts are manuals on ritualism (c. 600-300
BCE). These include:
a) The Shrautasutra: contains rules for the performance of great sacrifices.
b) The Grihyasutra: contains directions for simple ceremonies and sacrificial acts of
daily life.
c) The Dharmasutra: These are the books of instructions on spiritual and secular
law – the oldest law books.
The Dharmasutras and the Smritis are rules and regulations for general public and the
rulers. They can be termed, in the modern sense, as the constitution, the law-books for
the ancient Indian polity and society. These are also called the Dharmashastras. They
were compiled between c. 600 BCE-200 CE. The Manusmriti is prominent among
them.
Post-sutra texts are the Smriti texts which are:
i) The Manu Smriti,
ii) The Narada Smriti, and
iii) The Yajnavalkya Smriti.
These were composed between c. 200 BCE and 900 CE. They prescribe duties for
the different varnas as well as for the kings and their officials. They set out rules for
marriage and property. They also prescribe punishments for persons guilty of theft,
assault, murder, adultery etc.

1.2.2 Kautilya’s Arthashastra

It is an important law-digest on economy and statecraft. The text is divided into 15
books, of which Books II and III may be regarded as being of an earlier date and seem
to have been the works of different hands. These different books deal with different
subject-matter concerning polity, economy and society. It was put into final form in the
beginning of the Common era. However, the earliest portions reflect the state and society
of the Mauryan period. It provides rich material for the study of early Indian polity and
economy. It appears that even before the final version of Arthashastra there was a
tradition of writing on and teaching of statecraft because Kautilya acknowledges his
debt to his predecessors in the field. 17
History of India 1.2.3 Epics
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E. The two great epics – the Ramayana and the Mahabharata (c. 500 BCE-500 CE) –
can also be used as a historical source. They are known as Itihaas (“thus it was”) or
narratives. Vyasa’a Mahabharata is older and possibly reflects the state of affairs from
c. 10th-4th century BCE. The main narrative which relates to the Kaurava-Pandava
conflict may relate to the later Vedic period, the descriptive portion might be post-
Vedic and the didactic portions generally relate to the post-Mauryan and Gupta periods
(R.S. Sharma, 2005).
It is generally held that there have been constant interpolations in these works. Since
both of them contain portions added at various points of time the historians have to be
careful in sifting material and take into account their different chronological layers. They
constitute popular literature which is even today regularly performed by the people of
India ceremoniously. Therefore, with the increasing interest of the listeners the enthusiast
story-tellers went on adding chapters to elaborate the details. That’s how interpolations
occurred.

LEFT: Mahabharata Scenes Made for the First Time in Sculpture, Gupta Period. Location:
National Museum, New Delhi. Credit: Nomu420. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mahabharat,_Gupta_artefacts_03,_National_
Museum,_New_Delhi.jpg).

RIGHT: Carving of a Ramayana Scene. Credit: B. Balaji. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https:/
/commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ramayana_In_carving_(2444648102).jpg).
The Ramayana of Valmiki appears to be more unified than the Mahabharata. Some
of the sites mentioned in both the epics have been excavated. Ayodhya excavations
have revealed settlements going back to the Northern Black Polished Ware period.
Hastinapur, Kurukshetra, Panipat, Baghpat, Mathura, Tilpat and Bairat etc. have been
excavated and these date back to the Painted Grey Ware period. Both the epics are a
mine of information on religious sects, how they were integrated into mainstream
Hinduism, social practices and norms current at the time, philosophy etc.

1.2.4 Puranas
The Puranas are a category of Hindu texts attributed to Vyasa. They are dated to the
Gupta and post-Gupta period. There are 18 Mahapuranas and numerous Upapuranas
(supplements or appendices to the Puranas). Their content indicates that these were
heterogeneous, encyclopedic works of various hands encompassing multifarious topics.
For example, the range of topics covered by Agni Purana (c. 8th-11th centuries CE)
include ritual worship, cosmology and astrology, mythology, genealogy, law, politics,
education system, iconography, taxation theories, warfare and organization of army,
theories on proper causes for war, martial arts, diplomacy, local laws, building public
projects, water distribution methods, trees and plants, medicine, design and
architecture, gemology, grammar, metrics, poetry, food and agriculture, rituals, geography
18 and travel guide to Mithila (Bihar and neighboring states), cultural history etc.
The following five branches are considered to form the subject-matter of the Puranas: Sources of Ancient
Indian History
i) sarga (evolution of universe/creation of the world),
ii) pratisarga (involution of universe/re-creation),
iii) manvantara (recurring of time/periods of the various Manus),
iv) vamsha (genealogical lists of gods, kings and sages), and
v) vamshanucharita (an account of royal dynasties/life stories of some selected
characters).
Later on, description of the tirthas (sacred places of pilgrimage) and their mahatmya
(religious importance) was also included in the Puranic/Pauranic literature.

Krishna Raas-Leela Relief at the 12th Century Hoysaleswara Hindu Temple, Halebid, Karnataka,
based on a Narrative of the Bhagvat Purana. Credit: Ms. Sarah Welch. Source: Wikimedia
Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:12th-century_Bhagavata_Purana_
Krishna_Rasa_ lila_relief_at_Shaivism_Hindu_ temple_Hoysaleswara_arts_Halebidu_
Karnataka_India.jpg).

The Puranas contain useful information for reconstructing the history of ancient India.
They throw light on the political history and genealogies of dynasties. There is much on
the ancient dynasties such as the Haryankas, Shishunagas, Nandas, Mauryas, Sungas,
Kanvas and Andhras. Certain kings with their names ending in the suffix ‘naga’are also
mentioned who, supposedly, ruled in northern and central India. Interestingly, we do
not know about these kings from any other source. The dynastic lists end with the
Guptas, indicating that the Puranas may have been compiled by c. 4th-6th centuries
CE. However, there are a few which are later, such as the Bhagvat Purana (c. 10th
century) and Skanda Purana (c. 14th century).
They are also important for providing geographical information on rivers, lakes, mountains
etc. Hence, they are crucial for reconstructing the historical geography of ancient India.
Besides, they are a good source of information on the three major cults of Hinduism:
Vaishnavism, Shaivism and Shaktism. Various processes like how different cults became
integrated within the major religious traditions and how minor cults like Ganpatya,
Krishna, Brahma, Karttikeya etc. emerged can also be gleaned from them. They have
been understood as a vehicle through which the Brahmanas spread their social and
religious values.

1.2.5 Sangam Literature

The earliest Tamil texts are found in the corpus of the Sangam literature (c. 400 BCE-
200 CE). This is the work of poets who composed short and long poems over a period
of three to four centuries, patronized by chiefs and kings. They assembled in colleges
which were called the Sangams and the literature produced in these colleges was, thus,
called the Sangam literature. There were three Sangams (literary gatherings): the 1st
and last at Madurai and the 2nd at Kapatapuram. There is, however, some doubt about
the historicity of these gatherings. Some scholars, therefore, like to use the term “the
early classical Tamil literature” rather than Sangam literature (Upinder Singh, 2008).
Though the poems of the first two Sangams are generally rejected as ahistorical some
modern scholars do consider them of historical value. 19
History of India The poems – some 30,000 lines of poetry – are on the themes of love and war. They
from the Earliest were modelled on the bardic songs of ancient times and transmitted orally for a long
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
time before they were compiled. They do not constitute as religious literature. The
poets came from all walks of life and included teachers, merchants, carpenters,
goldsmiths, blacksmiths, soldiers, ministers and kings. Due to their varied themes and
authorship they are a mine of information on everyday life of the people of their times.
They constitute literature of the highest quality. As just stated, they describe many kings
and dynasties of south India. Many poems mention a king or a hero by name and
describe in detail his military exploits. The gifts made by him to bards and warriors are
celebrated. May be, these poems were recited in the royal court. It is possible that the
names of the kings refer to actual historical figures. The Chola kings are mentioned as
donors.
The Sangam literature mentions many flourishing towns such as Kaveripattinam. They
also speak of the Yavanas coming in their own vessels, purchasing pepper for gold and
supplying wine and women slaves to the natives (R. S. Sharma, 2005). The information
yielded by the Sangam literature on trade is corroborated by archaeology and foreigners’
accounts. The mention of some kings and events is supported by inscriptions also.

1.2.6 Biographies, Poetry and Drama

Early India is a repository of numerous masterpieces of drama and poetry. The historians
have used them to cull information on the times in which they were composed. The
earliest Sanskrit poets and playwrights include Ashvaghosha and Bhasa. Ashvagosha
authored Buddhacharita, Sariputraprakarna and Saundarananda. Bhasa was a
dramatist and wrote Pancharatra, Dutavakya, Balacharita and Svapna-
Vasavadatta. The great Sanskrit writer-poet Kalidasa (c. 4th-5th centuries CE) authored
dramas like Abhijnana-Shakuntalam, Malavikagnimitram, Vikramorvashiyam and
poetic works such as Raghuvamsham, Kumarasambhavam and Meghadutam. They
provide important insights into the social and cultural life of the Guptas. The
Malavikagnimitram is based on events of the reign of Pushyamitra Shunga (Shunga
was the dynasty that followed the Mauryas).

LEFT: Depiction of Kalidasa, One of the Navratnas (Nine Gems) of the Court of Gupta King
Chandragupta Vikramaditya. Credit: NehalDaveND. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:K%C4%81lid%C4%81sa#/media/File:Kalidas.jpg).
RIGHT: Sage Durvasa Curses Shakuntala for Being Lost in Fantasy about her Lover Dushyant:
An Episode from the Sanskrit Play Abhijnana-Shakuntalam by Kalidasa, c. 1895. Credit: Chore
Bagan Art Studio. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
20 File:Durvasa_Shakuntala.jpg).
Then, there are ancient dramas on historical themes. Mention may be made of Sources of Ancient
Vishakhadatta’s Mudrarakshasa (c. 7th-8th centuries CE). This drama is based on Indian History
how Chanakya tries to win over Rakshasa – a minister of the Nandas – to Chandragupta
Maurya’s side. It also gives a glimpse of the then society and culture. His other play
Devichandraguptam centers on an incident in the Gupta king, Ramagupta’s reign.
Shudrak is another poet who has written plays based on historical events.
The narrative literature includes Panchatantra (c. 5th-6th centuries CE) and
Kathasaritasagara (Ocean of Streams of Stories). They are the collections of popular
folk tales.

Panel Showing the “Monkey and Crocodile” and the “Mongoose and Snake” Fables from the
Panchatantra, Virupaksha Temple, Pattadakal, Karnataka. C. 8th Century CE. Credit: Ms. Sarah
Welch. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:8th_century_Panchatantra_legends_panels_at_Virupaksha_Shaivism_temple,_
Pattadakal_Hindu_monuments_Karnataka_1.jpg).

Biographies of well known kings are an interesting piece of literature. These were written
by the court-poets and writers in praise of their royal patrons. Banabhatta’s
Harshacharita (c. 7th century CE) talks in eulogistic terms about Harshavardhan of
the Pushyabhuti dynasty. It is the oldest surviving biography in India. According to
Bana it is an adhyayika: a genre of texts related to the itihasa tradition. It speaks highly
of the king but at the same time hints at the fratricidal struggle for the throne. It throws
light on many historical facts about which we could not have known otherwise. Bilhana’s
Vikramankadevacharita (c. 12th century) is about the later Chalukyan king
Vikramaditya VI and describes his victories.
Vakpati wrote Gaudavaho based on the exploits of Yashovarman of Kannauj. There
are some other biographical works based on the lives of different kings. The prominent
among these are:
i) Kumarapalacharita of Jayasimha,
ii) Kumarapalacharita or Dvyasryakavya of Hemachandra,
iii) Hammirakavya of Nayachandra,
iv) Navasahasankacharita of Padmagupta,
21
History of India v) Bhojaprabanda of Ballal, and
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E. vi) Prithvirajacharita of Chanda Bardai.
But, from the historical point of view the Rajatarangini by Kalhana is the best illustration
of history-writing appreciated by modern historians. His critical method of historical
research and impartial treatment of historical facts have earned him a great respect
among modern historians. He was a Kashmiri Brahmin and is regarded as Kashmir’s
1st historian. Little is known about him except from what he tells us about himself in the
opening verses of his book, in which he also presents his views on how history ought to
be written. He says:
 Verse 7. Fairness: That noble-minded author is alone worthy of praise whose
word, like that of a judge, keeps free from love or hatred in relating the facts
of the past.
 Verse 11. Cite earlier authors: The oldest extensive works containing the
royal chronicles [of Kashmir] have become fragmentary in consequence of
[the appearance of] Suvrata’s composition, who condensed them in order
that (their substance) might be easily remembered.
 Verse 12. Suvrata’s poem, though it has obtained celebrity, does not show
dexterity in the exposition of the subject-matter, as it is rendered troublesome
[reading] by misplaced learning.
 Verse 13. Owing to a certain want of care, there is not a single part in
Kshemendra’s “List of Kings” (Nripavali) free from mistakes, though it is
the work of a poet.
 Verse 14. Eleven works of former scholars containing the chronicles of the
kings, I have inspected, as well as the [Purana containing the] opinions of
the sage Nila.
 Verse 15. By looking at the inscriptions recording the consecrations of temples
and grants by former kings, at laudatory inscriptions and at written works,
the trouble arising from many errors has been overcome.
Kalhana’s work is immensely valuable as a source of information on early legends,
customs and the history of Kashmir.

1.2.7 Buddhist and Jain Literature

Among the non-Brahmanical and non-Sanskritic sources of early India the Buddhist
and Jain literature constitute an important category. It was written in the Pali and Prakrit
languages respectively. Prakrit was a form of Sanskrit and early Jain literature is mostly
written in this language. Pali can be regarded as a form of Prakrit which was in vogue in
Magadha. Most of the early Buddhist literature is written in Pali. With the Buddhist
monks it reached Sri Lanka where it is a living language. The Ashokan edicts are also in
Pali.
Said to have been composed after the death of the Buddha, the Pali texts Tripitakas
(“Three Baskets”) tell us about the state of affairs in India at the time of the Buddha and
the 16 Mahajanapadas. Tripitakas is the common name given to Buddhist canonical
literature and their commentaries in Pali. The Tripitakas survive in Pali, Japanese,
Chinese and Tibetan versions. They consist of three books:

22
i) the Sutta Pitaka,
ii) the Vinaya Pitaka, and Sources of Ancient
Indian History
iii) the Abhidhamma Pitaka.
The Sutta Pitaka contains the discourses of Buddha on various doctrinal issues in
stories, poems and dialogue form. The Vinaya is about 227 rules and regulations for
the monks and nuns of the sangha. It includes explanations about the founding of each
rule by the Buddha. It contains information about his life, events and the story of Buddhism
down to the 1st schism. It was written in 386 BCE.

Illustrated Frontispiece of the Japanese Version of Vinaya Pitaka, Japan, c. 12th Century. Credit:
Hiart. Creative Commons CC0 1.0 Universal Public Domain Dedication.

The Abhidhamma Pitaka (literally “higher Dhamma”) contains matter related to the
Buddhist philosophy in accordance with the Theravada school and contains lists,
summaries and questions and answers.The Sutta Pitaka contains five Nikayas of which
the Khuddaka Nikaya is a collection of discourses. It contains Theragatha, Therigatha
and Jatakas which are important sources for a historian. The Jatakas contain stories –
more than 550 in number – about the former births of the Buddha in the form of a dev,
man, animal, fairy, spirit or a mythological character. They are ascribed some historical
importance as they are related to the previous births of the Buddha. Many stories and
motifs were borrowed from pre-Buddhist and non-Buddhist oral vernacular traditions.
Due to their popularity they were transformed into sculptural bas reliefs at Bharhut,
Sanchi, Nagarjunakonda and Amaravati. They are important as they provide a glimpse
into the history of Buddhism and popular Buddhism.
Theragatha (“Verses of the Elder Monks”) and Therigatha (“Verses of the Elder
Nuns”) are a collection of poems, with verses which were narrated by the early members
of the Buddhist sangha. Therigatha is the first surviving poetry in India supposed to
have been composed by women. Hence, it is important for not only Buddhism but also
for gender studies. The gathas of the Therigatha strongly support the view that women
are equal to men in terms of spiritual attainment.
The non-canonical Buddhist literature includes Milindapanha (“Questions of Milinda”)
dated around 1st century BCE-1st century CE. It consists of a dialogue between the
Indo-Greek king Menander and a Buddhist monk Nagasena. The Sinhalese chronicles
Mahavamsha (“Great History”) and Dipavamsha (“History of the Island”) entail the
history of Buddhism from the time of the Buddha’s Enlightenment.
The Jain literature constitutes another important category of texts which are in a form of
Prakrit called the Ardhamagadhi. It contains information which helps us in reconstructing
the history of different regions of ancient India. The literature of the Digambaras is in
Jain Shauraseni while the Shvetambara literature is in two dialects of Ardhamagadhi.
Mahavira’s teachings to his disciples were 1st compiled in 14 Purvas. In c. 4th century 23
History of India BCE Sthulabhadra convened a great council at Pataliputra and reconstructed the Jain
from the Earliest canon in 12 Angas. Later in c. 5th century CE at a council at Valabhi the existing texts
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
were formalized and presented in a written form.

LEFT: Depiction of Mahakapi Jataka at Bharhut. Credit: G41m8. Source: Wikimedia Commons
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mahakapi_Jataka_in_Bharhut.jpg).

RIGHT: Sibi Jataka: during one of his previous lives the Buddha offers his own flesh to a hawk
to ransom the life of a pigeon. Piece Dated Between c. 100 -299 CE, Found at Gandhara (now in
Pakistan). Preserved in the British Museum, London. Photographer: Marie-Lan Nguyen. Source:
Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sibi_Jataka_BM_OA_
1912.12-21.1_n01.jpg).
The scriptures accepted by the Shvetambaras are:
i) 12 Angas,
ii) 12 Upangas,
iii) 10 Prakirnas,
iv) 6 Chedasutras,
v) 2 Sutras, and
vi) 4 Mulasutras.
They deal with code of conduct, various legends, Jain doctrines and metaphysics. The
Digambaras believe that most of the original Purvas are lost. Hence, they do not
accept the scriptures accepted by the Shvetambaras. They use the scriptures written
by the great Acharyas but based on the original teachings of Mahavira for their religious
practices. We can use the Jain literature for information on history and doctrine of
Jainism, doctrines of the rival schools, life stories of saints and lives of monks in the Jain
sangha.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) Discuss briefly the two categories into which the sources for knowing ancient
Indian history have been divided.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
2) What is a Veda? Write a short note on the four Vedas.
24
.....................................................................................................................
 ..................................................................................................................... Sources of Ancient
Indian History
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
3) Throw light on the Puranas as a historical source.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
4) Mark the following statements as right () or wrong (×).
i) The archaeological evidence has acquired significance for the ancient period
only. ( )
ii) There has been much debate about the reliability of ancient Indian literature
for the history of India. ( )
iii) There are six vedangas and they were evolved for a proper understanding
of the Vedas. ( )
iv) The Vinaya Pittika is a collection of 220 rules and regulations for the members
of the sangha. ( )
v) The Harshacharita was written by Kalidasa. ( )
vi) It is generally held that there have been constant interpolations in the epics.
( )
vii) Kalhana’s Rajatarangini is a chronicle of the kings of Rajasthan. ( )
viii) Therigatha is the 1 historical literary source of India supposed to have
st

been composed exclusively by women. ( )

ix) The Tripitakas survive in the Pali canon alone. ( )
x) Vishakhadatta’s play Devichandraguptam throws light on the reign of the
Gupta king Samudragupta. ( )

1.3 ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOURCES

Mauryan Ruins of Pillared Hall at Kumrahar of Pataliputra laid bare by Excavations. Credit:
1912-13 Archaeological Excavation by ASIEC. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mauryan_ruins_of_pillared_hall_at_Kumrahar_site_
of_Pataliputra_ASIEC_1912-13.jpg).
25
History of India Archaeology is a branch of knowledge that studies material culture to understand the
from the Earliest past. It has a close relation to the field of history. Sculptures, pottery remains, bone
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
fragments, house remains, temple remnants, floral remains like charred grains, coins,
seals, inscriptions etc. constitute the material culture that forms the subject-matter of
archaeology. It is the archaeological evidence that has permitted us to study the prehistoric
period. In India even the proto-historic period has been reconstructed on the basis of
archaeology. However, we cannot limit the usefulness of archaeology to these periods
alone; it is significant even for those periods which have the written evidence and which
fall in the sphere of history proper. For example, the history of the Indo-Greeks has
been reconstructed solely on the basis of coins.
The utilization of archaeological sources in reconstructing India’s past is only about two
centuries old. It was held till the 1920s that the Indian civilization was considered to
have begun from about c. 6th century BCE. But, with the excavations at Mohenjodaro
and Harappa the antiquity of Indian civilization has gone back to about 5000 BCE. The
finds of the prehistoric artifacts have shown that human activities had started here as
early as two million years ago. Similarly, it was believed that most of the Indian
subcontinent came to be populated only around the later part of the 1st millennium
BCE, but now with the help of archaeology we know that it was populated sparsely
and thickly right from the Stone-Age periods.
Archaeological methods like excavation and exploration are important as they provide
significant amount of data on trade, state, economy, societal aspects, religion and such
mundane aspects like how people lived, ate and clothed themselves. The excavations
have provided immense amount of data bearing on the Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic,
Chalcolithic, Iron age, Megalithic and many other cultures. Since the Harappan script is
still undeciphered the information about this period has been solely obtained from
archaeology. It tells us about the origin, spread, settlement patterns, town planning,
trade, polity, economy, agriculture, hunting, crops, agricultural implements, technology,
beads, seals, fire altars, religion and how this civilization declined.
Archaeological Source
A varied range of archaeological finds are useful for reconstructing Indian history.
For example, excavated remains, standing monuments, sculptural reliefs and
inscribed records. Through ground reconnaissance sites are identified which include
methods like consultation of the documentary sources, place name evidence etc.
Through aerial surveying which includes airborne or space-borne remote sensing
those sites which can often be missed on the ground can be located. Sites once
marked on the landscape can be further compared and systematically studied to
arrive at settlement patterns, site formation processes and geo-archaeological
analysis. A large number of experts are involved in the study of archaeological
artefacts such as palaeontologists (who study fossilized animal bones),
palynologists (who study and analyse fossil pollen), geo-archaeologists (who
study earth formation and the soil and sediment patterns), archaeo-zoologists
(who study, identify and analyze faunal species from sites); ethno-archaeologists
(who study living people and tribes to arrive at hypothesis regarding the past)
and many more.
Excavation
Excavations are of two types:
i) Vertical
26
 Sources of Ancient
ii) Horizontal. Indian History
Vertical excavations are conducted with the aim to reveal stratification and are
cut into deep deposits. Horizontal excavations emphasize the horizontal dimension
by opening up large areas of a particular layer to reveal the spatial relationships
between artefacts and features in that layer. Many excavators employ a
combination of excavation strategies. Through systematic studying of the artefacts
which also involves lab analysis the archaeologists arrive at conclusions regarding
past life-ways and events. Today, a range of material which was earlier not
considered worth studying is considered important, such as the recovery of burnt
seeds, plant material, pollen remains and faunal remains (to reconstruct the past
ecosystem, diet); teeth and bones of both animals and humans (to reconstruct
diseases and diet patterns in the past) etc.
Today the archaeologists have at their disposal a large number of dating methods
through which they assign age to a particular artefact. Radiocarbon dating is the
most popular and can date the most commonly occurring artefacts in the deposit
such as charcoal, wood, seeds, plant material, human and animal bone remains.
Other absolute dating techniques are also used; for example, Thermoluminiscence
dating (dates pottery, burnt terracotta); Dendrochronology (assigns age to the
different rings of a tree log) etc.
We have benefitted from the other branches like epigraphy and numismatics etc. We
could not have known about most of the Indo-Greek, Shaka-Pahlava and Kushan
kings without numismatic sources. Similarly, Ashoka’s views on dhamma and the
conquests of Samudragupta etc. would have remained unknown without their epigraphs.

1.3.1 Coins

Hoard of Mauryan Punch-Marked Coins. Credit: Classical Numismatic Group, Inc. http://
www.cngcoins.com. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Hoard_of_mostly_Mauryan_coins.jpg).

Coins have been found either in excavations as archaeological finds or as hoards. They
are mostly found in hoards, most of which have been discovered while digging a field or
excavating the foundation for the construction of a building, making road etc. The study
of coins is called Numismatics. This is considered as the 2nd most important source
for reconstructing the history of India; the 1st being inscriptions. Several hundred thousands
of coins have been found and deposited in different museums of India and abroad. The
coins found in systematic excavations are less in number but are very valuable because
their chronology and cultural context can be fixed precisely.
A coin is a metal currency and has a definite shape, size and weight standard. It also
bears the stamp of the issuing authority. The side of the coin which carries the message
is called obverse and the opposite side is reverse. The Second Urbanization (c. 6th
century BCE) in the early Indian history is the 1st instance for which we find both the
literary and archaeological evidence of coinage. This was the time of the emergence of
27
History of India states, growth of towns and cities and spread of agriculture and trade. Coins in early
from the Earliest India were made of copper, silver, gold and lead. Coin moulds made of burnt clay,
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
dating to the Kushan period (first three centuries of the Common era), have been found
in hundreds. They point to the increased commerce during this time. The post-Mauryan
coins were made of lead, potin, copper, bronze, silver and gold. They were issued in
large numbers, pointing to the increased volume of trade during this period.
Most of the coins belonging to the major dynasties have been catalogued and published.
The earliest coins in the subcontinent are the Punch-Marked coins. These are mostly
of silver and sometimes of copper. Some gold Punch-Marked coins are also reported
but they are very rare and their authenticity is doubtful. The Punch-Marked coins bear
only symbols on them. Each symbol is punched separately which sometimes overlaps
one another. These have been found throughout the country: from Taxila to Magadha to
Mysore or even further south. They do not bear any inscription or legend on them. With
the expansion of the Magadhan empire the Magadhan type of Punch-Marked coins
replaced those which were issued by the other states.
Next, the Indo-Greek coins are also in silver and copper and the gold ones are rare.
They show beautiful artistic features on them. The portrait or bust of the king on the
observe side appears to be real portraits. On the reverse some deity is depicted. It is
through the coins only that we know about more than 40 Indo-Greek rulers who ruled
in small regions of north-western India. As mentioned earlier, we know about several
Shaka-Pahlava kings about whom we would have no information from any other source.

Deities on Indo-Greek Coins. Source: ‘Alexander the Great and Bactria: The Formation of a
Greek Frontier in Central Asia’. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
File:Deities_on_the_coinage_of_Agathokles.jpg).

The Kushanas issued their coins mostly in gold and copper, rarely in silver. Their coins
are found in most parts of north India up to present-day Bihar. The imperial Guptas
issued mostly gold and silver coins but the gold coins are more numerous. Indian influence
can be seen on them from the very beginning. The coins of Vima Kadphises bear the
figure of Shiva standing beside a bull. In the legend on these coins the king calls himself
Maheshvara i.e. a devotee of Shiva. Kanishka, Huvishka and Vasudeva etc. all have
this depiction on their coins. We find many Indian gods and goddesses depicted on the
Kushan coins besides many Persian and Greek deities.
Though the earliest coins carried only symbols the later ones had figures of the kings,
divinities and also mention their dates and names. For example, the western Kshatrapa
coins give dates in the Shaka era. The area of the circulation of coins has enabled us to
reconstruct the history of several ruling dynasties. The coins offer valuable information
on political organization. For instance, the coins of Yaudheyas and Malavas carry the
legend ‘gana’ which tells us about their non-monarchical form of polity. The image of a
ship on the Satavahana coins of the Deccan bears testimony to the significance of
maritime trade.

28
 Sources of Ancient
Indian History

A Gupta Gold Coin Depicting Queen Kumaradevi and King Chandragupta I. Location: British
Museum, London. Credit: Uploadalt. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Queen_Kumaradevi_and_King_Chandragupta_
I_on_a_coin.jpg).

The Guptas appear to have succeeded the Kushanas in the tradition of minting coins.
They completely Indianised their coinage. They also issued a number of gold coins.
Known as dinaras they were well-executed die-struck coins. The obverse depicts the
reigning king in various poses: the kings are depicted engaged in activities like hunting a
lion or rhinoceros, holding a bow or battle-axes, playing musical instrument or performing
the Ashvamedha Yajna. The coins of Samudragupta and Kumaragupta I show them
playing the vina.

In the post-Gupta period the gold coins declined in number and purity. This became the
basis of the highly contested Feudalism theory of R. S. Sharma who believed that the
debasement of coinage and the increased use of cowries point to the decline of trade
and commerce in this period.

1.3.2 Inscriptions
One of the most important and reliable sources for writing history are the inscriptions.
An inscription, being a contemporary document, is free from later interpolations. It
comes in the form it was composed in and engraved for the 1st time. It is almost impossible
to add something to it at a later stage, as we generally find with the works written on
soft materials like birch bark, palm leaf, paper etc. which were frequently required to
be copied because the old manuscripts became fragile with the course of time. At the
time of copying some errors did creep in or, sometimes, even few additions were made.
This is not possible with inscriptions.

The study of inscriptions is called Epigraphy. They are carved on seals, copper plates,
temple walls, wooden tablets, stone pillars, rock surfaces, bricks or images. The script
of the inscriptions also helps a historian in many ways. The oldest inscriptions are in the
Harappan script of c. 2500 BCE which is still un-deciphered. The writing is carved on
the Harappan seals but so far no attempt has been successful at deciphering it.

The earliest deciphered inscriptions are the Ashokan edicts which have been found on
the rock surfaces and stone pillars all through the subcontinent. These are found written
in four scripts. In his empire in the present-day Afghanistan he used Aramaic and Greek
scripts for his edicts. In the Gandhara region Kharoshthi script was used. Kharoshthi
29
History of India evolved on the Varnamala system of the Indian languages and is written from right to
from the Earliest left. The Brahmi script was used for the rest of his empire: from Kalsi in the north in
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
Uttaranchal up to Mysore in the south.

After Ashoka the Brahmi script was adopted by the rulers of the succeeding centuries.
The most interesting thing about it is that its individual letters were modified century
after century and through this process all the scripts of India including Tamil, Telugu,
Kannada and Malayalam in the south and Nagari, Gujarati, Bengali etc. elsewhere
have developed from it. This modification in the form of individual letters has an advantage.
It has made roughly possible to ascertain the time/century in which the particular
inscription was written. The study of the development of scripts is called Palaeography.

The credit to complete the chart of Ashokan alphabets goes to James Prinsep. After
this the study of epigraphs became a subject in itself. He was a civil servant in the
employ of the East India Company in Bengal. The Ashokan inscriptions are a class in
itself. Recorded in the different regnal years of his reign they are called Edicts because
they are in the form of the king’s order/desire. They also give a glimpse of his image and
personality as a benevolent king concerned with the welfare of not only his subjects but
also of the entire humanity.

The Ashokan inscriptions are in a fairly developed script and it is assumed that writing
must have existed in the earlier period too. Potsherds with short inscriptions have been
found in excavations at Anuradhapura in Sri Lanka which can be dated to the pre-
Mauryan period of c. 4th century BCE. The earliest Sanskrit inscriptions appeared in c.
1st century BCE. The Junagarh Rock inscription of Rudradaman is considered as an
early example of chaste Sanskrit written in mid 2nd century CE. The early inscriptions
were a mixture of Prakrit and Sanskrit which by c. 5th century CE were replaced by
Sanskrit as the language of the royal inscriptions.

The inscriptions are of various kinds. The Ashokan inscriptions were royal orders
pertaining to social, religious and administrative matters addressed to the officials or
people in general. The Lumbini pillar inscription ofAshoka is a commemorative inscription
as it records his visit to the Buddha’s birthplace. Then, there are memorials like the sati
stones or hero stones, some of which carry inscriptions. The donative inscriptions which
record the erection of a temple or a shrine have been found in hundreds in the Deccan
and south India in the early medieval period.

Besides these, we have several thousand inscriptions in the forms of royal land-grants
engraved on copper plates. These are donative documents which record grants of land
and other items to the brahmanas and other beneficiaries. Though these land-grant
inscriptions deal with the sale or donations of lands to temples, deities, the brahmanas
and so on, most of the times they contain also details of genealogy of donors and donee
and other economic information. These, thus, become a great source of political, social
and economic history. From them we also came to know about the grant of lands, free
from all the taxes, to the learned brahmanas. These were called the Agraharas.

The inscriptions which eulogize their patrons begin with a prashasti. The examples are
the Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela – the 1st century BCE-1st century CE king of
Kalinga (Odisha) – and the Allahabad Pillar inscription of the Gupta king Samudragupta.
Inscriptions of the Kshaharatas, Shaka-Kshatraps and Kushanas adopt Indian names
within two or three generations. These inscriptions show them being engaged in social
and religious welfare activities. As we learnt earlier, Sanskrit came to occupy a prime
30
place since the Gupta period. The Allahabad Pillar Inscription enumerates the Sources of Ancient
achievements of Samudragupta. But for this sole inscription this great Gupta king would Indian History
have remained unknown in the history of India. Most of the Gupta epigraphs give
genealogy. This became the practice of the subsequent dynasties. They took the
opportunity to give an account of their conquests and achievements of their predecessors
including the mythology of their origins. The Chalukya king Pulakeshin II gives a dynastic
genealogy and achievements in his Aihole inscription. Similarly, the Gwalior inscription
of Bhoja gives full account of his predecessors and their achievements.

Some inscriptions record the construction of a dam, reservoir, tank, well or charitable
feeding houses. The Junagadh (Girnar) inscription of Shaka ruler Rudradaman records
the construction of a water reservoir called Sudarshana lake during the time-period of
Chandragupta Maurya, its completion during the reign of Ashoka and its repair in c. 2nd
century CE. Apart from these different kinds of inscriptions we also find miscellaneous
types such as labels, graffiti, religious formulae and writing on seals etc.

The inscriptions are a good source of political, social and economic history. They are
valuable tools for the historian as they tell us about contemporary events and common
people. Their spread is taken as an indicator of the reigning king’s domain. Many
inscriptions contain useful information about genealogy, dynastic details and sometimes,
names of even those kings who have been missed out in the main genealogies. The land
grants of the Pallava, Chalukya and Chola period inform us about the contemporary
revenue systems, agricultural details and political structures.

Inscriptions have many more uses. For example, they help us to date the sculptures on
which they occur, give us information about the extinct religious sects like the Ajivikas,
tell us about historical geography, history of iconography, art and architecture, history
of literature and languages, and even the performing arts like music. They are more
reliable than the literary texts as they are not always religious in nature.

1.3.3 Monuments
In addition to the epigraphic and numismatic sources there are many other antiquarian
remains which speak about our past. The temples and sculptures are found all over the
country right from the Gupta period up to recent times. These show the architectural
and artistic history and achievements of Indian culture. Large caves, like at Ajanta and
Ellora, were excavated in the hills in western India which constitute chaityas and viharas.
Large temples have been carved out of rock like the Kailash temple of Ellora and the
rathas at Mamallapuram. The monuments of medieval period show the grandeur and
riches enjoyed by the ruling class. Also, they throw light on the regional styles of
architecture, influences from different areas etc.

The archaeological excavations also brought to light the townships of Taxila, Kaushambi,
Kashi (Rajghat), Ayodhya, Vaishali, Bodhgaya, etc. belonging to the Buddha’s time. All
of these places except Taxila are said to have been visited by the Buddha in c. 6th
century BCE.

31
History of India
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.

LEFT: The Kailash Temple at Ellora Caves, Aurangabad, Maharashtra. ASI Monument No. N-
MH-A51. Credit: Rashmi.parab. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/File:Kailas_Temple_at_Ellora_Caves.jpg).

RIGHT: The Temple of Pancha-Rathas (Five-Rathas) at Mamallapuram, Chennai, Tamilnadu.

Credit: Howard Banwell. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
File:Five_Rathas_Mamallapuram.JPG).

Archaeological Remains of a Monastery at Kaushambi (Prayagraj District, Uttar Pradesh).

Credit: Vinod26Jan. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Ghoshitaram_monastery_in_Kosambi.jpg).

1.4 FOREIGNERS’ACCOUNTS
Many travellers came to India as pilgrims, traders, settlers, soldiers and ambassadors.
They have left behind accounts of places they visited and things they saw. If studied
with due caution these accounts give a lot of valuable historical information. The Greek
writers mention Sandrokottas who is said to have met Alexander as a young man. In
the 18th century William Jones identified Sandrokottas as Chadragupta Maurya which
formed the basis of Mauryan chronology.
Ambassadors were sent to Pataliputra by Greek kings. Some of them were
Megasthenes, Deimachus and Dionysios. Seleucus’s envoy Megasthenes wrote Indica:
an account of his stay at the court of Chandragupta Maurya. Though this text is no
longer present the subsequent writers refer to certain portions of it and it has been
possible to reconstruct the administrative structure, social classes and economic activities
of the Mauryan period. Megasthenes and so also the accounts of those who
accompanied Alexander have been lost and are available only in fragments.
The Greek and Roman accounts give useful information about the Indian Ocean trade
in early India. An anonymous Greek author settled in Egypt wrote Periplus of the
Erythrean Sea (c. 80-115 CE) on the basis of his personal voyage of Indian coast in
about 80 CE. He gives valuable information about Indian coasts. Another writer Ptolemy
wrote a geographical treatise on India in 2nd century CE (c. 150 CE). The Periplus of
32
the Erythrean Sea and Ptolemy’s Geography, both written in Greek, give information Sources of Ancient
about the geography and ancient trade of India. The early Greek and Latin works by Indian History
Strabo, Arrian, Pliny the Elder tell us about the Oceanic trade. Arrian wrote a detailed
account of the invasion of India by Alexander on the basis of information from those
who accompanied the campaign.
Most of the Greek writings about India are based on secondary sources, resulting in
numerous errors and contradictions. Therefore, it is necessary to be cautious when
using them. The Greeks were ignorant of the Indian languages and the customs of the
country and their information is full of unbelievable facts and fancies. For instance,
Megasthenes states that there were seven castes in India during the time of his stay;
most plausibly confusing “castes” with “occupational classes”.
India figures in the foreign inscriptions like those of Darius. Herodotus and Ctesias got
their information about India through the Persian sources. Herodotus in his “Histories”
gives us much information about Indo-Persian relations.
The Chinese travellers visited India from time to time. They came here as Buddhist
pilgrims and therefore, their accounts are somewhat tilted towards Buddhism. Mention
may be made of Fa-Hsien/Fa-Hien who visited India in the 5th century CE, and Hsuan
Tsang and I-Tsing who came in the 7th century. These Chinese Buddhist monks have
left behind fairly detailed travel accounts which have been translated into English. They
visited many holy places and Buddhist shrines. Fa-Hsien’s travels lasted from 399-414
CE and were confined to northern India. Hsuan-Tsang left his home in 639 CE and
spent over 10 years travelling in India. Fa-Hsien has described the political, social,
religious and economic conditions during the Guptas and Hsuan Tsang, those during
Harshavardhan’s times.

LEFT: Fa-Hien at the Ruins of Ashoka’s Palace. Credit: Hutchinson’s story of the nations.
Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Fa_Hien_at_the_
ruins_of_Ashoka_palace.jpg).

RIGHT: A Depiction of the Chinese Monk Xuan-Zang/Hiuen-Tsang on his Journey to India.

Location: Tokyo National Museum. Credit: Alexcn. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Xuanzang_w.jpg). 33
History of India In the later periods some Arabs also left their accounts about India. These Arab scholars
from the Earliest such as Abu Rihan better known as Al-Beruni, the most famous among them, who
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
belonged to the region of Khive (modern Turkmenistan) and was a contemporary of
Mahmud of Ghazni, visited India to learn about its people and study Indian texts in their
original language. His observations are based on his knowledge of Indian society and
culture which he acquired through literature. For this he studied Sanskrit. However, he
does not give any political information of his times. But, his Tahqiq-i-Hind is truly
encyclopedic in nature and covers topics like Indian scripts, sciences, geography,
astrology, astronomy, philosophy, literature, beliefs, customs, religions, festivals, rituals,
social norms and laws. His work is a valuable historical source for the 11th century
India and he was the 1st to have identified the initial year of the Gupta era. The Arabs
and Indians were involved in the Oceanic trade and the Arab accounts such as that of
Sulaiman mention India.
With the beginning of the 12th century we start getting the official histories commissioned
by rulers or even written by courtiers. The earliest such example is Tabkat-i-Nasiri by
Minhaj-ud-din Siraj. Subsequently, we find such important sources of medieval history
as:
 Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi by Zia-ud-din Barani,
 Gulshan-i-Ibrahimi by Mahammad Quasim Farishta,
 Ain-i-Akbari and Akbarnama by Abu’l Fazal,
 Tabqat-i-Akbari by Nizammuddin Ahmad, and so on.
For the period of Shahjahan and Aurangzeb also we have enough court accounts.
Indeed, for the modern period there is no dearth of historical material in several Indian
languages as well as in English, French and Dutch.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) What is archaeology? Enumerate the main archaeological sources for the
reconstruction of ancient Indian history.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
2) Mark the following statements as right () or wrong (×).
i) The history of the Indo-Greeks has been reconstructed solely on the basis of
their coins. ( )
ii) The western Kshatrapa coins give us dates in the Vikram era. ( )
iii) The earliest punch-marked coins are only in silver. ( )
iv) Megasthenes spent time in the court of Pushyamitra Shunga. ( )
v) The tax-free lands granted to the Brahamanas were called Agraharas.
( )
vi) The Junagarh Rock inscription of Rudradaman was in a mixture of Prakrit
and Sanskrit. ( )
vii) The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea (c. 80-115 CE) was written in Greek.
34 ( )
 viii) The coins of Vima Kadphises bear the figure of Vishnu standing beside a Sources of Ancient
bull. ( ) Indian History

ix) The Ashokan inscriptions were first deciphered in 1837 by James Princep.
( )
x) The Gupta kings issued a number of gold coins known as dinaras. ( )
3) Write a note on the historical development of coinage in ancient India from the
time of the Buddha till the Guptas.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
4) Elucidate what you understand by the prashasti inscriptions.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
5) Throw light on the historical significance of the travel accounts left by the Chinese
Buddhist pilgrims Fa-Hien and Hsuan Tsang.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

1.5 SUMMARY
In this Unit you learnt about the different kinds of sources that historians use to study
the past. Both archaeology and literary texts constitute important categories.
Unfortunately, many of the archaeological excavations have not been published and
there are thousands of inscriptions which await study. As a result, our information about
the past is still not complete.
Archaeological excavations and explorations have shown that most parts of India were
occupied during the Stone-Age period and the antiquity goes back to 1.6 million years.
Much research has been done in the field of prehistory which shows that the human
activities started in the subcontinent as early as two million years ago. Even in the Thar
desert the human occupation goes back to about 90,000 years.
The discovery of the Harappan sites and the cities of Mohenjodaro and Harappa pushed
back the antiquity of Indian culture and civilization by several thousand years. Similarly,
the excavations and explorations in various parts of India have thrown important light
on the history of agriculture in India. Now we know that agriculture began in India
almost 8000 years ago. Also, the archaeological discoveries have shown that tradition
of rock paintings in India goes back to more than 12,000 years. 35
History of India Another important issue is that the historical texts and literary evidence cannot be dated
from the Earliest with certainty. This is a cause for worry. Since much of ancient Indian literature is
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
concerned with ritual and religion it becomes imperative to study them with caution and
sift through the various layers to have some kind of temporal control.

1.6 KEY WORDS

Archaeology : The study of material remains to understand the
past.
Artifact : An object made by a human being, typically one
of cultural or historical interest.
Brahmanical : Of or pertaining to the Brahmins/Brahmanas,
their doctrines, precepts, ethos or worship.
Canonical : If something has canonical status it is accepted
as having all the qualities that a thing of
its kind should have; prescriptive; normative.
Chalcolithic Culture : Culture which represents an age when both stone
and copper tools were used.
Classical : Representing and showcasing an exemplary
standard within a traditional and long-established
form or style; relating to the ancient Greek or
Latin literature, art or culture.
Critical edition : Close reading and detailed analysis of a literary
work.
Digambaras : Members of one of the two main sects of Jainism
which was formed as a result of the doctrinal
schism in c. 80 CE and continues till date in
southern India. The male ascetic members of this
sect reject property-ownership and do not wear
clothes.
Eulogy : A speech or piece of writing that praises someone
or something highly; a kind of tribute.
Fratricidal : Relating to or denoting conflict within a family or
organization.
Harappan Civilization : The bronze-age civilization which flourished (c.
3300-1300 BCE; mature period c. 2600-18800
BCE) mainly in the north-western regions of the
Indian subcontinent: modern day India (Gujarat,
Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh,
Jammu and Kashmir states) and Pakistan (Sindh,
Punjab and Baluchistan provinces), having main
cities like Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Lothal,
Kalibangan among many others.
Interpolation : Later addition, usually in a text.

36
Kali age : The last of the four ages (yugas) the world goes
 through as part of the cycle of time described in Sources of Ancient
the Sanskrit scriptures; the other ages Indian History
being Satya, Treta and Dvapara. It is
associated with the demon Kali and is not to be
confused with the goddess Kali. The “Kali” of
Kali age means “strife”, “discord”, “quarrel” or
“contention”. According to the Puranic sources
Krishna’s departure marks the end of the
Dvapara Yuga and the beginning of the Kali age.
Litany : A tedious recital or repetitive series.
Megalithic : Associated with the prehistoric monuments,
usually burials, made of or containing large/
massive stones.
Mesolithic : The intermediate period of the Stone-Age
between the Palaeolithic and Neolithic periods,
characterized by the use of microliths (small, fine
stone tools).
Neolithic : The later period of the Stone-Age when ground
or polished stone weapons and implements were
used.
Nikaya : It is a Pali term meaning “volume”, “collection”,
“assemblage”, “class” or “group”. It is commonly
used to refer to the Buddhist texts of Sutta
Pitaka but can also be used to denote the
monastic divisions of Theravada Buddhism.
Paleolithic : The early phase of the Stone-Age, lasting about
2.5 million years, when primitive stone implements
were used.
Pathas : “Recitations” or ways of chanting the
Vedic mantras.
Prehistoric Period : The period between the use of the first stone tools
about three million years ago by the Hominins and
the appearance of the earliest writing systems
about 5000 years ago.
Proto-historic Period : The transition period between prehistory and
history during which a culture or civilization has
not yet developed its own writing but the other
cultures have noted its existence in their writings.
Citing an example, the Celts and the Germanic
tribes in Europe are regarded to have been
proto-historic when they began figuring in the
earliest Greek and Roman sources.
Schism : A split/division between strongly opposed
sections/parties caused by the differences in
opinion or belief.
37
History of India Shvetambaras : The ascetic adherents of this sect of Jainism wear
from the Earliest white clothes.
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
Sift : Examining something thoroughly by isolating it
from the other parts.
Silo : A tall tower or pit on a farm used to store grain.
Temporal : Related to time.

1.7 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) Consult Section 1.1
2) See Sub-section 1.2.1
3) See Sub-section 1.2.4
4) i) ×, ii) , iii) , iv) ×, v) ×, vi) , vii) ×, viii) , ix) ×, x) ×.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) Refer to Section 1.3. Discuss coins, inscriptions and, monuments/monumental
remains.
2) i) , ii) ×, iii) ×, iv) ×, v) , vi) ×, vii) , viii) ×, ix) , x) .
3) See Sub-section 1.3.1
4) See Sub-section 1.3.2
5) See Section 1.4

1.8 SUGGESTED READINGS

Basham, A. L. (2004). The Wonder That Was India: A Survey of the History and
Culture of the Indian Sub-continent Before the Coming of the Muslims. Vol. 1,
Pan Macmillan Limited.
Sharma, Arvind (2003). Did the Hindus Lack a Sense of History? Numen, vol. 50 (2),
pp. 190-227, Brill.
Sharma, R. S. (2005). India’s Ancient Past. Oxford University Press (OUP), New
Delhi.
Singh, Upinder (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the
Stone Age to the 12th Century. Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd.
Thapar, Romila (2000). Historical Consciousness in Early India. Cultural Pasts: Essays
in Early Indian History, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, pp. 155-172.
——- (2000). The Oral and Written in Early India” in Cultural Pasts: Essays in
Early Indian History, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, pp. 195-212.
——- (2002). The Penguin History of Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300.
Penguin Books India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
Varadarajan, Lotika (1979). Oral Testimony as Historical Source Material for Traditional
and Modern India. Economic and Political Weekly, vol. 14, No. 24, pp. 1009-
1014.

38
UNIT 2 ARCHAEOLOGY AS A SOURCE AND
PROMINENT ARCHAEOLOGICAL
SITES*
Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Archaeological Sites and What They Are Made of
2.3 Methods: Archaeology in the Field
2.3.1 Archaeological Exploration
2.3.2 Archaeological Excavation

2.4 Analyzing the Evidence

2.4.1 Dating Methods
2.4.2 Production Techniques and Processes
2.4.3 Trade and Exchange
2.4.4 Environmental Archaeology
2.4.5 Diet and Subsistence
2.4.6 Investigation of Past Societies
2.4.7 Underwater Archaeology

2.5 Some Prominent Archaeological Sites in the Indian Subcontinent

2.6 Summary
2.7 Key Words
2.8 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
2.9 Suggested Readings

2.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you will be able to learn:
 the nature of archaeology as a source for reconstruction of the past;
 what is an archaeological site and how it is formed;
 the methods of fieldwork and data collection in archaeology;
 about various techniques used in the examination of archaeological evidence and
what they tell us about the past; and
 about prominent ancient archaeological sites in the Indian subcontinent.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
History and archaeology both share the same aim i.e. reconstruction of the past. However,
they differ in the sources and methods they use to reconstruct the past. Unlike history
which uses written sources for data, archaeology studies the material remains that have
been created and used by humans since their appearance on earth. These material
* Dr. Deepak K. Nair, Assistant Professor, Department of History, SGND Khalsa College, University
of Delhi, Delhi. 39
History of India remains encapsulate the information about human behaviour and experience. These
from the Earliest remains cover a wide range of things which people used and discarded, such as stone
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
tools, structures, bricks, pottery, metal objects, sculptures, coins, inscriptions and so
on which are preserved in the archaeological record both on the ground and under it.
Among these the studies of coins and inscriptions have evolved their own sub-disciplines
called numismatics and epigraphy respectively.
The human past is broadly divided into two parts:
i) the historic, and
ii) the pre-historic period.
The historic period begins from the time when writing appeared about 5000 years ago
in different regions. Later on, as writing evolved it was used in a variety of ways such as
maintaining records and in literary writings. However, the literate period is a very small
part of the human past which helps us to investigate only the last few thousand years.
Prehistory, therefore, begins from the origins of humankind over three million years
ago. However, archaeology is not restricted to prehistory but studies all material remains
left by humans through time. So, archaeologists study everything: from prehistoric tools
to the items of daily use in the present.
The History of Archaeology
Every society engages with its past. The origins of archaeology can be traced to
the fascination for beautiful old things and treasure-hunting to acquire such things.
In the early stages of evolution of archaeology the Danish scholar C. J. Thomsen
devised in 1817 the Three Age System of Stone age, Bronze age and Iron age.
Archaeology of this time comprised of text-based archaeology and prehistoric
archaeology that was not based on texts. This has, today, multiplied into several
disciplines such as environmental archaeology, bio-archaeology, geo-archaeology
and so on.
In India too archaeology had similar beginnings. It started with the adventurers’
explorations during the colonial period that was followed by antiquarianism in
which the sites and artefacts were studied without the rigorous methods of
excavation and contextual analysis. In the beginning there was a dominance of
text-aided archaeology. Sir Alexander Cunningham surveyed the length and
breadth of northern part of the Indian subcontinent, trying to identify the cities
and settlements mentioned in the accounts of the Chinese pilgrims such as Xuan
Zang. In 1861 the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) was established with
Cunningham as its first Director-General. In the last decades of the 19th century
a number of areas were surveyed, monuments were mapped and recorded. In
the early 20th century with the efforts of Viceroy Lord Curzon due to his immense
interest in archaeology and the respect for archaeological remains in the Indian
subcontinent the Ancient Monuments Preservation Act was passed in 1904 for
the preservation of ancient Indian monuments. The ASI conducted explorations
and large-scale excavations in the Indian subcontinent under Sir John Marshall
and Sir Mortimer Wheeler. After independence the ASI continued expanding its
work. At the same time the discipline of archaeology began to be taught in several
universities and academic institutions which were also active in the field of
archaeological research. Today the ASI is a vast institution. There are also State
Archaeological Departments and academic institutions like the Deccan College.
Many universities teach archaeology and conduct excavations.

40
 Archaeology as a Source
2.2 ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES AND WHAT THEY and Prominent
ARE MADE OF Archaeological Sites

Artefacts and Ecofacts

Archaeology bases itself on the study of the artefacts which are portable objects made
or altered by humans. They provide important evidence such as the process of their
production, the raw material out of which they are made, the technology involved in
their production, the use of such objects etc. There is another kind of evidence which is
non-artefactual: the organic and environmental remains known as ecofacts which can
reveal many aspects of past human activity. They include animal bones, plant remains,
soils and sediments etc. They help us understand aspects related to the environmental
conditions in which people lived, variations in climate and their effects on humans, what
kind of food they ate and so on.

The Archaeological Site

Artefacts, ecofacts, features and structures are found together on the archaeological
sites. An archaeological site is a place which contains significant traces of human activity.
In other words, these are places where human beings have done some activity in the
past. The range of activities performed by humans is very wide: from cave paintings to
the building of pyramids, Stonehenge, cities like Mohenjodaro to a small place where
hunters-gatherers made their stone tools. Therefore, the investigation of archaeological
sites for retrieving information becomes primary task of the archaeologists on the basis
of which the past human life ways are reconstructed.
Now the question is: how archaeological sites are formed? In other words, how do
they arrive at the condition in which the archaeologists discover them? There are two
ways in which an archaeological site is formed:
i) cultural, and
ii) natural.
These are known as the formation processes. The cultural formation processes mean
the activities human beings deliberately do at a place such as making and using artefacts,
building houses or abandoning them, digging pits for garbage disposal, discarding things
etc. or accidental activities such as the loss of things. The natural formation processes
primarily govern the burial of the site through natural events. For example, the forces of
nature like wind, water or animal activities bring changes in the nature of things that are
present at a site after their abandonment by humans. Wind, sun, rain erode structures
away slowly. The wind-borne sand or the sediments brought by the rains are gradually
deposited on the site. Sometimes, sites or part of sites are buried by sand deposit
caused by flooding.
The natural formation processes, also, are the agents which, sometimes, help in survival
of the archaeological record. For example, the city of Pompeii in Italy was buried under
the ash of volcano Mount Vesuvius when it erupted in 79 CE. The volcanic ash preserved
the city as it was in 79 CE. Similarly, extreme cold conditions such as those of snowy
areas like the Alps or the Arctic, or extremely dry conditions like those found in the
deserts or mountains preserve organic materials. The examples include mummies found
in the Egyptian pyramids or in the Andes mountains of Peru. Wetland marshy areas also
preserve organic materials such as wood, plant products etc. such as at the site of Star
Carr in Britain. Tropical climatic conditions with warm temperatures, humid and rainy
41
History of India climate, acidic soil, high vegetal growth and insect activity do not allow the survival of
from the Earliest ecofacts and can hamper the preservation of artefacts as well.
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.

LEFT: An Archaeological Mound, Kalibangan, Rajasthan. Credit: Dr. Deepak K. Nair.

RIGHT: An Archaeological Excavation in Progress. Credit: Dr. Deepak K. Nair.

2.3 METHODS: ARCHAEOLOGY IN THE FIELD

Archaeological fieldwork is the first major step in the collection of archaeological
evidence. There are two ways through which archaeological evidence is collected at
the field:
i) archaeological exploration or survey, and
ii) archaeological excavation.
We will explore these below.

2.3.1 Archaeological Exploration

Archaeological exploration involves the investigation of archaeological sites on the basis
of surface remains. In other words, the archaeologists investigate the sites without
excavating them, on the basis of what is found on the surface. This exercise begins with
trying to locate the archaeological sites. This is done by the archaeologists exploring a
region or a particular area for finding these sites. For this they use different methods.
Initially, the sites used to be identified through aerial surveys (using aeroplanes) by
locating high mounds, crop patterns and circles etc. With the advancement of technology
now this is done through satellite images and Geographic Information Systems (GIS).
Even with the availability of many different ways of surveying the ground-survey is the
most prominent method of finding and investigating archaeological sites. One such
physical method is village-to-village survey in which a team of archaeologists goes to
different villages and enquires about old settlements or remains of the past. This has
been extensively used in India. Another method employs a carefully designed plan for a
regional survey, dividing the whole area into a grid and subsequent divisions. The
archaeologists thoroughly explore all the selected grids or sampled units for any kind of
artefactual evidence or traces of human activity. Such intensive explorations help in the
discovery of new archaeological sites. In the Indian subcontinent some large-scale
archaeological surface surveys were:
 Vijayanagara Research Project (VRP),
 Vijayanagara Metropolitan Survey (VMS),
 Sanchi Survey Project (SSP),
42  Two Rains Project etc.
The locations of sites are noted with Global Positioning System (GPS) so that their Archaeology as a Source
pattern of distribution can be shown on a map. The locational analysis is significant for and Prominent
Archaeological Sites
understanding why people in the past selected certain areas for settlements. Further,
the finds are carefully observed: their locations, nature, quantities are recorded, taking
photographs and preparing drawings. Depending on the aims of the survey the artefacts
can also be collected as samples for further analysis.
Archaeologists use a battery of scientific techniques to know the past in a better way in
both explorations and excavations. In archaeological explorations the techniques such
as Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR), Electric Resistivity Survey, Magnetometry are
used which help us in knowing the nature of sites and buried structures or features
without excavating the site. These techniques are known as “non-destructive” since
they do not damage or alter the archaeological record in any way. In recent years the
Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) method has been very significant in the discovery
of buried structures. In this method an aircraft carrying a laser scanner over a particular
survey area rapidly pulses laser beams to the ground. It creates an accurate picture of
the ground according to its elevation. Through the help of various softwares then the
buried structures are identified. This technique is immensely helpful in areas where there
is very dense vegetation which is otherwise very difficult to explore. For example, the
use of LIDAR has brought to light new structural complexes of Mayan civilization in
Mesoamerica and a network of cities of the medieval Khmer Empire in Cambodia
otherwise famous for the temple complex of Angkor Wat.

2.3.2 Archaeological Excavation

Surface explorations provide important results which can help us in answering certain
questions about the past. However, the artefacts collected from the surface do not
belong to their proper contexts as their appearance on the surface is a result of activities
that have disturbed the original deposition. For example, erosion by rain, plowing,
animal burrowing etc. may lead to displacement of the archaeological deposit near the
surface. Therefore, for a deeper understanding of a site or various cultural phases in
their contexts archaeological excavation is undertaken. It involves systematically digging
of a site to carefully uncover material remains created and used by the human beings in
the past.
At the archaeological sites the remains are found of various archaeological cultures. In
1929 V. Gordon Childe defined an archaeological culture as certain types of remains –
pots, implements, ornaments, burial rites, house forms – constantly recurring together.
These types of remains vary according to time and space. Therefore, they are identified
as different archaeological cultures. Archaeological sites may be occupied by a single
archaeological culture or in the case of longer occupation, where people lived for
thousands of years, several archaeological cultures may be found. Successive
occupations of different cultures reflect their chronological sequence. In the Indian
subcontinent examples of various archaeological cultures include the Harappan culture,
the Painted Grey Ware culture, Jorwe culture etc.
Archaeological excavation primarily employs the concept of stratigraphy to understand
the chronological contexts of remains belonging to different periods. Derived from
geology, the concept of stratigraphy is based on the process of stratification. In geology
the sediments are deposited in layers or strata very slowly one over another. In this
process the layer or stratum that was lower is considered to be deposited first and
overlying successive layers deposited later. This is known as the law of superimposition.
At the archaeological sites the strata containing cultural and natural debris build up
more quickly than the geological ones but generally follow the law of superimposition. 43
History of India Therefore, in archaeological sites the first signs of occupation are found at the lowest
from the Earliest level and as the deposit reaches the top we see successive occupations with the most
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
recent one near the surface.

Section from Brahmagiri, Karnataka, India, Showing Three Cultural Phases with Overlaps.
Credit: Sir Mortimer Wheeler, Archaeology from the Earth (1954), Reprinted by Munshiram
Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2004, p. 50.

Depending on the aims of excavators there are two primary ways in which archaeological
sites may be excavated:
i) Horizontal, and
ii) Vertical.
The underlying notion of this is that broadly contemporary activities take place in wide
horizontal space and changes in such activities occur vertically through time. Therefore,
if we want to know in detail about a particular phase of the site or how people lived the
site may be horizontally excavated. In horizontal excavation a large part of the site is
excavated slowly to uncover contemporary structures and activity areas of a particular
phase. Conversely, in vertical excavation small areas are excavated but they cut through
the deposit down to the level of natural soil or when the site was occupied first. In this
44 way vertical excavations are able to provide a glimpse of chronological changes at the
site through time. In other words, vertical excavations tell us about successive occupation Archaeology as a Source
of the site in the different cultural phases. Both types of excavations have their merits and Prominent
Archaeological Sites
and limitations.
Archaeological excavation is a destructive process since it requires the removal of
deposit to uncover things. It is an irreversible process in which once excavated the
archaeological deposit cannot be restored. Therefore, archeologists take utmost care
in excavating and recording the details of the evidence. After excavation the finds are
processed for further studies.
Excavations cause a variety of material remains to be unearthed from a bygone era.
These material remains tell us the kinds of houses people lived in. Several questions
may be asked of this data such as:
 Were the structures made of burnt bricks or wattle-and-daub?
 Did they have wells, tanks, bathrooms, toilets, storage spaces, drainage, shrines
or places of worship etc. in their settlements?
 What sort of tools did they use?
 Were they engaged in long-distance trade?
 What may have been their social and political systems?
 How did they treat their dead?
These and many more aspects of past human life are brought forth by material remains
the people created and used.
The evidence collected through archaeological exploration and excavation helps us
immensely in understanding the past. The first process after the collection of artefacts
and other remains is classification. Classification is basically making sense of the whole
material assemblage by ordering them according to various attributes such as its raw
material, dimensions etc. For example, the classification of pottery according to attributes
such as size, shape, the clay used, surface treatment and so on helps us in understanding
the range of functions they may have served – from cooking and serving to ritualistic
use. Similarly, the classification of other objects such as beads, metal objects, stone
tools and so on provide us with the quantitative and qualitative information for further
analysis.

2.4 ANALYZING THE EVIDENCE

You will now see how the artefacts and ecofacts are studied to draw archaeological
conclusions. This section describes how the date of a site is determined, what was
traded, the flora and fauna in the surroundings etc.

2.4.1 Dating Methods

The primary question that arises in archaeological research is how old a particular
object or a site is? In other words, what time they belong to? Through traditional methods
such as typology, stratigraphic sequence and stylistic analysis broad conclusions can be
drawn about the chronology. This is known as relative dating. Annual growth of the
rings in trees, also, can be used for dating which is known as the Tree-Ring Dating or
Dendrochronology. However, with the availability of ever advancing new scientific
techniques we are able to now date with much more accuracy. The first breakthrough
took place in 1950 when Willard Libby developed a method of dating organic materials 45
History of India such as wood or bone called the Carbon-14 Dating. The most recent and advanced
from the Earliest method is the Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) dating technique which requires
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
a very small sample to produce results. This technique can date organic materials that
are up to 50,000 years old. There are other dating techniques such as Potassium-
Argon, Uranium-series, Fission track, Thermo-luminescence (TL) and Optical dating,
Electron spin resonance (ESR) and so on that use different materials and can provide
dates for contexts ranging from 50,000 to five million years ago. The basic premise for
dating an object or sample is to apply the dates obtained using these techniques to the
whole deposit or context in which it was found. Thus, the entire deposit is as old as the
sample.

Dating Method Material Range

Tree-ring Wood with visible tree- About 10,000 years BP
rings (Varies in regions)
Radiocarbon Organic materials that Up to 50, 000 years BP
contain carbon
Potassium- Volcanic rocks Older than 80,000 years
Argon/Argon-Argon BP
Uranium-series Rocks that are rich in 10,000-500,000 years
calcium carbonate; BP
teeth
Thermoluminescence Fired ceramics, clay, Up to 100,000 BP
(TL dating) stone or soil
Paleomagnetic dating Magnetized sediments, Very old deposits from
volcanic lava, clay hundreds of thousands
fired to 650-700° c. years to millions of
years ago
Electron Spin Bone, shell, tooth From thousands of years
Resonance (ESR) enamel to up to about a million
years ago
Fission track Certain types of rocks, From hundreds of
and minerals, obsidian, thousands years to
glass, mica etc. millions of years ago

Adapted from Renfrew, C. and P. Bahn, 2012.

2.4.2 Production Techniques and Processes

A variety of objects are recovered through exploration and excavation. Archaeology
informs us how they were made i.e. their production processes and how they were
used. Artefacts can be divided into two categories:
i) unaltered, and
ii) altered.
Unaltered objects do not experience a change in their nature after being fashioned into
an object, such as stone tools, wood objects, plant and animal fibers. Altered objects
include materials that change their nature and form during production process. Almost
all such materials require the control of heat in their production, like pottery and metal
objects.
46
Ethnoarchaeology and experimental archaeology help us in finding out how such objects Archaeology as a Source
were made and what their function was. The production process for pottery is now and Prominent
Archaeological Sites
described as an example. Clay is malleable and is used to make pottery. The pottery
production process passes through many stages of production: from acquiring the clay
to ultimately achieving the finished product. With the understanding developed through
ethnoarchaeology and experimental archaeology we can find out many details of the
production process like whether the pottery was handmade or wheel-made? Why are
some pots in shape and clay different from the others? For what purposes were the
different pots used? Such questions may be answered through ethnoarchaeology and
experimental archaeology.
Ethnoarchaeology
Ethnoarchaeology is a method adopted in archaeology to explain the
archaeological record by studying the present communities. In this method each
and every process related to a particular activity is observed. By keenly observing
each detail of the process attempts are made to understand what kind of pattern
these activities might generate in the archaeological record. For example, studying
the traditional pottery production techniques in the present may help in
understanding the ancient pottery. Especially, understanding the
Chaîne opératoire (sequence of operations) is useful in explaining patterns on
ancient pottery left by various processes during stages of production.
Ethnoarchaeological methods have been employed to a wide variety of studies in
archaeology that include inquiring about subsistence techniques such as hunting
and gathering, and they are more popular in understanding various craft traditions.
Thus, ethnoarchaeology is, essentially, studying the practices of communities in
present to answer archaeological questions.
Experimental archaeology
Under experimental archaeology to understand past behavioral processes the
archaeologists attempt to replicate experimental reconstructions under controlled
conditions. Unlike ethnoarchaeology where the tasks done by the communities
manufacturing particular objects in the present are observed the archeologists
themselves perform these experiments. Experimental archaeology has been
successfully applied in stone knapping which has helped in understanding how
flakes were removed during the reduction of core for making stone tools. Several
other studies have been done which include the reconstruction of processes such
as those to explain the transporting of huge blocks of dressed rocks and erecting
the structure at Stonehenge, England.
Microscopic techniques such as Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) study the minute
traces or microwear patterns left on the objects that can be compared with modern
experiments to determine how they were made. Minute traces of the organic residues
like plant juices may be found on tools if they were used for harvesting them. These,
too, can be studied.
Different techniques can be used on the same artefacts to answer different questions.
Sometimes, metal objects are made by alloying or mixing two metals. This can be
found out by using Trace Element Analysis. The microscopic metallographic examination
of ancient metal objects tells us the technique used to make the artefact – casting, cold
hammering etc. The sheer variety in such objects informs us about ancient technology
and the level of knowledge about pyrotechnology. The rustless Mehrauli iron pillar
dated to c. 4th century CE in the Qutub complex, Delhi is a good example of the
efficiency of such technology in the past. 47
History of India 2.4.3 Trade and Exchange
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E. Through archaeology we can understand how different communities engaged in trade –
whether by land or sea. When we find artefacts made of raw materials that are not
found locally it may be concluded that they came through trade. The distribution pattern
of such objects would tell us about the geographic extent the trade was spread in.
Techniques such as Petrographic Examination and Trace Element Analysis, X-Ray
Fluorescence (XRF) and X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) can distinguish local from non-
local objects and also point to the region they may have belonged to originally. For
example, through such studies on amphorae found at sites in India which were involved
in Indo-Roman empire trade around 2000 years ago we can narrow down the region
within the Roman empire from where different amphorae reached India. Such studies
also inform us about ancient trade routes and networks.

2.4.4 Environmental Archaeology

Human beings from the incipient stages of evolution have been living in continuously
changing environments. Several Ice Ages are examples of fluctuating environments in
the past that have affected them. Archaeology helps us in reconstructing past environments
on a global scale. The sediments on sea floors and stratified ice sheets contain evidence
of thousands of years of climatic history. Through the isotopic analysis of cores taken
from deep sea-beds and stratified ice-sheets past temperatures and patterns of rain
and wind can be found out.
Archaeo-botany and Archaeo-zoology: Archaeological sites contain plant and animal
remains which tell us how human beings subsisted on these and coexisted with them.
The study of ancient plant remains is called archaeo-botany. Plant remains found at
sites can be categorized as macro and micro botanical remains.
i) Macro-botanical remains are large enough to be seen by naked eye. They survive
generally in the form of grains, seeds, fruits etc. which may have been accidentally
or deliberately charred. During excavations they are found by dry or wet sieving
of excavated soil through a wired mesh. Another technique is called Floatation in
which soil samples are mixed in water and lighter organic materials that float are
separated, dried and identified. Sometimes, the plant remains or their impressions
can be seen in the clay of pottery, bricks or remains of wattle-and-daub. Wood
pieces are also recovered. To identify their species their microstructure can be
analyzed through Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM).
ii) The micro-botanical remains cannot be seen by naked eye and they are extracted
from soil samples taken systematically at the site. There are two major analyses of
the micro-botanical remains:
a) pollen analysis or Palynology, and
b) phytolith analysis.
The study of the pollen grains provides information of fluctuations in vegetation
through time, such as if there were forested lands with more trees or open grasslands.
Phytoliths are minute particles of silica derived from the cells of plants which survive
well in ancient sediments. They are found generally in hearths and layers of ash,
pottery, plaster, stone tools and even on animals’ teeth. The study of Phytoliths
tells us about the uses humans made of different plants.
The environment can also be reconstructed through animal remains found at the sites.
The study of ancient faunal remains is called zooarchaeology. Animal remains are divided
48 into:
 microfauna, and Archaeology as a Source
and Prominent
 macrofauna. Archaeological Sites

Microfauna include a wide variety of insectivores, rodents, bats, birds, fish and mollusks
etc. They provide important information regarding environment and climatic change.
This is concluded on the basis of environment conditions they require to breed and
thrive on. Macrofauna includes remains of large animals that are commonly present at
sites. They help in ascertaining the number of species present in the immediate
environment of the site. They are not considered to be very good indicators of the
environment as they can thrive on a wide variety of plants and can withstand wide
variations in temperature.

2.4.5 Diet and Subsistence

Apart from the information about environment, plant and animal remains also provide a
window into the diet and subsistence of people in the past. Diet refers to the pattern of
consumption over a long period of time. Through a number of ways we can deduce
what formed the diet of human beings in the past. The preserved macro-botanical
remains by desiccation, water-logging or charring may include grains such as wheat,
barley, maize, rice and so on. Through chemical residue analysis of cooking pots cooked
food can be identified in terms of whether it belongs to cereals or legumes. For example,
analysis of some amphorae sherds proves that these storage vessels actually contained
wine and olive oil.

Amphorae Sherds Excavated from Pattanam, Kerala. Photo Courtesy: Kerala Council for Historical
Research, Thiruvananthapuram.

Like plant remains, animal remains also provide information about human diet. However,
the bones of animals may arrive due to different reasons at the site and it is not necessarily
related to human consumption. Therefore, only those animal bones which show cut
marks from butchering are considered to have been consumed.
In very rare instances human remains directly provide evidence of what the human
beings ate as processed and prepared food. Information about individual meals can be
achieved through the analysis of stomach contents and the study of fossilized human
dung. The stomach contents rarely survive except in case of mummified bodies. Similarly,
fossilized dung, known as ‘coprolite’ and its study ‘coprology’, provides important
information about what people ate in the past. Coprolites contain a variety of macro
remains such as bone fragments, plant fibers, bits of charcoal, seeds, remains of fish,
birds, shell fragments and so on.
Bioarchaeology
As seen in the previous paragraph fossilized human remains can provide information on 49
History of India what was eaten. Other techniques such as isotopic techniques are used on bones in
from the Earliest order to determine the nutrition gained from food. This is based on the study of chemical
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
signatures left by different foods in the body that are reflected in teeth and bones. The
comparison of the ratio of nitrogen isotopes 15N and 14N, 15N and 13C indicate the
vegetarian and meat-based diet. Similarly, the age of weaning in children can be
determined through the analysis of nitrogen, as has been done at the site of Inamgaon
which is discussed in a later section. The concentrations of element strontium also provide
data on diet. Vegetarian diet is indicated by higher concentrations of strontium in bones.
Burials are a very important source of information about several elements including the
status in society. Generally, burials include grave-goods that can indicate the status of
an individual and their comparison can tell us about social difference. The presence of
valuable objects among them suggests high status of an individual. One of the means to
ascertaining value is by investigating if the grave furniture is rare, if it was traded from
far-off distances. For example, in the royal graves of Ur in Mesopotamia the Harappan
long-barrel carnelian beads have been found. In chiefdom and state societies this
difference is highly marked. High status may be achieved by an individual during his
lifetime. However, high status can also be ascribed as in the case of heredity. The child
burials with rich grave goods reflect such cases.

2.4.6 Investigation of Past Societies

Archaeological methods also help to investigate the social aspects of past human
societies. For comprehending the nature and scale of past societies anthropologist Elman
Service devised a four-fold classification of societies:
i) mobile hunter-gatherer groups,
ii) segmentary society,
iii) chiefdom, and
iv) the state.
Although criticized by the archaeologists, this framework, with some modifications, can
still be broadly used. Based on it their settlement analysis and excavations would suggest
differences in the nature of societies to which they belonged. The settlements of mobile
hunter-gatherer groups are temporary camps, the segmentary society’s permanent
villages, chiefdom’s fortified centres, and the ritual centers and the state society are
marked by cities, towns and frontier defenses.
Archaeology has also made progress in revealing the cognitive aspects of humans in
remote past. In other words, we can now attempt to understand the ways in which
people thought in past by systematically analyzing the material evidence they left behind.
The development of language which requires symbols and sounds to be used in a
particular manner hints towards the human beings’ ability to communicate using such
symbols. Some archaeologists think that some sort of language was developed by the
time of Homo-habilis refined further by Homo-erectus as reflected by their symmetrical
and beautiful acheulian hand-axes. The ability to produce such hand-axes in large number
suggests the presence of an effective communication system. To consciously bury their
dead is also considered to be an evidence of belief systems of the past.
The study of rock art provides valuable information about the past. The paintings and
carvings may depict a wide range of subject matter: from subsistence practices, human
figures, animals, plants, family scenes, social activities to ritualistic aspects. Paintings
also depict abstract patterns which may be symbolic of their beliefs. Archaeologists
50 have postulated several explanations regarding the rationale for making rock art.
 Archaeology as a Source
and Prominent
Archaeological Sites

LEFT: Paintings in Rock Shelter 8, Bhimbetka near Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh. ASI Monument
No. N-MP-225. Credit: Dr. Abhishek Anand
RIGHT: Paintings in Rock-Shelter 3, Bhimbetka. Credit: Dr. Abhishek Anand.

Religion is an integral part of identities and archeology helps in understanding past

religious practices. It does so using different categories of evidence from religious
structures such as the temple of Apollo at Delphi, the Sanchi stupa etc. Some figurines
and sculptures found during excavations at archaeological sites may have been
worshipped. Spaces are identified such as those of worship by the presence of sculptures
of deities that are, iconographically, well known. Excavations also identify scared spaces
where worship may have taken place, like the prehistoric shrine of Baghor I which has
been discussed in one of the following sections.
Recently, molecular genetics has impacted archaeology. The DNA analysis of ancient
burials is being used to reconstruct genetic relationships of various social groups and
lineages. The genographic projects based on the DNA analysis have established that
the whole human population on earth has a shared ancestry which goes back to the
branch of Homo-sapiens which evolved in Africa and migrated out of it. The Strontium
Isotope Analysis has also been used in understanding migrations in the past. The Strontium
isotopes vary in different geographical regions which leave distinct chemical signatures
on teeth which help in mapping out movement of the people.

2.4.7 Underwater Archaeology

Underwater archaeology is a branch of archaeology which investigates settlements that
have been submerged under water, such as settlements located near lake-sand coasts
in the past. Some parts or the entire area of old ports may be submerged underwater
due to rise in the levels of the sea or lake. Underwater archaeology also investigates
shipwrecks. Experienced marine archaeologists take multiple dives to explore, excavate
and record the remains of old settlements, ports or shipwrecks. From the Bronze age
itself various geographic regions were connected through maritime trade networks.
Shipwrecks of trading ships are like time capsules which sank with a wide range of
products they were carrying. Many shipwrecks have been discovered in the
Mediterranean sea which provide evidence of trade between the regions of Europe,
north Africa and the Levant from the Bronze age onwards. Through underwater
archaeology the submerged parts of old Alexandria, Egypt and shipwrecks like the
Titanic have been investigated. In India also marine archaeologists have discovered a
site of the late Harappan period – Bet Dwarka – where some stone structures and
stone anchors were found.
Geophysical methods are also used in underwater archaeology to find sites on the
seabed. Operated from a ship, techniques such as Multi-beam Side-Scan Sonar Survey
produce clear images and accurate measurements of shipwrecks.

51
History of India
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.

LEFT: Attribution: Hristakiev. Source: European Science Photo Competition 2015. Creative
Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International License (Wikimedia Commons).

RIGHT: A Shipwreck Engine Measured by Underwater Archeology. Credit: Dwi sumaiyyah

makmur. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Underwater_archaeology.jpg).

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1) What are the differences between archaeological exploration and excavation?

.....................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................

2) Enlist the various sources used in archaeology.

.....................................................................................................................

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2.5 SOME PROMINENT ARCHAEOLOGICAL

SITES IN THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT
Now we are going to look at the archaeological evidence at some prominent sites in the
Indian subcontinent. It is important to remember that archaeology is not restricted to
any time period and is based on material culture from its earliest creation to the
52 contemporary.
 Bhimbetka Archaeology as a Source
and Prominent
Bhimbetka is located in Raisen district of Madhya Pradesh and 45 km. to the south- Archaeological Sites
east of Bhopal. It was discovered by V. S. Wakankar in 1957. It is a complex of over
700 caves and rock shelters in the sandstone formations of the Vindhyan hills. Excavations
here revealed a long sequence from the lower Palaeolithic to Mesolithic in the form of
regular occupation. After Mesolithic some human presence and activities continued
intermittently till the historical period. Among all the historical phases here the Mesolithic
period is very well-defined with its microlithic industry and known for its magnificence
of rock art which primarily consists of paintings done in red ochre; although white,
yellow and green have also been used. These paintings represent naturalistic, figurative
and abstract art and include a wide variety of scenes such as:
 hunting,
 fishing,
 honey collection,
 dancing, and
 also some scenes that might be related to shamanism.

The earliest dates for the Mesolithic period at Bhimbetka go back to the 7th millennium
BCE. Due to its universal historic significance it was inscribed on the UNESCO’s
World Heritage list in 2003.

 Mehrgarh

One of the earliest village settlements in the Indian subcontinent, Mehrgarh is located in
the Bolan valley in the northern part of the Kacchi/Kachhi plain near Baluchistan in
present-day Pakistan. Excavations here have revealed seven occupational levels scattered
over an area of 200 ha. Period I and Period II are Neolithic and the subsequent ones
are Chalcolithic. The beginning of the Neolithic in the early levels here has been placed
in the 8th millennium BCE. People lived in the houses of small rectangular rooms made
of handmade mud-bricks. Among stone tools, Neolithic ground or polished axes were
found; although the blade-based microliths were abundant. Grinding stones, some bone
tools such as awl, needles etc. were also found.

Elaborate burials were found at a necropolis. They had a niche cut into one side of the
pit in which the body and grave goods were placed. It was sealed by a wall of mud
bricks. The body was covered with red ochre which may indicate a fertility related
belief. Among grave goods offered were bitumen lined baskets, copper and shell beads.
A few skeletons were found with headbands and belt like waist ornaments made of
shell beads and necklaces made of steatite beads. Turquoise and Lapis Lazuli beads
also occur which could have come from northern Baluchistan and Afghanistan. The
shell would have originated in the Makran coast, some 500 km. away. This shows that
very early in history exchange networks were established.

The early periods revealed remarkable information about the subsistence activities,
especially the transition from hunting-gathering towards an increasing reliance on animal
domestication and agriculture. A rich variety of plant remains were collected from here,
the harvesting of which is also made evident by stone blades set in bitumen, probably
used as sickles. The animal remains in the Neolithic period show clear transition from
hunting to animal domestication.
53
History of India
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.

The Archaeological Site of Mehrgarh, Photo of a Monument in Pakistan Identified as the BA-28.
Credit: mhtoori. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Mehrgarh.jpg).
 Harappa
Harappa is located in the Punjab province of Pakistan. It was the first site of Harappan
civilization to have been excavated in 1920; hence the civilization was named after it.
The size of the site is about 150 ha. It was located on the bank of river Ravi but now it
flows 10 km. away. Among several mounds of Harappa the citadel mound is located
on a higher area and the lower mound of the lower town to its south-east. The roughly
parallelogram shaped citadel was surrounded by a mud brick wall and with large towers
and gates. A Granary, 18 circular working floors and workmen’s quarters have been
identified to the north of the citadel (Mound F). Areas of the lower town revealed
various workshops where shell, copper, agate artefacts were made. Parts of the lower
town have revealed houses, drains, bathing platforms etc. At Harappa there are two
cemeteries – Cemetery H and R-37 to the south of the citadel mound.

The Archaeological Site of Harappa. ASI Monument No. N-PB-32. Credit: Shefali11011. Source:
Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ancient_
Harappa_Civilization.jpg).

 Mohenjodaro
The largest site of Harappan civilization – Mohenjodaro – is located in the Sindh province
of Pakistan, 5 km. away from the river Indus. The size of the site is about 200 ha.
encompassing two mounds – the citadel and lower town. The citadel area was built
over an artificial mud and mud-brick platform over an area of 400 × 200 m. On this
mound the Great Bath is an outstanding structure which represents the engineering
54
skill of the Harappan people. It is 14.5 m. long, 7 m. wide and 2.5 m deep. at its Archaeology as a Source
maximum. Other structures on this mound have been identified as a Granary, College and Prominent
Archaeological Sites
of Priests and an Assembly Hall. The lower town was divided into major blocks by
four wider streets that ran towards north-south and east-west. Remains of many houses
of different sizes were found in the lower towns, possibly indicating the difference in
status. In one of these houses was found the famous Priest-King stone sculpture. A
large number of shops and copper working, bead making, pottery making, shell working
workshops were also identified. Apart from bathrooms in the houses it has been estimated
that there may have been over 700 wells in Mohenjodaro which befits the estimated
population of the city also.

Excavated Ruins of Mohenjodaro with the Great Bath in the Foreground and the Granary Mound
in the Background. Credit: Saqib Qayyum. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mohenjo-daro.jpg).
 Dholavira
Dholavira is located on an island called Khadir Bet in the Rann of Kutch, Gujarat. With
over 100 ha., it is one of the largest mature Harappan sites in the Indian subcontinent.
Unlike other Harappan sites at Dholavira sandstone instead of burnt bricks has been
predominantly used in the construction of structures. Plan of the settlement also differs
with other settlements, as instead of the dual divisions of citadel and lower town here it
is divided into three:
i) castle-bailey,
ii) middle town, and
iii) the lower town.
An open area between the castle-bailey and the middle town has been identified as a
stadium possibly used for ceremonial purposes. The city boasted of a unique water
harvesting and management system. It is located between two streams on which dams
were built to channelize water into several large and rectangular reservoirs that were
located around castle-bailey, middle town and the lower town. Encasing these three
55
History of India divisions of the settlement and reservoirs was a fortification wall which had rectangular
from the Earliest bastions on each corner.
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.

LEFT: Tunnel at Dholavira. RIGHT: Meshed Well, Dholavira. Credit: Nagarjun Kandukuru.
Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tunnel_
(16496213599).jpg).

 Taxila
Taxila is located to the east of the Indus in Rawalpindi, Pakistan. Its importance is
reflected from Buddhist, Jain and Brahmanical as well as Greco-Roman texts.
Archaeologically it is the most extensively excavated ancient city site in the Indian
subcontinent. There are three mounds at Taxila – Bhir, Sirkap and Sirsukh – which
were successively laid out in the early historic period. Bhir is the site of oldest city which
began around 6th-5th centuries BCE and continued up to c. 2nd century BCE. During
the Mauryan period the plan of Taxila was haphazard. Four streets, five lanes and
associated houses have been identified. Some civic planning is indicated by the refuse
bins in open spaces and streets. The 2nd settlement was established at Sirkap in c. 2nd
century BCE. It was characterized by gird-planning with perfectly straight main street.
The settlement spanned for four centuries and represented pre Indo-Greek, Indo-Greek
and Shaka-Parthian periods. At the end of the 1st century CE the Kushanas laid out a
new city on the site of Sirsukh.

Remains of Buddhist Monastery at Jaulian, a World Heritage Site at Taxila. Photo of a Monument
in Pakistan Identified as KPK-14. Credit: ClicksByMohammadOmer. Source: Wikimedia
Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Jaulian_Buddhist_Monastery_
in_Taxila.jpg).

 Amaravati
Amaravati is located in Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh. It marked the site of
Dhanyakataka: the capital of the later Satavahanas. It flourished from c. 3rd century
56
BCE to 3rd century CE. There was a citadel surrounded by a huge mud fortification. Archaeology as a Source
There was a major Buddhist establishment here. The stupa here was the largest in and Prominent
Archaeological Sites
Andhra region and was referred to as a mahachaitya. The site of the stupa has its own
history of research, excavations and subsequent removal of the beautiful sculpted panels
and pillars of marble in the late 18th and 19th centuries. This resulted in the dismemberment
of the stupa and now only the remains of the drum of brick stupa and a few marble
railings exist at the site.

LEFT: Amravati Stupa Relief. Credit: Soham Banerjee. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Amaravati_Stupa_relief_at_Museum.jpg).
RIGHT: The Great Departure of Prince Siddhartha (Gautam Buddha), Amravati. Credit: sailko.
Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Andhra_pradesh,_la_
grande_dipartita,_da_regione_di_amaravati,_II_sec.JPG).

 Sanchi
Sanchi, located in Raisen district of Madhya Pradesh, is one of the most important
Buddhist monastic complexes in India. It is not associated with an event in the life of the
Buddha, but grew to prominence from the time of the Mauryan emperor Ashoka in c.
3rd century BCE. He is believed to have built the original stupa and installed a monolithic
Ashokan column at the site. Later, it received patronage not only from royal dynasties
such as the Shungas and Satavahanas but also lay devotees. In the Sanchi complex
there are several stupas but three of them are conspicuous due to their large size and
state of preservation. Others are smaller in size and include both structural and monolithic
or votive stupas. Stupa I is the largest which is also referred to as the Great Stupa. In
the excavations no relics were found in this stupa but in terms of architectural features
it is the most elaborate. Its diameter is 36.60 m. and its height without the railing and
umbrella is 16.46 m. The stone masonry dome of the stupa encases an earlier brick
stupa that was probably constructed by Ashoka. It is surrounded by a stone railing
(vedika) which has four toranas (monumental gates) on four cardinal directions. These
toranas were erected by the Satavahanas. There is a variety of subjects carved on
each torana which include scenes from the Jatakas, scenes from the life of the Buddha,
events in the subsequent history of Buddhism and so on.

57
History of India
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.

LEFT: The Great Stupa at Sanchi which contains the Relics of the Buddha, Eastern Gateway.
Credit: Raveesh Vyas. Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/32392356@N04/3311834772.
Photo Courtesy: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Sanchi_Stupa_from_Eastern_gate,_Madhya_Pradesh.jpg).

RIGHT: Ornamental Pillar Leading to the Sanchi Dome. ASI Monument No. N-MP-220. Credit:
Amigo&oscar. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Ornamental_Pillar_leading_to_Sanchi_Dome_(_N-MP-220).jpg).

LEFT: Depiction of Maya’s Dream at Sanchi, Stupa 1 Eastern Gateway. Credit: Biswarup Ganguly.
Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Maya%27s_dream_
Sanchi_Stupa_1_Eastern_gateway.jpg).
RIGHT: Procession of King Prasenajit of Koshala Leaving Shravasti to Meet the Buddha, Sanchi
Stupa 1 Northern Gateway. Credit: Biswarup Ganguly. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Procession_of_Prasenajit_of_Kosala_leaving_
Sravasti_to_meet_the_Buddha.jpg).

Stupa II is located little away from the main complex. Its vedika is elaborately carved
with decorative motifs but it is devoid of any toranas. The excavations yielded relics of
several Buddhist teachers. From stupa III the relics of Sariputra and Maudgalayana –
the two foremost disciples of the Buddha – were found. Apart from these monuments
there are remains of a large monastery. Sanchi lay along an important trade route near
a very prosperous merchant town of Vidisha. The patronage it enjoyed is evident by
numerous donative inscriptions. That it remained important in the Gupta period also is
attested by the presence of early structural temples at the complex. It flourished till the
13th century CE and after that fell into desolation until it was discovered by General
Taylor in the early 19th century CE.
Archaeology does not limit itself to the ancient period. Apart from the above mentioned
archaeological sites there are some excavated sites belonging to later periods as well.
Lal Kot and Vijayanagar are prominent among such sites. The excavation at Lal Kot,
Mehrauli, Delhi revealed two cultural periods:
i) Period I dated from the middle of the 11th century to the end of the 12th century
CE.
58
ii) Period II belonged to the early Sultanate period dated from the end of the 12th Archaeology as a Source
century to the end of the 14th century CE. The first Turk Sultans made their capital and Prominent
Archaeological Sites
in the Lal Kot area itself, which was later known as Dihli-i-kuhna (meaning Old
Delhi) when new capital cities were constructed in the plains of Delhi. The remains
of medieval Vijayanagar have been unearthed at its capital Hampi, Karnataka.
The Vijayanagara Research Project (VRP) and Vijayanagara Metropolitan Survey
(VMS) were two large scale archaeological projects that focused on the research
on Vijayanagar.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) What evidence do we have of early centres of domestication of barley and rice in
the Indian subcontinent? Discuss in the context of Mehrgarh.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
2) Describe various features of art and architecture at the prominent archaeological
sites related to Buddhism.
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2.6 SUMMARY
Archaeology helps in reconstructing the past through the study of material remains left
by humans. The data is collected in the field by surface explorations by field-walking
and employing a wide range of non-destructive scientific methods. Excavation at the
archaeological sites informs us about artefacts and ecofacts in their proper contexts.
After excavations, the analysis of a wide variety of evidence is done through methods
and techniques adopted from social sciences and natural sciences. They enable us in
dating the evidence, understanding past human behaviour, settlements, production
processes and past technologies, trade and exchange, subsistence and diet, and aspects
of social life such as status, religion, rituals and so on. The importance of archaeology
as a source is not limited to the ancient period but it can be extended to the material
remains of the medieval and even contemporary periods.

2.7 KEY WORDS

CE : Common Era. It is used in the place of Anno
Domini (AD): the year in which Jesus Christ was
born. Since the use of this era is not only restricted
to the Christian world but used commonly
worldwide it was labeled as the Common Era. 59
History of India BCE : Before Common Era. It is used in place of Before
from the Earliest Christ (BC).
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
BP : Before Present. Used in the radiocarbon dating
the present has been fixed at year 1950. For
example, 4950 BP will be converted as 3000
BCE.
Acheulian : A widespread early stone-age culture named after
the site of St. Acheul in France. It included multi-
purpose stone tools such as hand-axes and
cleavers. It was spread in Africa, Europe and
Asia. It is dated from about over 1.65 million
years ago to 100,000 years ago.
Assemblage : A group of artefacts found together in a single
context. It may also refer to the entire collection
of artefacts belonging to an archaeological
culture, like Harappan assemblage or a particular
type of artefact like pottery assemblage.
Debitage : Waste material generated during production of
stone tools and other crafts such as stone bead-
making.
Microwear : Patterns of edge damage due to use, polishing
or abrasion that can be analyzed only through
the microscope. Microwear analysis indicates
how the tools may have been used.
Petrography : The study of the composition of rocks. In
archaeology it is generally used in the analysis of
ceramics by identifying mineral components of
clay to find out from where the clay was brought.
Pyro-technology : The intentional and controlled use of fire by
humans. Heat treatment is essential in various
craft productions for which certain temperatures
are to be achieved and maintained as required.
Typology : It is a method of arranging types of artefacts into
sequences according to improvements in design
and efficiency in the case of functional tools and
changes in form and decoration in the case of
pottery and jewellery.
Wattle-and-daub : House walls that are made of wicker or reeds
woven around upright wooden posts and thick
layers of mud are applied on it.

2.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1

60 1) You should be emphasizing on the non-destructive aspect of surface survey and

 mention the techniques used in it. A limitation of exploration is that the surface finds Archaeology as a Source
are not in their original contexts. To understand the artifacts and ecofacts in their and Prominent
Archaeological Sites
proper context the sites are excavated. See the Section on exploration and
excavation.
2) You should be enlisting various methods and techniques which help in extracting
information from evidence. See Section 2.4.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) Consult the Sub-sections on Mehrgarh within Section 2.5.
2) Consult the Sub-sections on Amravati and Sanchi within Section 2.5.

2.9 SUGGESTED READINGS

Chakrabarti, D. K. (2001). India, an Archaeological History: Palaeolithic
Beginnings to Early Historic Foundations. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
Drewett, P. L. (1999). Field Archaeology: An Introduction. London: UCL Press.
Greene, K. (2002). Archaeology: An Introduction. London and New York: Routledge.
Renfrew, C. and P. Bahn. (2012). Archaeology: Theories, Methods and Practice.
6th ed. London: Thames & Hudson.

61
 UNIT 3 INDIAN HISTORY: PHYSICAL
FEATURES, FORMATIONS AND
CHARACTERISTICS*
Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Physical Geography and History
3.2.1 Environment and Human Settlements
3.2.2 Arguing Against Geographical Determinism

3.3 Basic Physiographical Divisions of India

3.4 Regional Physical Features
3.4.1 The Himalayan Uplands and the Western Frontier
3.4.2 The Indus Plains
3.4.3 Gangetic Northern India
3.4.4 Eastern, Western and Central India
3.4.5 Peninsular India
3.4.6 The Extreme South

3.5 The Dynamics of Regional Transformation

3.5.1 Uneven Patterns of the Emergence of Historical Regions
3.5.2 The Ceramic Evidence
3.5.3 The Literary Evidence

3.6 Force of Regions in Indian History

3.6.1 Notion of the Chakravartin

3.7 The Hierarchy of Regions

3.7.1 Major Geographical Influences
3.7.2 Nuclear Regions
3.7.3 Settlement Structure in Time and Space

3.8 Formation of Some Regions in Early India

3.8.1 The Gangetic Basin
3.8.2 The Tamil Country
3.8.3 The Deccan: Andhra and Maharashtra
3.8.4 Kalinga and Ancient Odisha
3.8.5 The North-West

3.9 Summary
3.10 Key Words
3.11 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
3.12 Suggested Readings

62 * This Unit has been adopted from EHI-02, Block 1.

 Indian History: Physical
3.0 OBJECTIVES Features, Formations
and Characteristics
After reading this Unit, you should be able to grasp and explain:
 why in the study of the history of a country an understanding of its physical features
is necessary;
 how we look at the physical features of India as students of history;
 the relationship between environment, geography and history;
 uneven pattern of historical growth in the Indian subcontinent;
 Why it is necessary to know about regions if one has to understand the different
stages of Indian history;
 How regions emerged; and
 In what way the nature of a region could differ from that of the other.

3.1 INTRODUCTION
History without geography is largely incomplete and devoid of its vital substance, for it
loses focus in absence of the concept of space. That is why history is regarded both as
the history of mankind and the history of environment. It is difficult to separate the two.
The history of humans and the history of environment mutually influence one another.
Soil, rainfall, vegetation, climate and environment exercise considerable influence on
evolution of human cultures. In fact, the essence of human progress is the increasing
emancipation of human beings from the clutches of nature or control of the vagaries of
nature. In this regard, technological progress helps human beings in conquering their
environment. However, not until a very late stage in history were the human beings able
to control their environment effectively. Naturally, thus, as we move back in time it
becomes necessary to appreciate and understand the geography, environment and
physical regions that had a bearing on Indian history. In this Unit we will try to acquaint
you with physical features of the Indian subcontinent which have had an important
bearing on its historical developments.
The Indian subcontinent is constituted by a number of regions and each region has
some special characteristics of its own. In the course of historical evolution of the country
the regions came to acquire special cultural features and in many ways – in the sense of
shared historical tradition, language, social organization, art forms etc. – it is possible to
recognize the differences between one region and another. In Indian history, therefore,
there have been dual processes of the evolution of common social and cultural norms
and institutions as well as consolidation of the structures of recognizable regions.
It has also to be remembered that in history the processes of the emergence of regions
have been uneven. Therefore, in the past, as induced even today, great dissimilarities in
the pattern of historical change existed between different regions, although no region
has ever remained completely isolated. This Unit is also concerned with elucidating the
processes of the formation of regions in Indian history and showing how they differed
from one another. An understanding of the nature of regions constituting the Indian
subcontinent is necessary to understand how the stages of the evolution of Indian society
varied in space and time.

63
History of India
from the Earliest 3.2 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.

Source: EHI-02, Block-1, Unit-1.

64
Variations of soils, topography, rainfall and climate have created a number of distinctly Indian History: Physical
different regions with their separate characteristics and identities. Physical regions often Features, Formations
and Characteristics
correspond to the culture zones or regions i.e. they tend to differ from one another in
the context and light of language, food, dress, crop pattern, population density, caste
structure etc. For example, in some areas like Uttar Pradesh and northern Bihar – the
fertile plains of Ganga Valley – population concentration is very high, while the
mountainous tribal central India is sparsely populated. Similarly, certain areas like
Magadha, Koshala, Avanti, Maharashtra, Andhra, Kalinga and the Chola country
emerged earlier as developed pockets while the others lagged behind. Historically, the
emergence of regions has, therefore, been uneven and different regions have been
characterized by differential characteristics which are largely related to and influenced
by geography and environment. To give another example, we find that wheat is the
staple food of people in Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar Pradesh while rice is the
principal crop and main component in the diet of people in eastern India viz. Bengal,
Bihar and Odisha. This is so because:
 different crops have different natural habitat zones,
 they tend to grow in specific natural environments, and
 in course of time they influence the dietary habits of people there.
Similarly, forms of irrigation differ from region to region:
 rivers and canals have been the most important form of irrigation in northern India,
 ponds have been very useful in eastern India, and
 tank irrigation has played a significant role in south Indian agriculture.
These variations do not mean that the rivers are unimportant in eastern and southern
regions. But, what they reflect is that people take recourse to different methods to
augment additional water sources in different regions, depending on what method is
most suitable for that particular region.
Geography and environment play a major role in the pattern of dresses also. For example,
we can compare and contrast the dress styles of the people of Kashmir, Rajasthan and
those living along the coasts. This, again, reflects the climatic and environmental effects.
While the riverine plains and deltas have given birth to and sustained advanced cultures
through the ages, the mountainous intermediate zone of central India has retained heavy
concentration of tribal population in various pockets. Thus, while the riverine plains are
liberally endowed by nature and have lives of their own, the isolated regions remained
unaffected by the advances made in other regions. Coexistence of different forms of
dress, food-habits and cultures in the subcontinent, therefore, can largely be explained
with reference to physical geography.
Regional differences and identities, greatly fostered by geography, have stood in the
way of the rise of durable, pan-Indian states in Indian history. Never was the whole
subcontinent a single political unit. This holds true for the Mauryan kingdom, the Delhi
sultanate, the Mughal empire as well as British India. At the same time it needs to be
emphasized that though these differences between regions, which are geographically
structured, have prevented the rise of pan-Indian states in our history yet at no period
have they created separate nationalities.

3.2.1 Environment and Human Settlements

The relationship between physical geography, human settlements and settlement patterns
is yet another important theme which deserves attention. For example, the Sindh region
65
History of India today is relatively warm and dry because of very low rainfall. However, we know that
from the Earliest the Harappan civilization flourished over large parts of the same region in the past.
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
Some scholars opine that the region in the past had wetter climate with, possibly, higher
rainfall and this enabled the civilization to give itself a high standard of living. It has also
been argued by some scholars that over-utilization of natural resources leading to
depletion of the natural vegetation cover, together with the onset of a drier climate, led
to collapse of the civilization by adversely affecting its subsistence basis (You will learn
about it in Unit 5). The inhospitable topography, together with a possible population
pressure on the land and resources, forced people to migrate out of core area of
civilization. The civilization, thus, faded out.
On the other hand, one is struck by the success of the Magadhan empire and by the
kind of political ascendancy it achieved. We can say that it was a product of convergence
of a number of factors:
 highly fertile soils,
 sufficient rainfall ensuring a rich annual paddy crop,
 proximity to iron ore mines and the sources of stone and timber of the Chhota
Nagpur plateau which is towards the south of Magadha,
 rivers provided for comfortable communication and trade,
 the closeness and continuity of settlements, facilitated in no small way by these
natural advantages, indicating great population density.
A combination of these factors helped the comfortable conquest of the northern Gangetic
plain. In fact, due to these reasons the Indo-Gangetic plains were way ahead of other
regions in terms of agricultural productivity and population base. The territorial expansion
over these plains provided the basis for the exercise of unquestionable political
supremacy. All this fits into a neat sequence – one deriving itself from the other. The
unquestionable political supremacy achieved by Magadha around 6th century BCE
was based on conquest of the northern plains which was blessed by favourable
convergence of necessary geographical factors such as soil, rainfall, vegetation, easy
communication lines and the availability of natural resources.
With the political ascendency of Magadha its capital Pataliputra became the capital of
northern India and continued to remain the imperial capital for many centuries.
Geographical reasons have been put forward to explain both the rise and fall of
Pataliputra. While in its early history surrounding rivers like Ganga, Son and Gandak
provided for natural defence and easy trade and transport, by the middle of the 1st
millennium CE they had become positive liabilities owing to perennial floods. It is known
that the Gupta and post-Gupta period was characterized by decline of trade and decay
of towns. With decline of the north Indian trade and commerce in the Gupta and post-
Gupta periods, the curtailed human movements and shifting away of the course of
Ganga the usefulness of rivers was reduced. One may add that to explain the decay of
towns in Gangetic northern India in the same period geographical explanations such as
deforestation of the hinterland and consequent reduction of rainfall have also been
suggested. These explanations may not always be correct but the examples definitely
suggest that the interrelationship between historical processes and geographical features
was always close.

3.2.2 Arguing Against Geographical Determinism

At this point it is important to remember that it is one thing to view the interrelationship
between physical features and unfolding of historical processes in a region but it is an
66 entirely different matter to perceive history in terms of geographical determinism.
Recognition of geographical factors helps in a better understanding of cultural Indian History: Physical
developments. This also largely explains different patterns of growth and development Features, Formations
and Characteristics
in divergent regions. However, geography and environment cannot be taken as some
kind of prime movers, for, after all, the natural regions are only areas of possibilities and
these possibilities are actualized through human intervention at the stage of their
technological attainments. It has been argued, “Nature determines the route of
development while man determines the rate and the state”. Thus, neither is the influence
of nature fixed nor is the man-environment relationship static. The limits set by nature
are conquered by human experience and by human being with their tools. This is an
ongoing process which continuously enriches the realm of human experience and expands
the frontier of man’s control over environment. Physical features and environmental
conditions that may appear unfavourable or difficult at one stage may prove to be
potentially rich at another. For example, the hunter-gatherers preferred to live on edge
of the forests while the incipient farmers had to come down to riverine plains. Here
again, the early farmers, in absence of an iron-ploughshare, preferred to restrict
themselves to lighter soils to the west of the Ganga-Yamuna doab. Only with the coming
of iron technology the peasantry could venture to open up the rich alluvial plains of
Gangetic north India and conquer thick vegetation and heavier, fertile soil.

3.3 BASIC PHYSIOGRAPHICAL DIVISIONS OF

INDIA
Let us now define physical features of the subcontinent and characteristics of the regions
created by them. The basic physiographic divisions are three:
i) Himalayan uplands,
ii) Indo-Gangetic plains and,
iii) Peninsular India.
Each one of these can be further subdivided. The Himalayas are considered to be still
rising. Large quantities of alluvium are continuously carried down into the plains from
these mountains owing to weathering and erosion. Fed by the Himalayan snows the
three great river systems – Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra – tend to flow perennially.
Alluvial plains of northern India extend in the form of an arc for about 3,200 km. from
the mouth of the Indus to the mouth of the Ganga. This stretch of land, about 320 km.
wide, is full of potentialities. Indus plains threw up first civilization of the subcontinent
while the Ganga plains have sustained and nurtured city life, state, society and imperial
fabrics from the 1st millennium BCE.
Northern plains and Peninsular India are separated by a large intermediate zone which,
in the absence of a better terminology, may be called Central India: extending from
Gujarat to western Odisha over a stretch of about 1600 km. The Aravali hills in Rajasthan
separate Indus plain from the peninsula. The intermediate zone is characterized by the
presence of Vindhyan and Satpura ranges and the Chhota Nagpur plateau covering
portions of Bihar, Bengal and Odisha. It can be divided into four sub-regions:
i) land of the Rajputs between Udaipur and Jaipur,
ii) Malwa plateau around Ujjain which was more popularly known as Avanti in ancient
times,
iii) Vidarbha or the sub-region around Nagpur, and
iv) Chhattisgarh plains in eastern Madhya Pradesh which bore the name Dakshina
Koshala in the ancient period. 67
History of India Although, generally speaking, communication and movement across the intermediate
from the Earliest zone were never easy there have been contacts between these four apparently isolated
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
pockets and between this region and the other physiographic divisions.
On southern edge of the intermediate zone or central India begins the formation called
the Peninsular India. It is an old land mass with every sign of stability. The rocky formation
gently slopes from west to east and four major rivers – Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna
and Kaveri – flow into Bay of Bengal. They have produced alluvial plains and helped
the creation of nuclear areas in plains and deltas, enabling the sustenance of cultural
growth for a prolonged period continuously through the ancient, medieval and modern
times.
Narmada and Tapti, however, have a westward flow and run into Arabian sea in Gujarat
after traversing a long distance in the hilly central India. The well known feature of the
region is the Deccan plateau which extends from Vindhyas in the north to the southern
limits of Karnataka. The black soil in Maharashtra and in the adjoining parts of central
India is especially rich, for it retains moisture and is considered to be “self ploughing”.
Therefore, it helps in overcoming other kinds of limitations imposed by less annual
rainfall and irrigational difficulties. The soil yields good crops of:
 cotton,
 millets,
 peanuts, and
 oil seeds.
Not surprisingly, therefore, the early farming cultures (Chalcolithic) in western and central
India emerged in this area. In the west the plateau terminates with the Western Ghats
and in the east its contours are marked by the Eastern Ghats which separate it from the
eastern coastal plains which are wider compared to the narrow plains in the west.
Nilgiris and the Cardamom hills are considered to be off-shoots of the basic peninsular
formation.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) Mark () the correct statements. The knowledge of physical geography:
i) helps in understanding the life patterns of people who resided in those regions,
ii) is of no help in determining the nature of cultural developments in the past,
iii) is not at all relevant for the students of history,
iv) confines you only to the study of regions.
2) Discuss the physical features responsible for the rise of Magadha.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
3) Fill in the blanks:
i) Geographical factors......................... (help us/do not help us) in determining
the factors behind the.............................. (rise and decline/flooding) of
Magadha.
ii) Human beings.................. (attempt to/successfully) control nature.
68
 iii) The basic physiographic divisions in India are.................. (five/two/three). Indian History: Physical
Features, Formations
iv) The intermediary zone may consist of.................. (basic physiographic/sub- and Characteristics
regions).

3.4 REGIONAL PHYSICAL FEATURES

Source: EHI-02, Block-1, Unit-1.

So far we have considered features of the broad geographic divisions at a general

plane. Let us now take up specific major geographical units which, at instances, conform
to the linguistic divisions and look into their physical traits from a historical perspective.

69
History of India 3.4.1 The Himalayan Uplands and the Western Frontier
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E. The Himalayan mountains can be divided into three zones or units, each having their
own specific characteristics:
 eastern,
 western, and
 central.
The eastern mountains run to the east of Brahmaputra, extending from Assam to south
China. Although routes through the eastern mountains are difficult, that has not prevented
the flow of cultural influences from south-east Asia and south China in prehistoric and
historic times. The central Himalayan range, extending from Bhutan to Chitral, lies at
the fringe of the great table-land of Tibet. There have been trade and cultural contacts
between India and Tibet across this frontier.
The narrow Hindu Kush range extends south-westward from the Himalayas deep into
Afghanistan, covering ancient Gandhara. Geographically and culturally, western
Afghanistan has affinities with eastern Iran but south Afghanistan has been culturally
close with the Indian subcontinent since Neolithic age. The Khyber and other passes
and the Kabul river link it with the Indus plains. It is no surprise, therefore, that the site
of Shortugai in this part of Afghanistan was a trading out-post of Harappan civilization.
Ancient towns like Kabul and Kandahar are situated on this route between Iran and
India.
The desert conditions of south-western Afghanistan are noticed in a more intense form
as one enters Baluchistan. Pastoralism has been a more profitable adaptational strategy
in the region since Neolithic times. The coast of Baluchistan, called the Makran coast,
is harsh and inhospitable for human settlements. When Alexander, on his way back to
Babylon from his Indian campaigns, led a section of his army across the Makran coast
he suffered heavy loss of his men because of the paucity of food and water. The region
has been some kind of a nodal point, for routes to central Asia and China on the one
hand and Persia and farther west, on the other, cut through it.
The great routes connecting Indian plains with Iran and centralAsia through Afghanistan
run through the Gomal, Bolan and Khyber passes. These routes have brought in traders,
invaders and varied cultural influences all through the historic times and even before.
Greeks, Shakas, Kushanas, Hunas and others made their entry into India through these
routes. In a vice-versa manner, Buddhism and other cultural influences of Indian
civilization, too, entered Afghanistan and central Asia through these passes. Thus,
historically, the Afghan and Baluchistan hills have acted as an important frontier-zone.

3.4.2 The Indus Plains

The passes lead to the rich plains of Indus which can be divided into two regions:
 Punjab, and
 Sindh.
Punjab (as it exists today divided between India and Pakistan) literally means the land
of five rivers. These five tributaries of the Indus, flowing across a vast alluvial plain,
have made the region the bread-basket of the subcontinent. The eastern part of these
plains merges into the Ganga basin. Punjab has been a meeting place and melting pot of
cultures. Pre-existing and intrusive elements of cultures have fused here. Strategic location
70 and prosperity of Punjab has always invited invaders.
The lower Indus valley and the delta constitutes Sindh. Geographically, it is situated Indian History: Physical
between the Baluchistan hills on the north-west and Thar desert on the south-east. Features, Formations
and Characteristics
There is evidence of its historical links with Gujarat. Rainfall in the region is extremely
low but the alluvial soil is very fertile. It produces large quantities of rice and wheat. As
mentioned earlier, the Indus plain had nurtured the subcontinent’s first urban culture
during 3rd-2nd millennium BCE. Two of its major cities – Harappa and Mohenjodaro –
are located in Punjab and Sindh respectively.

3.4.3 Gangetic Northern India

The Ganga basin, climatically, is more humid than the Indus region and annual rainfall
starting with 50 cms. in the Indo-Gangetic divide steadily rises to 200 cms. by the time
it reaches Bengal. The Ganga plains can be divided into three sub-regions:
 Upper
 Middle, and
 Lower.
The Upper plains in western and central Uttar Pradesh largely include the Doab. This
has been an area of conflict and cultural synthesis. There is increasing evidence of the
extension of the Harappan culture into this zone. It was also the centre of the Painted
Grey Ware culture and pulsating activity in the later Vedic period.
At the confluence of the Ganga and Yamuna at terminal point of the Doab is the city of
Prayagraj. The Middle Ganga plains correspond to eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
This is where ancient Koshala, Kashi and Magadha were situated. It was the centre of
city life, money economy and trade since c. 6th century BCE. This region provided the
basis for Mauryan imperial expansion and it continued to be politically important till the
Gupta period (c. 6th century CE).
The Upper and Middle Ganga plains are geographically defined by Himalayas on the
north and Central Indian hills on the south. Middle portion of the plains corresponds
roughly to the present-day state of Bihar and eastern Uttar Pradesh. The Lower plains
are co-terminus with the province of Bengal. The wide plains of Bengal are formed by
alluvium brought by Ganga and Brahmaputra. High rainfall in low-lying plains created
forest and marshy conditions which made early settlements in Bengal a difficult
proposition. The fertility of heavy alluvial soil could be exploited only with greater utilization
and control of iron technology. Urban culture spread into this region from the Middle
plains relatively late. Given the kind of environment, the ponds in Bengal have been an
observable feature from ancient times and fish has become staple diet of all sections of
people.
Ganga plains have nurtured maximum number of settlements and sustained highest
population density than any other physiographic region of the subcontinent. It has been
the heartland of Indian civilization from the 1st millennium BCE, through the classical
phase, up to the present. Adjoining the Bengal plains is the long Assam valley produced
by Brahmaputra. It spreads over more than 600 km. Culturally, Assam is close to
Bengal but in terms of historical development it emerges as a late starter like Odisha.

3.4.4 Eastern, Western and Central India

Central India, as we have noticed earlier, is an entirely different region and does not
have a central focal point. It is a hilly region where hills do not rise to any great height
but are broken by steep slopes and intersected by valleys. They normally run in an 71
History of India east-west orientation. However, the Aravalis in north-western part of this physiographic
from the Earliest division extend from south-west to north-east. They almost bisect Rajasthan, the desert
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
state. South-eastern part of the state to the east of the Aravalis is part of a sub-region
called Malwa. Because of fertility of the soil it yields good crops even in absence of
irrigation. Chalcolithic settlements are distributed in good numbers here. Given its
geographical location, it must have acted as a bridge between Harappans and other
Chalcolithic communities in central India and northern Deccan. Culturally, it emerged
as an extension of northern plains in later periods. In the east the Chattisgarh plains on
upper Mahanadi is a fertile minor region with good rainfall and paddy yield. From c.
4th-5th century historical developments there were akin to those in the rolling uplands of
western Odisha. There have been cultural and political interactions between the areas
due to geographical contiguity.
Most of what we have designated as Central India constitutes present Madhya Pradesh.
Movement from north to south is impeded by the Vindhya and Satpura ranges and by
Narmada and Tapti rivers. The Central Indian belt, especially southern Bihar, western
Odisha and eastern Madhya Pradesh, has been an area of tribal concentration.
Nevertheless, it has also been a zone of slow and steady penetration. Cultural influences
from adjoining regions have influenced and integrated tribals into the dominant caste-
peasant base of Indian society from early historic times and more so, from the Gupta
period.
Gujarat is situated on western fringe of the Central Indian belt. It consists of three
natural divisions:
 Saurashtra,
 Anarta (Northern Gujarat) and
 Lata (Southern Gujarat).
Semiarid wind blown soils characterize Anarta and the fertile area on western coast
constitutes Lata. The central peninsula of Gujarat is called Kathiawar. The low-lying
Rann of Kutch is another feature which during the monsoons turns into a swamp. In
spite of these physical sub-divisions Gujarat has a cultural identity and unity because it
is broadly bounded by the Vindhyas and Western Ghats in the east and by the desert on
the north. Although it appears to have been a zone of isolation, actually it is a region of
continuous ancient settlements dating back from the Harappan period. Saurashtra, on
account of its geographical closeness to the Indus, experienced an extension of Harappan
civilization. It has often been a transition zone between Sindh and lands farther west
and India. The plain here is enriched by alluvium brought from central Indian hills by the
Narmada, Tapti, Sabarmati and Mahi rivers. Because of its protected position and the
lengthy coast line Gujarat has been the focus of coastal and external trade for more than
4000 years.
To the south-west of the delta of Ganga at the eastern end of the hills of Central India
are the coastal plains of Odisha. They are centred largely on Mahanadi delta though
there are some other rivers too joining the Bay of Bengal on the same littoral. Western
Odisha is an extension of the central Indian hills and as mentioned earlier in the context
of Chhattisgarh plain it shares some of the same features. Thus, there are two
physiographic divisions in Odisha exhibiting uneven patterns of growth. The fertile coastal
plain with a richer agrarian base has provided a focal point and has been the centre of
socio-cultural development. Odisha began to develop her linguistic and cultural identity
late in the 1st millennium CE.
72
3.4.5 Peninsular India Indian History: Physical
Features, Formations
Deccan Plateau and the surrounding coastal plains define the contours of Peninsular and Characteristics
India. Coastal plains in the east and extreme south are broad while those in the west are
narrow. They are at their narrowest between Bombay and Palghat. The plateau is
divided into three major regions which largely correspond to the states of Maharashtra,
Andhra and Karnataka. Maharashtra, in addition to other areas, includes northern
Deccan plateau. Cultural influences have been diffused to south from Deccan and this
must have been possible because barring the Western Ghats there are no other dense
forests there. Maharashtra seems to have a natural boundary with Andhra, for the
boundary line coincides with the distribution of fertile black soil. Across the boundary
one encounters red soil of Telangana which fails to retain moisture. Therefore, Telangana
has become a land of tanks and other forms of artificial irrigation. The environmental
difference with a bearing on growth of early settlements and cultures could not have
been more striking. While the early Neolithic settlers in south-western Andhra based
themselves on pastoralism as an adaptational strategy, Chalcolithic communities of the
northern Deccan increasingly relied on agriculture. Karnataka includes south-western
Deccan which, except for small areas, is not covered by Deccan lava. In addition, a
part of Western Ghats and western coastal plain are included in the state. Southern part
of the state is better watered and more hospitable for human settlement than north. The
dividing line between Maharashtra and Karnataka is not marked by any natural features.
The limitations imposed by environment are amply borne out by the comparatively
poor cultural remains of Neolithic folks of the region.
Among the four south Indian states Andhra is the largest. It includes a number of sub-
regions like the rich coastal plains, Rayalaseema etc. North-western part of Deccan
plateau, as already mentioned, is called Telangana which is now a separate state. The
reddish soils are not rich and the main crops are:
 millets,
 pulses, and
 oil seeds.
In the eastern part of Eastern Ghats and Eastern coastal plain, from near about
Mahendragiri on borders of Odisha in the north to Tamil Nadu in the south, with the
combined Krishna-Godavari delta as its epicenter, are included in Andhra. It is essentially
a rice growing area. The area between two rivers on the coast, known in early times as
Vengi, is considered a ricebowl. Like the Raichur doab, between Krishna and
Tungabhadra it was fought over frequently all through ancient history.

3.4.6 The Extreme South

Deccan plateau fragments into isolated blocks like Nilgiri and Cardamom hills in extreme
south. They roughly divide western and eastern coastal plains. The wide eastern coastal
plain in south and its adjoining hinterland constitute Tamil Nadu. The littoral districts
produce an abundance of rice and the Kaveri plain and its delta constitute its epi-
centre. Rivers in the region being seasonal, the peasants of the region have relied on
tank irrigation since Pallava-Chola times. The unirrigated pockets produce:
 millets,
 pulses, and
 oil seeds.
73
History of India Interestingly, these ecological variations which supported alternative, at times interrelated,
from the Earliest ways of life are attested to in the earliest literature of the land: the Sangam literature.
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
Geographically, linguistically and culturally the region has evolved an individuality of its
own. The western coastal plain too broadens in extreme south and corresponds to the
region known as Malabar or the present state of Kerala. In addition to rice and other
crops Kerala produces pepper and spices which have been traded with the West since
post-Mauryan times. From Tamil Nadu the littoral is accessible through Palghat gap
and southern end of the Western Ghats. Relatively isolated by land, Kerala has been
open to sea and interestingly, first Christian and then the Muslim influence here came by
sea. It may be noted that both Kerala and Tamil Nadu are densely populated like the
plains of Ganga.

Source: EHI-02, Block-1, Unit-2.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1) Mark following statements as right () or wrong (×).

i) Eastern Himalayan region was not affected by cultural influences from China.

ii) Harappa is located in Punjab.

74
 iii) Ganga plain has nurtured the greatest number of human settlements. Indian History: Physical
Features, Formations
iv) The coastal plains of Deccan plateau are very broad between Bombay and and Characteristics
Palghat.

2) Fill in the blanks.

i) The Himalayas can be divided into........ (five/three) broad....... (regions/units).

ii) Rann of Kutch turns into a...... (sea/swamp) during ......... (Monsoon/Autumn)
season.

iii) Unirrigated lands in extreme south produce........ (wheat/barely/millets)

and........... (oilseeds/rice).

iv) Telangana has become a land of........ (rivers/tanks) and forms of artificial..........
(cultivation/irrigation).

3.5 THE DYNAMICS OF REGIONAL

TRANSFORMATION
Differences between regions and regional cultures go back in time and can possibly be
dated to the beginnings of adaptive subsistence strategies i.e. food production. Beginnings
of agriculture and agrarian economy in main river basins of the subcontinent, being
essentially a process and not an event, were spread over several millennia. While
Mehrgarh in Kachhi plain (now in Pakistan) experienced early agricultural activities
before c. 6000 BCE and Indus region experienced it in the 4th-3rd millennia, Gangetic
valley saw the advent of agriculture at Koldihwa (UP) in c. 5000 BCE, at Chirand
(Bihar) in second half of third millennium BCE and at Atranjikhera (in the Doab) in the
first half of the second millennium BCE. In Ganga valley, however, the beginning of full-
fledged, settled agricultural activity, farming villages and other associated traits like
emergence of towns, trade and state system go back to the middle of 1st millennium
BCE.

There were various pockets in central and Peninsular India where this transition took
place only in the concluding centuries of 1st millennium BCE. Similarly, in the river
basins of Ganga, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri agricultural communities flourished
and carried forward the civilizational process. At the same time, however, large pockets
in areas such as Assam, Bengal, Odisha, Gujarat and central India, being relatively
isolated or isolated regions, remained for a long time in a stage of primitive economy,
largely untouched by any such development. Finally, when transition to the historical
period took place in some of the relatively isolated regions there was not only a time
gap but also perceptible differences in the nature and formation of regions. Cultural
influences from the already developed regional epicentres had a formative bearing on
development processes in these isolated areas. It is no surprise therefore, that some
regions have advanced more rapidly than others and there are still others which have
lagged behind.

3.5.1 Uneven Patterns of the Emergence of Historical

Regions
Uneven pattern of cultural growth and differential configuration of historical forces in
numerous regions were, as we have seen, greatly influenced by geography. The uneven
75
History of India development of regions can be demonstrated through interesting historical situations.
from the Earliest For example, in the second half of the 3rd millennium BCE one encounters Mesolithic
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
cultures in Gujarat and at the same time Neolithic cattle-keepers were traversing the
landscape of Deccan. What is striking is that the mature, advanced Harappan civilization
coexisted with these cultures in other regions. Consequently, there is evidence of
interaction between cultures and regions at different levels of growth. Such tendencies
have persisted all through Indian history. To put it differently, while Indus and Saraswati
basins were colonized in c. 3rd millennium BCE the first large-scale agricultural
communities of Deccan, Andhra, Tamil Nadu, Odisha and Gujarat belong essentially to
Iron age and can be placed in second half of the 1st millennium BCE.

With the advent of iron we see rapid horizontal spread of material culture based on
settled agriculture. By c. 3rd century BCE we see a certain homogeneity in material
culture of Gangetic northern India and fringes of central India. Although on the basis of
geographical distribution of Ashokan inscriptions (dealt with in Units 13 and 14) a
certain measure of cultural uniformity is normally assumed for the subcontinent the process
of emergence of the early historical, literate period with a complex social structure in
area south of the Vindhyas acquired momentum during and after the Mauryas.

In fact, post-Mauryan period i.e. c. 200 BCE-300 CE was the formative period for
most of the Deccan and south India. Archaeological date from excavations at historic
settlements in these regions support this line of argument. It may be added that vast
areas of the intermediate zone or forested hills of central India were never thoroughly
colonized and, therefore, they continue to provide shelter and isolation to the tribes at
different stages of primitive economy. In the subcontinent civilization and a more complex
culture with hierarchical social organization reached different regions in different periods
and regional spread of a more advanced material culture was unevenly balanced.

3.5.2 The Ceramic Evidence

Pottery, because of its indestructible quality, is a reliable identifying mark of a culture
and an important archaeological source. Different cultures are identified by their
characteristic pottery. Ochre-Coloured Pottery Ware (OCPW) is dated earlier than c.
1000 BCE, Painted Grey Ware (PGW) is roughly dated between c. 800-400 BCE,
Black and Red Ware (BRW) lies in between the two, and Northern Black Polished
Ware (NBPW) is dated between c. 500-100 BCE. First three pottery types are largely
found in the Indo-Gangetic divide and upper Ganga valley including the doab. NBPW
has its centre of origin in middle Gangetic plain and spread out into central India and
Deccan during Mauryan period.

Distribution of pottery types gives us some idea of territorial limits of a culture and the
stages of its expansion. Indo-Gangetic divide and upper Ganga basin experienced the
emergence of a new cultural pattern first in the second half of 2nd millennium BCE and
then, there was a gradual eastward spread which, during the Mauryan period, seems to
have gone beyond the Gangetic heart land.

3.5.3 The Literary Evidence

The early Indian literature also provides evidence regarding geographical zones and
their expansion. The geographical focus of the Rig Vedic period was the Saptasindhu
(land of Indus and its tributaries) and Indo-Gangetic divide. In later Vedic period the
doab became epi-centre and in the age of the Buddha around 600 BCE middle Gangetic
valley (Koshala and Magadha) came into prominence. It may be mentioned that the
76
stages of geographical spread coincided with progress in material culture. The term
rashtra in the sense of territory came into use in later Vedic period and we see rise of Indian History: Physical
small monarchies and states in areas such as Kuru and Panchal. In the age of the Features, Formations
and Characteristics
Buddha 16 Mahajanapadas (large territorial kingdoms) emerged. With the exception
of Gandhara in the north-west, Avanti in Malwa and Asmaka in the Deccan the
Mahajanapadas were mostly concentrated in upper and middle Gangetic valley. Regions
such as Kalinga (ancient coastal Odisha), Andhra, Vanga (ancient Bengal), Rajasthan
and Gujarat find no mention in literature of that period, suggesting thereby that they
were yet to emerge on the historical stage.

Kingdoms to south of the Vindhyas like Kalinga were mentioned for the first time by
Panini in c. 5th century BCE. Tamil country in far south was yet to register its transition
to the historical period. Emergence and formation of the various regions, therefore, was
a long drawn out process. Hence, it is not surprising that difference in technological
intervention and socio-economic development of various regions has been at the root
of later cultural divergences.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1) Which of the following statements are right () or wrong (×)?

i) Uneven development of regions cannot be described through historical

situations. ( )

ii) Cultural developments in the already developed regions made a bearing on

isolated regions. ( )

iii) The process of emergence of regions has been even all over. ( )

iv) Different cultures are identified by their characteristic pottery. ( )

v) Literature is of no help in identifying regions. ( )

2) Discuss various kinds of pottery and the period they are associated with.

.....................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................

3.6 FORCE OF REGIONS IN INDIAN HISTORY

Village has been the basic socially organized unit in all regions, securing subsistence for
its inhabitants, supporting urban life, state structures and so on. However, some regions
exhibit a greater density of population, rural settlements and urban centres and have
regularly given rise to strong expansive states. They are also characterized by a continuous
record of settlement and habitation from Neolithic-Chalcolithic times. By contrast, other
regions do not share these traits. The difference between regions may be explained in
terms of:

 geography,

 manner and period of the spread of material culture, and 77

History of India  overall configuration of historical forces such as population, technology, social
from the Earliest organization, communications etc.
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
A combination of these factors helped in shaping and development of the personality of
regions.

Owing to the development of distinct and strong regional personalities and strength of
regional forces the Indian subcontinent was never completely politically united. Some
regions, owing to their inner strength, tried to expand and attain pan-Indian or supra-
regional status but such experiments were not entirely unqualified success stories. The
Mauryas, Tughlaqs, Mughals and British provided a semblance of political unity.
However, it must be noted that none of them succeeded in imposing political unity on all
geographic units and culture areas, though the British came very close to it. Central
India or broadly speaking, the intermediate zone and extreme end of Peninsular India
have always remained outside the pale of any strong, expansive pan-Indian power.
Again, the Vindhyas, as noticed earlier, have somewhat succeeded in separating the
histories of northern India and Deccan peninsula. Similarly, the Aravalis extending from
the mouth of Gulf of Cambay to the Delhi gap constitute another frontier line. In fact,
this has been a very effective border.

Nevertheless, the lower Indus basin and Gujarat have been historical and cultural centres
of activity for very long periods. Thus, while the large-scale centralized states did not
endure for long periods, the ancient kingdoms of Magadha, Koshala, Avanti, Andhra,
Kalinga, Maharashtra, Cheras, Pandyas, Cholas etc. continued to thrive under one
dynasty or the other and under one regional name or the other. Their remarkable
persistence may be explained in terms of the convergence of political and cultural
boundaries over most periods in these natural regions.

3.6.1 Notion of the Chakravartin

Chakravartin (universal emperor) which was an important ideal in ancient Indian
political theory sheds further light on the problem under discussion. The ideal
Chakravartin was supposed to become a universal conqueror and achieve universal
dominance. The realm of such a king (Chakravarti Kshetra) is equated by Kautilya’s
Arthashastra with the region between Himalayas and the sea. The said area, interestingly,
is coterminous with the Indian subcontinent. Later, many other writings also echo this
ideal again and again. The Ashvamedha sacrifice was performed by a ruler who claimed
the status of a universal monarch. In ancient Indian political ideas the Chakravartin
concept remained a vital force and kingship was always associated with universal
dominion.

However, neither Kautilya nor his successors describe how a pan-Indian empire was
to be administered. What seems possible is that the Chakravartin ideal meant
subordination of rivals, extension of authority over their territories and, thereby, expansion
of the empire. This does not mean that the subjugated territories always became a part
of a uniform administrative system or that a strict control was exercised over them. In
other words, it meant the exercise of a superior political power which had nothing to do
with such aspects as administrative regulation, management and organization.

In spite of such limitations of the ideal what is important is that its realization was prevented
by strong personality of natural regions and the strength of regionalism. However, the
desire to politically unite the subcontinent continued to linger on even if such aspirations
remained largely unfulfilled. This is largely borne out by inscriptions of the early historic
78 period when even petty rulers performed Ashvamedha sacrifices as evidence of their
might and made tall claims about the extent of their sovereignty and kingdom. This, in Indian History: Physical
fact, is a clear-cut example which highlights the difference between actual and ideal, Features, Formations
and Characteristics
and emphasizes the existence of a range of differentiated natural regions all through our
history.

3.7 THE HIERARCHY OF REGIONS

The term ‘region’, like the word ‘country’, is a broad inclusive term and in the present
context its meaning has to be clearly specified. Geographers and social scientists have
defined and delineated the regions differently, keeping in view the requirements of their
investigation. We have, thus, such expressions as ‘linguistic regions’, ‘caste regions’,
‘physical regions’, ‘natural regions’, ‘cultural regions’ etc. However, these regional
frontiers broadly correspond and appear to be co-terminus, though not always very
neatly. The boundaries of physical and natural regions converge. Natural regions happen
to be independent culture areas with their own configurations of language, caste, family
and kinship organization, and historical tradition. However, there need not be any
uniformity between two adjoining regions. Even in the geographically proximate regions,
as we have seen above, diverse forms of culture coexisted throughout history. The
patterns of historical development in the country and the regional unevenness of transition
to the historical stage suggest the existence of a hierarchy of regions. An understanding
of this hierarchy may focus on differential characteristics of regions and explain their
chronologically phased formation and emergence.

3.7.1 Major Geographical Influences

The “major structure-lines of Indian historical geography” or important geographical
features of Indian history such as the Narmada-Chhota Nagpur line or the line running
from Gulf of Cambay to Mathura, constituted by the Aravalis, have considerably
influenced the pattern of cultural diffusion in the subcontinent. We have four great divisions:

 Indus plains, prone to the influences from central and west Asia,

 Gangetic plains, which begin on the Delhi-Mathura line and have absorbed all
kinds of political and cultural influences coming through the north-western frontier,

 Central Indian intermediate zone, with Gujarat and Odisha as the two extreme
points, and

 Peninsular India, south of Narmada.

To north and west of the Aravali line the overall cultural landscape appears to be different.
Only some areas of Rajasthan and Gujarat responded to the mainstream of cultural
development of Gangetic valley in the early historical period.

The difference is somewhat clearer in the case of Punjab. After the Rigvedic period
there seems to have been an arrested growth in Punjab. The persistence of non-
monarchical janapadas in the region till the Gupta period suggests autonomous
development. It also indicates weak property in land and poor agricultural growth.
Absence of land-grant inscriptions – a feature common in Gupta and post-Gupta times
in rest of the country – from Punjab plains strengthens this assumption. Brahmanism
never had deep roots in Punjab plains, nor for that matter did the Varna structure
become wholly acceptable. The Brahmanas rarely played an important role in society
and the Kshatriyas soon faded out. The Khatris who claim to be Kshatriyas are
usually found in professions associated with the Vaishyas. 79
History of India Punjab, thus, provides a good example of both late historical transition and regional
from the Earliest variation from the perspective of Ganga Valley. Similarly, the Narmada-Chhota Nagpur
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
line is a major divide, for barring Gujarat, Maharashtra and Odisha the rest of cultural
regions to the south of this line have a somewhat different individuality, being largely
influenced by Tamil plains in the formative period. They share a separate zone of kinship
organization and caste hierarchy. Maharashtra, because of its contiguity with Malwa
which shares the Deccan lavas and has been great bridge between Ganga valley and
Deccan, has had a different pattern of growth. It may not be out of place to mention
that all major movements and territorial expansion into south have taken this route.

3.7.2 Nuclear Regions

In Indian history we see the early emergence of some regions as perennial bases of
power. In such regions we observe an uninterrupted succession of powerful kingdoms.
In contrast, there were other less favoured regions too. Geographers and historians,
thus, speak in terms of perennial nuclear regions, areas of relative isolation and areas of
isolation. The perennial nuclear regions correspond to the major river-valleys such as
the Ganga, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri, and they have been areas of
attraction for human settlements. Availability of resources and convergence of trade
and communication routes have added to their importance. Logically, they have emerged
as important centres of power. Let it, however, be remembered that geography and
resource potentials only provide possibilities or set limitations and the nuclearity or
otherwise of a region is linked with how the historical factors converge on it. There are
historical examples of the Kakatiya state of Warangal or the Chalukya state of Gujarat
emerging outside the nuclear regions and such examples can be multiplied. Areas of
relative isolation such as country of the Bhils, Bastar and Rajmahal hills, in terms of the
structure of settlements, agrarian history, social organization and state systems, differed
from the nuclear regions. Because the regions developed historically, the distinction
between the three types of regions was not unalterably fixed once for all. Transformation
from one category to the other was possible at a certain point.

3.7.3 Settlement Structure in Time and Space

Settlement structure of regions did not remain static. They comprised villages, hamlets,
towns and cities. Some regions like middle Ganga plain and Deccan were endowed
with a greater number of towns. As we proceed to post-Gupta period the urban centres
die out. There is an increasing evidence of agrarian expansion and emergence of new
rural settlements. In some cases the earlier tribal hamlets were transformed into peasant
villages. There were differences between the Brahmana and non-Brahmana settlements
at the level of economic activity and social stratification. These differences gradually
extended to areas which had initially remained peripheral to mainstream developments.
They experienced transition from tribalism to more complex social structures. For
example, the basis for rise of organized religion and state and of class society was laid
in these regions. This transition would imply a proliferation of new settlements in these
regions and a rise in population. Regions with a higher population density have always
played a leading role in Indian history. Ganga valley, Tamil plains and the east coast
were all regions with a higher density of population. Areas with resource potential and
other attractions were naturally densely populated and a steady supply of manpower
always added to the military strength of the state.

80
Check Your Progress Exercise 4 Indian History: Physical
Features, Formations
1) Discuss the factors which hindered political unification of the Indian subcontinent. and Characteristics

.....................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................

2) Discuss what you understand by the concept of Chakravartin.

.....................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................

.....................................................................................................................

3) Fill in the blanks:

i) Natural regions happen to be.................... (independent/dependant) culture

areas.

ii) Diverse forms of culture.................... (never existed/co-existed) in history.

iii) Cultural developments in Punjab were .................... (different/similar) to

those of Gangetic valley.

iv) Regions with a............. (higher/lesser) population density have played a

leading role in Indian.................... (Astronomy/History).

3.8 FORMATION OF SOME REGIONS IN EARLY

INDIA
Ganga-Yamuna doab, Middle Ganga valley, Malwa, Northern Deccan, Andhra, Kalinga
(coastal Odisha) and Tamil plains are major perennial nuclear regions which emerged
quite early as bases of power. But, there have been smaller areas as well (which may be
called sub-regions) which have preserved their individuality. Konkan, Kanara and
Chhattisgarh fall in this category. Some areas such as the Raichur doab between Krishna
and Tungabhadra and Vengi between Godavari and Krishna have been continuously
fought over for their agricultural resource potential which could add immensely to strength
of the adjoining regions. Major nuclear regions have been major agricultural areas with
vast expanses of fertile alluvial. Let us now look into dynamics and pattern of the formation
of regions by taking up a few illustrative examples.

3.8.1 The Gangetic Basin

Ganga plain, by virtue of its high agricultural productivity and rich population base, has
81
History of India enjoyed a dominant position in the Indian subcontinent. No other region has had a
from the Earliest comparable power base. However, the entire plain, as mentioned earlier, is not a
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
homogeneous geographical piece. We have already seen that middle Ganga plains, for
a variety of reasons, emerged more successful than the upper and lower plains and by
the time of the Mauryas had attained undisputed hegemony in the subcontinent. During
the Rig Vedic period the centre for this was Indo-Gangetic divide. In the later Vedic
period around 1000 BCE the geographical focus shifted to Ganga-Yamuna doab. With
it the eastward movement of Vedic people had begun. However, the more important
developments were beginnings of settled agrarian life with the help of plough yoked to
oxen and consequently, emergence of the idea of territory and territorial kingdoms
(Rashtra, Janapada). Kuru and Panchala are good examples of such territories. By
6th century BCE process of the emergence of Janapadas tended to accelerate. For the
first time we come to see growth of Mahajanapadas which incorporated smaller
Janapadas and the contemporary literature puts their total number at 16.

Dense jungles had to be cleared for habitation by fire and metallic tools. In the paddy
growing middle Ganga valley surplus-generation was made possible by the deep
ploughing iron ploughshare. It was necessitated by growing population, a section of
which like the rulers, officials, monks and priests did not engage in any kind of direct
production. Agricultural surpluses helped in rise and growth of towns. Distinctive pottery
of the period was the NBP which appeared around 500 BCE. Simultaneously, we
come across the first system of coinage. The need for it was generated by regular trade
and commerce. The spread of NBP from Koshala and Magadha to such far-flung
areas as Taxila in north-west, Ujjain in western Malwa and Amaravati in coastal Andhra
suggests existence of organized commerce and a good communication network which
linked these towns among others. These developments were accompanied by sweeping
social changes. Settled life helped in shedding pastoral arid tribal traits. Later Vedic
people came into closer touch with the autochthons and there is evidence in later Vedic
literature of this interaction and inter-mingling. These developments together with some
kind of division of labour first and next, the diversification and specialization of
occupations produced conditions congenial for the rise of caste system within the four-
fold varna frame.

The emergence of Janapadas and Mahajanapadas (explained later in Unit 10) signalled
sweeping social, economic and political changes. Grama (village), nigama (a bigger
settlement where commercial exchange also took place) and nagara (town) were usual
components of the Janapada. Woods and jungles (vana) were also parts of it. A
Janapada was basically a socio-cultural region. It provided the basis for state formation
which actualized in 6th century BCE. Together with the rise of Mahajanapadas we
notice the growth of Mahanagaras (big cities) and concomitant affluent and
impoverished social categories. The process under discussion came into its own and
blossomed fully in middle Ganga valley during Mauryan period. State society had, thus,
arrived and the state was willing to make use of powerful religious systems such as
Brahmanism, Buddhism, Jainism and so on to maintain itself and the social order. With
these developments the Gangetic northern India emerges into full view of history.

3.8.2 The Tamil Country

Anthologies of early Tamil poems collectively known as the Sangam literature provide
a vivid account of transition to a state-society in the ancient Tamil country (Tamilakam/
Tamilaham) from an earlier tribal-pastoral stage. They indicate simultaneous existence
82
of different ecological regions and suggest how different but interrelated life-ways ranging Indian History: Physical
from food gathering, marginal agriculture, fishing and cattle-tending to intensive agriculture Features, Formations
and Characteristics
co-existed. In fertile river valleys (Marutam regions) of Kaveri, Periyar and Yaigai
agricultural surpluses were produced and these precisely were the stronghold of three
ancient clan chiefs: Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas. Although the scene in the centuries
preceding the Common Era was dominated by warrior chiefs, cattle-raids, war and
booty, slowly people began to settle down as peasants and gradually a stratified society
emerged with the peasants, bards, warriors and chieftains as principal categories. Cult
of war catapulted warrior groups under their chiefs to a dominant position. The peasantry
looking for protection and immunity from raids and plunder tended to be absorbed into
a system in which a rudimentary state came into existence. The process of state formation
was accelerated by:

i) Roman trade in early centuries of the Common Era,

ii) Rise of towns, and

iii) Penetration of northern Sanskritic (Aryan) culture along with the Brahmanas.

In early centuries of the Common Era there was growing importance of Roman trade.
Simultaneously, there was a rise in inland trade within Tamilakam and between
Tamilakam and the Deccan. Kerala was an integral part of Tamilakam during this
early period. Numerous minor chieftaincies in hilly, marginal agricultural zones were
increasingly brought within spheres of the three kingdoms. Socially, the process is reflected
in formation of caste society with peasants being reduced to the Shudra status. The
basis of the emergence of state was, thus, laid in early Tamil Nadu.

3.8.3 The Deccan: Andhra and Maharashtra

In Andhra and northern Deccan the iron-using Megalithic communities which followed
the Neolithic-Chalcolithic cultures provided base for settled agriculture and helped in
the transformation of these regions. High yielding paddy cultivation was resorted to in
the occupied coastal tracts of Andhra during 5th-3rd century BCE. Megalithic burials
have produced evidence of :

 rudimentary craft specialization,

 a rudimentary exchange network which transported mineral resources to northern

Deccan, and

 status differentiation.

There is evidence of a profusion of Black-and-Red ware sites suggesting a possible

rise in population. The transformation of Megalithic phase from around the 3rd century
BCE marks the beginnings of change in a largely egalitarian, ranked society into a
stratified society. By 2nd century BCE there is evidence of metallic money, Roman trade
and urbanization. Both inscriptions and archaeology reveal the existence of a number of
towns in Andhra and Maharashtra during this period. By this time Buddhism had spread
in Deccan and we see the growth of monasteries and Buddhist centres. In the meantime
another kind of development had begun in the form of the historical spread of the
Mauryan state which accelerated the pace of these developments.

With the coming of Mauryas the Megalithic culture gave way to early historical settlements.
Many urban centres and monasteries in Deccan, some of which emerged as nodal 83
History of India points, date to that period. It is precisely this interaction that led to the emergence of
from the Earliest localities in Deccan. Localities may be taken to approximate, to use a north Indian
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
parallel, the term Janapada. The emergence of localities seems to be a significant
development by the time of Satavahanas. They provided basis for early historic state
formation in Deccan. From 2nd century BCE we see gradual expansion of agricultural
settlements and integration of new communities. First, the monasteries and Buddhism
and later, the Brahmanas and Brahmanism helped the process of social integration.
There developed a triangular relationship between settled communities, state and the
monasteries and or the Brahmanas. The historical process advanced further under
Ikshvakus in coastal Andhra, Kadambas in Karnataka and Vakatakas in Maharashtra.
By the middle of 1st millennium CE the two regions registered their distinct individual
presence.

3.8.4 Kalinga and Ancient Odisha

The land of Odisha, like Deccan, experienced significant changes from around 4th- 3rd
century BCE. Between c. 300 BCE and c. 300 CE the history of Odisha is one of the
internal transformations of tribal society. The transition was partly autonomous and
partly stimulated by contracts with Sanskritic culture of Gangetic plains the beginnings
of which can be traced back to the times of Nandas and Mauryas. The subsequent
period i.e. 4th-9th centuries experienced emergence of a series of sub-regional states in
different pockets of the region. Specificities of the emerging pattern were well laid by
10th century CE. The process, however, was not uniform nor evenly spread.

Littoral zone of the deltaic coast experienced transition to historical stage earlier than
the inland forest tracts and rolling uplands which have much in common with the adjoining
Chhattisgarh and Bastar sub-regions. Tribal situation in central and western Odisha
accounted for the arrested and uneven process of transformation in the region. Large
concentration of tribals and physiography of the land prevented a repetition of the
Gangetic socio-economic pattern. Caste society within the varna structure was late to
emerge in Odisha and when it did, there was a difference in broad essentials. In terms
of social structure Odisha presents an interesting case of regional variation.

3.8.5 The North-West

It must be clear that very little has been said so far about Sindh and Baluchistan in
north-west. This is mainly because of their peripheral location. For much of the early
historical period they were cut off from the mainstream of cultural development by the
Great Indian Desert. This is not to argue that the area was culturally barren. In our
period of study whenever anything of consequence happened there it was mostly in
relation to central Asia, Afghanistan or Persia (Iran). It was only from the Kushana
period that these areas formed a part of a supra-regional political system which included
a major part of northern India. However, in north-west the Gandhara region was an
exception.

As early as the 6th century BCE Gandhara was listed among the 16 Mahajanapadas.
Bimbisara, the king of Magadha, had diplomatic contacts with the king of Gandhara.
Taxila – the capital of Gandhara – was a centre of learning and trade. It had a wide
economic reach. There is evidence of its trade with Mathura, central India and the
Romans. Owing to its geographical location Gandhara continued to be a meeting place
of various people and cultures. In the last quarter of 6th century BCE the region was
politically a part of Achaemenid (Persian) empire. There is evidence of continuous
84
urban life at Taxila from c. 500 BCE to c. 500 CE. However, the urban life was at its Indian History: Physical
peak between 2nd century BCE-2nd century CE. This is the period when the celebrated Features, Formations
and Characteristics
Gandhara school of art flowered which is generally described as Graeco-Buddhist in
content because it is seen to be a product of interaction between Hellenistic art and
Buddhism. However, increasingly it is being realized that the Gandhara school had a
Bactrian substraction too. Therefore, the influence of Bactrian school in the formation
of Gandhara school cannot be brushed aside. The point that we are trying to make is
that:

i) Firstly in the north-west, Gandhara provides a different picture of development

which contrasts with Sindh and Baluchistan, and

ii) Secondly, in early centuries of the Common Era the personality of the region was
shaped by different influences because of its very geographical setting.

Check Your Progress Exercise 5

1) Which of the following statements are right () or wrong (×)?

i) Gangetic basin is a homogeneous geographical base. ( )

ii) The need for coinage was generated through trade and commerce. ( )

iii) Janapada provided the basis for state formation. ( )

iv) Sangam literature throws no light on state formation in the ancient Tamil
country. ( )

v) Development of Gandhara region was shaped by different cultural influences.

( )

2) Fill in the blanks:

i) Agricultural surpluses helped in the.......... (growth/decay) of towns.

ii) Rise of.................... (Janapadas/Mahajanpadas) led to the growth of

Mahanagaras.

iii) High yielding......... (wheat/paddy) cultivation was taken up in coastal Andhra

during...... (5th-3rd/1st-2nd) century BCE.

iv) The............ (non-tribal/tribal) situation in Odisha arrested the transformation

in the ..................... (sub-continent/region).

85
History of India
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.

Source: EHI-02, Block-1, Unit-1.

86
 Indian History: Physical
Features, Formations
and Characteristics

Source: EHI-02, Block-1, Unit-1.

3.9 SUMMARY
Physical divisions in the subcontinent are often roughly co-terminus with linguistic regions.
The latter, in turn, have developed and asserted their cultural identities. People of different
physical divisions have varied tastes, food-habits and dress sense. This is derived from
environmental setting, mode of life and the manner of resource utilization that has evolved
within their frontiers. Uneven pattern of growth both between and within macro-regions
may be explained with reference to the availability or non-availability of resource
potentialities and form of human and technological intervention. Major river basins of
the country which have an annual rainfall between 50 and 100 cm. and are capable of
sustaining agricultural communities on a large scale have been fully colonized through
the ages. Areas with lesser or greater rainfall suffer from problems of aridity and thick
jungle vegetation respectively and are not best suited for agriculture. There is a striking
correlation between the optimal rainfall zone and the areas cleared for cultivation in the
subcontinent. The unfolding of historical process, therefore, has neither been even nor
uniform all over.

87
History of India Himalayas in the north and ocean in the south, south-west and south-east create a
from the Earliest superficial view of isolation of the subcontinent. Cultural influences have been exchanged
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
across these frontiers and there have been maritime contacts with west, west Asia and
south-east Asia. Internally even the rugged, difficult terrain of central India has not
really impeded the movement of ideas and influences between varied regions of the
country. Admittedly, geography and environment influence historical developments
considerably even if they do not determine it entirely.
A general survey of the problem of regions and regionalism in our history and the examples
cited in this Unit trying to explain the process of formation of regions very clearly show
that the socio-cultural differentiation of regions is historically old. The emergence of
natural physical regions as historical/cultural regions can be traced back to the formative
period of Indian history. Subsequently, these regions evolved their distinct socio-cultural
ethos leading to the emergence of separate socio-political entities. Some regions surfaced
earlier and faster than the others owing to the early convergence of certain historical
forces in them. Developments in other areas were triggered off by interaction with and
cultural diffusion from these primary centres. This may partly explain differential traits of
varied regions.
The regional variation expressed itself more conspicuously in many forms such as
language, architecture, sculpture and caste system in the Gupta and post-Gupta centuries.
Almost all regional languages evolved during the said period. Simultaneously, region-
specific caste structures emerged. Such differences existed not only between regions
but also within regions. Although the regions tend to be somewhat homogeneous units
the persistence of sub-regions within regions cannot be ignored either. Already we have
seen that the Gangetic north India is not all one homogeneous region. Ecological variations
within ancient Tamilakam/Tamilaham (Tamilnadu) also need to remembered. The
same holds true for Andhra, Odisha, Punjab and Gujarat. Sub-regions had their ancient
names too. However, changing political patterns and the configurations of sub-regions
were responsible for grafting new inclusive broad-based names on areas that earlier
had different names. Regions as territorial units emerge through historical process and
to understand Indian history one has to understand their characteristics and the process
of their formation.

3.10 KEYWORDS
Adaptational Strategy : Manner in which adjustments are made to a new
environment or culture by human beings.
Autochthons : Indigenous, native, aboriginal.
Alluvial Plains : Plains formed by deposition of silt, sand etc. by
a river.
Caste-peasant Base : Referring to the early settled agricultural society
whose members were socially classified along
caste lines. These members were dependent on
the produce of those of their counterparts
engaged in cultivation.
Chalcolithic Settlements : Settlements which represent an age when both
stone and copper artifacts were used.
Colonized : Settle in a colony.
88
Concomitant : Along with. Indian History: Physical
Features, Formations
Dynamics : Pattern of change; development and growth in and Characteristics
any field.
Epicentre : Centre of the origin of an earthquake.
Ethos : Character, disposition of a community or culture.
Formative : Giving shape, moulding.
Frontier-Zone : Area at the outskirts of an agricultural settlement.
Normally, such an area has some socio-
economic links with the main settlement. For
example, the nomads moving around such an area
will supply milk, sheep skin, wool etc. to the main
settlement.
Geographical Contiguity : Areas physically adjacent or side by side.
Littoral : On the sea coast.
Painted Grey Ware Culture : Culture associated with grey coloured pottery
found in the Ganga doab region.
Pastoralism : It relates to the occupation in which animals are
reared.
Physiographical Divisions : Refers to physical/geographical divisions of India.
Social Stratification : Division of society according to rank, caste and
strata.
Static : Lacking vitality.
Technological Intervention : Impact of new techniques and knowledge in
developing resource potential of a region.

3.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) i)
2) Your answer should include high fertile soils, irrigation facilities, proximity to various
resources like stone, timber etc. See Sub-sec. 3.2.1
3) i) helps us, rise and decline
ii) attempt to
iii) three
iv) sub-regions
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) i) × , ii), iii), iv) X
2) i) three, units 89
History of India ii) swamp, monsoon
from the Earliest
TimesUpto C. 300 C.E. iii) millets, oilseeds
iv) tanks, irrigation
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
1) i) ×, ii), iii) ×, iv), v) ×
2) Hint: OCP, PGW and give their dates. See Sub-sec. 3.5.2
Check Your Progress Exercise 4
1) Your answer should include the development of strong regional personalities;
strength of regional personalities; strength of regional forces etc. See Section 3.6
2) See Sub-section 3.6.1
3) i) independent, ii) coexisted, iii) different, iv) higher, history.
Check Your Progress Exercise 5
1) i) ×, ii), iii), iv) ×, v)
2) i) growth, ii) Mahajanapadas, iii) paddy, 5th-3rd, iv) tribal, region.

3.12 SUGGESTED READINGS

Chakrabarti, D. K. (2014). Aspects of Historical geography. In D. K. Chakrabarti and
Makkan Lal (eds.) History of Ancient India. Volume 1, Prehistorica Roots,
Vivekananda International Foundation and Aryan Books International, Delhi, pp. 3-
21.
Chattopadhyaya, B. D. (1984). A Summary of Historical Geography of Ancient
India. Calcutta.
Chaudhuri, S. B. (1948). Regional Divisions of Ancient India. In Annals of the
Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Vol. 29, No. 1/4, pp. 123-146.
Gadgil, Madhav and Guha, R. (1992). The Fissured Land: an Ecological History of
India. New Delhi.
Gadgil, Madhav and Thapar, Romila (1990). Human Ecology in India: Some Historical
Perspectives. In Interdisciplinary Science Reviews, Vol. 15, no. 3.
Law, B. C. (1954). Historical Geography of Ancient India, Paris.
Singh, R. L. (ed.) (1971). India. A Regional Geography. Varanasi.
Spate, O. H. K. and Learmonth, A. T. A. (1972). India and Pakistan, A General
and Regional Geography. 4th edn., London.
Subbarao B. (1958). The Personality of India. Baroda.

90
UNIT 4 HUNTER-GATHERERS:
ARCHAEOLOGICAL
PERSPECTIVE, ORIGIN OF
AGRICULTURE AND
DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALS*
Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Palaeolithic Age
4.2.1 Palaeolithic Tools
4.2.2 Palaeolithic Sites
4.2.3 Subsistence Pattern
4.3 Mesolithic Age
4.3.1 Mesolithic Tools
4.3.2 Mesolithic Sites
4.3.3 Subsistence Pattern
4.4 Neolithic Culture
4.5 The Earliest Farmers
4.5.1 Nile Valley
4.5.2 Early Farmers of Western Asia

4.6 Early Farmers of the Indian Subcontinent

4.6.1 North-Western Region
4.6.2 Neolithic Culture of Kashmir Valley
4.6.3 Early Farmers of Belan Valley
4.6.4 Neolithic Culture of Bihar/Mid-Ganga Valley
4.6.5 Early Farmers of Eastern India
4.6.6 Early Farmers of South India
4.6.7 Neolithic Cultures of Upper, Central and Western Deccan
4.7 Summary
4.8 Key Words
4.9 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
4.10 Suggested Readings

4.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you will be able to learn:
 the various ways to study the pre-historic hunter-gatherers;
 about the archaeological evidences which enable us to reconstruct their history;
 about their subsistence-pattern; and
 about the kinds of tools they used, and to what extent pre-historic art helps us in
knowing about their organization.
* This Unit has been adopted from EHI-02, Block 1. 91
History of India This Unit also deals with the origins of agriculture and the beginnings of domestication
from the Earliest of animals before the age when metals came to be used. Cultivation of cereals and
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
developments in agriculture transformed the nomadic hunter-gatherer into a sedentary
farmer. This led to the beginning of village settlements and manufacturing of new types
of tools. This stage of human development is referred to as the Neolithic Age. After
studying this Unit you will also be able to learn about:
 the characteristic features of the Neolithic culture,
 the archaeological evidence in the forms of new types of stone tools, cultivated
plants etc. which demonstrate the beginning of cultivation,
 the patterns of agriculture in West Asia and the Indian subcontinent, and
 the various crops which were cultivated in different regions of the Indian
subcontinent.

4.1 INTRODUCTION
It may seem unbelievable to us, living in the 21st century, but it is true that human societies,
during more than 99% of their existence on earth, have lived as hunter-gatherers. This
means that before human beings started producing food about 10,000 years ago they
lived off the resources of nature. This they did by gathering various edible items like
roots, fruits, sudd, honey and so on which nature had to offer and by killing animals,
birds and fish available in the surroundings in which they lived. Their total dependence
on nature or their environment during major part of human existence has many
implications. It means that the way they acquired their food influenced the character of
their relationship with nature and also how they viewed nature. Secondly, the hunter-
gatherers existed in groups that were also related to the mode of acquiring food. What
may be noted is that the formation of groups among them was much more flexible than
in other societies.
Considering the very, very long span of time for which the human societies have been in
the hunting-gathering stage it is important that we learn about this stage of human history.
There are various areas in the world where human beings still live as hunter-gatherers.
It is, thus, necessary that we learn something about their cultures in addition to learning
about how culture changes in human history. How do we learn about hunter/gatherers?
We get considerable amount of information about different aspects of the hunter-
gatherers’ way of life, their social organization and their environment from the works of
ethnographers/anthropologists who study living human communities. Their works provide
us with useful insights into the conditions of life of hunting-gathering communities.
However, for the past communities we depend primarily on the works of those
archaeologists and scientists who have specialized in discovering, studying and analyzing
the tools these communities made, the remains of animals they killed and ate, and the
kind of environment they lived in. This method which involves coming together of many
academic disciplines takes into consideration many categories of evidence including
study of animals, plants and other organic remains when archaeologists associate them
with human communities of the hunting-gathering stage and this gives an insight into the
character of the immediate physical environment of the early man and the way it was
utilized.
Since the tools made by hunter/gatherers have survived in the form of stone tools,
archaeologists use different terms like paleoliths, mesoliths to classify tools of different
types and periods. The stones which were used for making them and the techniques
employed in giving them shape are also studied in detail by archaeologists. The faunal
study or the study of animal remains provides a framework which can serve as a reference
92 point for measuring variations in the pattern of pre-historic faunal exploitation. Rock
carvings and paintings also give us an idea about economy and society of the pre- Hunter-Gatherers:
historic people. Archaeological
Perspective, Origin of
Agriculture and
4.2 PALAEOLITHIC AGE Domestication of
Palaeolithic culture developed in the Pleistocene period (about two million years ago). Animals
It is the geological period referring to the last or the Great Ice Age. It was the period
when ice covered the earth’s surface. In India there has been considerable discussion
among archaeologists regarding the terms denoting stone tools of the Palaeolithic phase:
 One group of scholars wanted to introduce the term ‘Upper Palaeolithic’ for
denoting the phase characterized by tools like blade and burin;
 The other group considered the term ‘Upper Palaeolithic’ specific to European
Palaeolithic culture. Now the term ‘Upper Palaeolithic’ has been widely accepted
in the Indian context.

Middle Palaeolithic Sites (after V. N. Misra, 1989). Source: MHI-08, Block-2, Unit-5. 93
History of India
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.

Distribution of Upper Palaeolithic Sites in India. Source: MAN-002, Block-5, Unit-3.

94
4.2.1 Palaeolithic Tools Hunter-Gatherers:
Archaeological
Palaeolithic culture has been divided into three phases on basis of nature of stone tools Perspective, Origin of
Agriculture and
made by human beings as well as due to changes in climate and environment:
Domestication of
Tools of lower Palaeolithic phase include mainly: Animals

 hand-axes,
 cleavers,
 choppers, and
 chopping tools
Middle Palaeolithic industries are based upon flakes, and
the upper Palaeolithic is characterized by
 burins, and
 scrapers
Let us discuss in detail some of the tools of this period and to what use were they put:
1) Handaxe: Its butt end is broader and the working end is narrower. It might have
been used for cutting and digging purposes.
2) Cleaver: This has a biface edge and is more or less transversal. It was used for
clearing and splitting objects such as the trunks of trees.
3) Chopper: A massive core tool in which the working edge is prepared by unifacial
flanking and used for chopping purposes.
4) Chopping Tool: It is again a massive core tool like chopper but the working edge
is bifacially prepared by alternate flanking. Used for similar purpose as the chopper,
it was more effective due to its edge being sharper.
5) Flake: A desired crude shaped tool produced by applying force on the stone.
The flake carries positive bulb of percussion on its surface and the core has a
corresponding negative bulb of percussion. The point at which the hammer-stone
strikes is called the point of percussion and on the flake struck off there is round,
slightly convex shape around this point called the positive bulb of percussion. On
the core there is corresponding concave bulb called the negative bulb of percussion.
There are many flaking techniques like:
 free flaking technique,
 step flaking technique,
 block-on-block technique,
 bipolar technique etc.
6) Side Scraper: It is made of a flake or blade with continuous retouch along a
border. It might have been used for scraping barks of trees and animal skins.
7) Burin: It is like flake or blade and the working border is produced by the meeting
of two planes. The burin’s working border does not exceed 2-3 cm. in length. It
was used for engraving on soft stones, bones or walls of rock shelters and cores.
95
History of India
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.

Palaelolithic Tools: A) Cleavers; B) Choppers; C) Chopping tools; D) Side scrappers;

E) Burin; F) Flakes

4.2.2 Palaeolithic Sites

Let us now see in which regions of India archaeologists have found these tools fashioned
by the hunter-gatherers. The distribution of their tools will tell us not only about the
areas in which they lived and moved but also about their environment.
Let us start from the extreme north:
i) The Kashmir valley is surrounded by Pir Panjal hills on the south-west and the
Himalayas on the north-east. A hand-axe was discovered near Pahalgam in Kashmir
on the river Lidder. However, Palaeolithic tools are not found in large number in
Kashmir because Kashmir was intensely cold during the glacial times. The Potwar
region (present-day west Punjab and Pakistan) lies between Pir Panjal and the
Salt Range. This area was experiencing tectonic movement and the rivers Indus
and Sohan originated in this process. The Sohan valley yielded hand-axes and
choppers and the important sites which have yielded such tools are:
 Adial,
 Balwal, and
 Chauntra.
The banks of the rivers Beas, Bangange and Sirsa have also yielded Palaeolithic
tools.
ii) The Luni river complex (Rajasthan) has many Palaeolithic sites. The river has its
source in the Aravalis. Chittorgarh (Gambhirs basin), Kota (Chambal basin) and
Negarai (Berach basin) have yielded Palaeolithic tools. The Wagaon and Kadamali
rivers in Mewar are rich in middle Palaeolithic sites. A variety of scrapers, borers
and points have been discovered in this area.
iii) Rivers Sabarmati, Mahi and their tributaries (Gujarat) have yielded many
Palaeolithic artefacts. Sabarmati rises in the Aravalis and flows into the Gulf of
96
 Cambay. Middle Palaeolithic artefacts have been reported from Bhandarpur near Hunter-Gatherers:
Orsang valley. River Bhader in Saurashtra is rich in Palaeolithic assemblage and Archaeological
Perspective, Origin of
hand-axes, cleavers, chopping tools, points, borers and scrapers have been Agriculture and
reported from its banks. Kutch area has produced many Palaeolithic tools like Domestication of
cleavers, hand-axes and choppers. Animals
iv) Narmada rises in the Maikal range and flows into the Gulf of Cambay. Its terraces
are rich in Palaeolithic sites. Many hand-axes and cleavers have been reported.
Bhimbetka (near Bhopal) located in the Vindhyan range is a site in which tools
representing Acheulian tradition were replaced at a later stage by the middle
Palaeolithic culture.

Pre-Historic Rock Shelter at Bhimbetka. ASI Monument No. N-Mp-225.

Credit: Dr. Abhishek Anand.

This cave is called the Zoo-Rock Cave due to copious drawings of animals. Bhimbetka.
Credit: Dr. Abhishek Anand.

v) Rivers Tapti, Godavari, Bhima and Krishna have yielded a large number of
Palaeolithic sites. The distribution of Palaeolithic sites is linked up with ecological
variation like erosional features, nature of soils etc. The Tapti trough has deep
regur (black soil) and the rest of the area is covered mostly by medium regur.
There is scarcity of Palaeolithic sites in the upper reaches of Bhima and the Krishna.
From Chirki near Nevasa in Maharashtra Palaeolithic tools like hand-axes, chopper,
cleavers, scrapers and borers have been reported. The other important Palaeolithic
sites are Koregaon, Chandoli and Shikarpur in Maharashtra.
vi) In eastern India, river Roro (Singhbhum, Bihar) is rich in Palaeolithic tools like
hand-axes, bifacial chopping tools and flakes. From Singhbum many Palaeolithic
97
History of India sites have been reported and the main artefacts are hand-axes and choppers.
from the Earliest Palaeolithic tools have also been reported from the valleys of Damodar and
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
Suvarnarekha and distribution pattern of the Palaeolithic culture here is, again,
conditioned by topographical features.
Baitarani, Brahmani and Mahanadi rivers form the deltaic region of Odisha and
some Palaeolithic tools have been found in this area. The Buharbalang valley in
Mayurbhang (Odisha) has many early and middle Palaeolithic tools like:
 hand-axes,
 scrapers,
 points,
 flakes, etc.
vii) From Malprabha, Ghatprabha and affluents of the Krishna a number of Palaeolithic
sites have been reported. In Ghatprabha basin in Karnataka Acheulian hand-axes
have been found in large numbers. Anagawadi and Bagalkot are two most important
sites on the Ghatprabha where both early and middle Palaeolithic tools have been
found. Rivers Palar, Penniyar and Kaveri in Tamil Nadu are rich in Palaeolithic
tools. Attirampakkam and Gudiyam (Tamil Nadu) have yielded both early and
middle Palaeolithic artefacts like:
 hand-axes,
 flakes,
 blades,
 scrapers, etc.

4.2.3 Subsistence Pattern

There is a rich assemblage of animals both of indigenous and foreign origin. Primates,
many giraffe-like forms, musk-deer, goats, buffaloes, bovids and pigs seem to be of
indigenous origin. The camel and horse had North-American connection. Hippopotamus
and elephants migrated to India from central Africa. The migratory routes lay east and
west of the Himalayas. However, the wave of migration of most of the immigrant animals
was along the north-west borders. There was great deal of interaction between India
and Africa.
As regards the relationship between the Palaeolithic human beings and their resources
faunal remains give us some idea about their subsistence-pattern. These remains suggest
that people were primarily in a hunting and gathering stage. It is likely that the balance
between number of human and the animal population of the area in which they lived and
moved to ensure food supply would have been maintained. The people would have
made extensive use of faunal and floral resources in their immediate vicinity. Hunting
practices were concentrated on large and middle sized mammals, especially ungulates
(a type of animal). At the same time, deer, rhino, and elephant seem to have been
hunted. There is no evidence of selective hunting in this period. In some assemblages
few species dominate; it is so because of their abundance in the area and also because
they were easy to hunt. It seems that the subsistence patterns of hunter-gatherers were
geared to a dry season/wet-season cycle of exploitation of plant and animal foods. It is
likely that the Palaeolithic people subsisted on such animals as:
 ox,
 bison,
98
 nilgai, Hunter-Gatherers:
Archaeological
 chinkara, Perspective, Origin of
Agriculture and
 gazelle,
Domestication of
 black buck antelope, Animals

 sambar,
 spotted deer,
 wild boar,
 a variety of birds, and
 tortoises and fishes,
and on honey and plant foods like fruits roots, seeds and leaves.
It is argued that items which were gathered and constituted their diet are generally far
more important than the animals which are hunted in the context of modern surviving
hunter-gatherers. It has been also observed that debris from the gathered part of the
diet normally survives far less than the debris from the hunted part. It is difficult to work
out on this basis the diet pattern of the Palaeolithic people because we do not have
much evidence of people and plant relationship for the past as we have for present day
hunter-gatherers. It is likely that Palaeolithic people would have been taking animal diet
along with products of wild plants.
Rock paintings and carvings also give us an insight into the subsistence-pattern and
social life of Palaeolithic people. The earliest paintings belong to the upper Palaeolithic
age. Bhimbetka located in the Vindhyan range is well known for continuous succession
of paintings of different periods. Period-I belongs to the upper Palaeolithic age and
paintings are done in green and dark red colours. The paintings are predominantly of:
 bisons,
 elephants,
 tigers,
 rhinos, and
 boars.
They are usually large, some measuring two-three meters in length. There is need to
work out the frequency of different types of animals to have a more precise idea about
the hunting life of Palaeolithic people. But, hunting is reflected as the main subsistence
pursuit in the carvings and paintings. It is sometimes possible to distinguish between
men and women on the basis of anatomical features. These paintings also reflect that
the Palaeolithic people lived in small band (small groups) societies whose subsistence
economy was based on the exploitation of resources in the form of both animal and
plant products.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
Note: Read the following questions carefully and mark the right and most appropriate
answers.
1) Which period of social evolution represents the hunting-gathering stage?
a) Palaeolithic Age
b) Mesolithic Age
99
History of India c) Palaeolithic and Mesolithic Age
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E. d) Neolithic Age
2) How are prehistoric hunter-gatherer societies studied?
a) With the help of literary sources
b) With the help of numismatic sources
c) With the help of epigraphic sources
d) With the help of archaeological remains
3) Pleistocene period was :
a) Very cold
b) Very warm
c) Temperature was mild
d) Very dry
4) The Palaeolithic culture has been divided into three phases on the basis of:
a) Change in the climate
b) The nature of stone tools
c) Faunal remains
d) Nature of stone tools and change in climate and faunal remains
5) Palaeolithic economy was based on:
a) Food Production
b) Hunting
c) Gathering of products of wild plants
d) Hunting of animals and gathering of products of wild plants

4.3 MESOLITHIC AGE

The Mesolithic age began around 8000 BCE. It was the transitional phase between
Palaeolithic and the Neolithic age. There was rise in temperature and climate became
warm and dry. The climatic changes affected human life and brought about changes in
fauna and flora. The technology of producing tools also underwent change and small
stone tools were used. Man was predominantly in hunting-gathering stage but there
was shift in the pattern of hunting from big game to small game hunting and to fishing and
fowling. These material and ecological changes are also reflected in rock paintings. Let
us examine some of the tools used during this period.

4.3.1 Mesolithic Tools

The Mesolithic tools are microliths or small stone tools. They are very small in size and
their length ranges from one to eight cm. Some microliths have even geometric forms.
Blade, core, point, triangle, lunate and trapeze are the main types of Mesolithic tools.
Besides these, Palaeolithic tools like scraper, burin and even choppers also continue
during the Mesolithic age. Let us have a look at the characteristics of Mesolithic tools:

100
 Hunter-Gatherers:
Archaeological
Perspective, Origin of
Agriculture and
Domestication of
Animals

Mesolithic Sites in India (after V. N. Misra, 1989). Source: MHI-08, Block-2, Unit-5.

i) Blade: Blade is a specialized flake with parallel to sub-parallel to lateral edge, its
length at least twice its width. It might have been used for cutting purposes. The
technique of Mesolithic blade production is called fluting. Here, the pressure is
delivered on the core from the edge of the striking platform. We also find some
retouched blades which are broad, thick and long. The retouching process sharpens
the blade and we find blades with retouching along one or two borders or even at
two ends. These blades are more sharp and effective than ordinary blades.
ii) Core: Core is usually cylindrical in shape with fluting marks along its length and a
flat striking platform at the distal horizontal end.
iii) Point: Point is a broken blade in a triangular form. It is retouched along one or
101
History of India both slopping borders and the border can be rectilinear or curvilinear. Points were
from the Earliest used as arrow-heads and spearheads.
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
iv) Triangle: It has usually one border and base, and the border is retouched. These
were used for cutting purposes or as arrowheads.
v) Lunate: Lunate is like a blade and one of the borders is prepared by semi-
circular retouching. It looks like a segment of a circle. It could be used to obtain
concave cutting edge or two of these could be halved back to back to form an
arrowhead.
vi) Trapeze: Trapeze looks like a blade and usually more than one border is retouched.
Some trapezes have retouches on three borders. Trapezes could have been used
as arrowheads.

Retouched Blade Points Triangle

Lunates Trapeze
4.3.2 Mesolithic Sites
Let us discuss some of the prominent Mesolithic sites in India:
i) Pachpadra basin and the Sojat area (Rajasthan) are rich in microliths. A significant
habitation site discovered is Tilwara. Tilwara has two cultural phases. Phase-I is
Mesolithic and is characterized by the presence of microliths. In Phase-II wheel-
made pottery and pieces of iron are found together with microliths. Bagor
102 (Rajasthan) on the river Kothari is the largest Mesolithic site in India and has been
 horizontally excavated. Bagor has three cultural phases. On basis of radiocarbon Hunter-Gatherers:
dating phase-I or the earliest phase of this culture has been placed between c. Archaeological
Perspective, Origin of
5000-2000 BCE. Agriculture and
Domestication of
ii) Rivers Tapti, Narmada, Mahi and Sabarmati (Gujarat) have also yielded many
Animals
Mesolithic sites. Sites like Akhaj, Valasana, Hirpur and Langhnaj are situated east
of Sabarmati. Langhnaj has been extensively studied and it has revealed three
cultural phases. Phase-I has produced microliths, burials and animal bones. The
microliths are mostly:
 blades,
 triangles,
 crescents,
 scrapers, and
 burins.
iii) Vindhya and Satpura mountain ranges are rich in Mesolithic sites. In Prayagraj-
Pratapgarh area (Uttar Radesh) Sarai Nahar Rai is an extensively studied site.
Morhana Pahar and Lekhahia (both in Uttar Pradesh) are two significant Mesolithic
sites in the Kaimur range. Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh) has yielded many
microliths. This site has a favourable ecological set-up. Adamgarh in Hoshangabad
and lying to the south of Bhimbetka is another significant Mesolithic site.
iv) Microliths have been reported from coastal Konkan and inland plateau. Sites like
Kasushoal, Janyire, Babhalgo and Jalgarh have been reported from Konkan. The
Deccan basaltic plateau has many Mesolithic sites and microliths have been reported
from Dhulia and Pune districts.
v) Chhota Nagpur plateau, coastal plains of Odisha, Bengal delta, Brahmaputra valley
and Shillong plateau have yielded microliths. Pre-Neolithic and Neolithic associated
microliths have been reported from Chhota Nagpur plateau. Mayurbhanj, Keonjhar
and Sundergarh in Odisha have microlithic assemblage. Kuchai in Odisha is an
excavated microlithic site. Birbhanpur located on the river Damodar in West Bengal
is another excavated microlithic site. Sebalgiri-2 in the Garo hills of Meghalaya
has yielded pre-Neolithic microliths.
vi) Krishna and Bhima rivers have produced many microliths. In many cases they
survive to the phase of Neolithic cultures. Sangankallu situated on the western
fringe of the Karnataka plateau has produced:
 cores,
 flakes,
 points, and
 crescents.
Godavari delta is rich in microliths. Here, they are associated with Neolithic culture.
Kurnool area has many microliths. Microliths have also been reported from Renigunta
in the Chittoor district in Andhra Pradesh.
Since the Mesolithic age covers a long span of time and there are many Mesolithic sites
in India, an attempt has been made to classify different sites chronologically and on the
basis of material remains. Some sites are real Mesolithic sites because of the abundance 103
History of India of microliths and chronological sequence, and some sites are chronologically of later
from the Earliest time and reflect influence of Mesolithic culture and these sites fall in the category of the
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
sites of Mesolithic tradition. Sites like Bagor, Sarai-Nahar-Rai, Mahadaha and Adamgarh
are truly Mesolithic sites because of their early dates and the associated material culture.

4.3.3 Subsistence Pattern

The early Mesolithic sites have yielded the faunal remains of:
 cattle,
 sheep,
 goat,
 buffalo,
 pig,
 dog,
 boar,
 bison,
 elephant,
 hippo,
 jackal,
 wolf,
 cheetah,
 sambal,
 barasingha,
 black-buck,
 chinkara,
 hog deer,
 hare,
 porcupine,
 mongoose,
 lizard,
 tortoise, and
 fish.
Many of these species continued during the range of Mesolithic tradition. However,
wild sheep, wild goat, ass, elephant, bison, fox, hippo, sambar, chinkara, hare,
porcupine, lizard, rat, fowl and tortoise are absent at sites falling in the category of
Mesolithic tradition. Wild buffalo, camel, wolf, rhinoceros and nilgai are present at the
sites of Mesolithic tradition but these species are absent in the early Mesolithic period.
The appearance and disappearance of animals has to be understood in context of
changing climatic and environmental conditions.
The diet of the people during Mesolithic age included both meat and vegetal food. The
remains of fish, tortoise, hare, mongoose, porcupine, deer and nilgai have been found
104
from different Mesolithic sites like Langhanaj and Tilwara and it seems these were Hunter-Gatherers:
consumed as food. Besides hunting and fishing Mesolithic people also collected wild Archaeological
Perspective, Origin of
roots, tubers, fruits, honey etc. and these constituted important elements in the overall Agriculture and
dietary pattern. The plant food seems to have been more easily available than hunted Domestication of
animal food. Some areas seem to have been rich in grass, edible roots, seeds, nuts and Animals
fruits, and people would have used them as food resources. It is argued in the context
of surviving hunter-gatherers that major portion of the food comes from plant sources,
supplemented by hunting. It is difficult to establish co-relation between animal meat and
vegetal food in the context of Mesolithic age because plant remains are perishable in
nature. It can be suggested that hunting provided a significant portion of food resource.
The paintings and engravings found at the rock shelters of Mesolithic people give us
considerable idea about their social life and economic activities. Sites like Bhimbetka,
Adamgarh, Pratapgarh and Mirzapur are rich in Mesolithic art and paintings. Hunting,
food-gathering, fishing and other human activities are reflected in these paintings and
engravings. Bhimbetka is extremely rich in paintings in which animals like boar, buffalo,
monkey and nilgai are frequently depicted. The paintings and engravings depict activities
like:
 sexual union,
 child birth,
 rearing of child, and
 burial ceremony.

Mesolithic Rock-Painting, Bhimbetka. Credit: Dr. Abhishek Anand.

All these indicate that during the Mesolithic period social organization had become
more stable than the Palaeolithic times. It seems that religious beliefs of the Mesolithic
people were conditioned by ecological and material conditions.

Mesolithic Rock Paintings (Bhimbetka). Source: EHI-02, Block-1, Unit-3.

105
History of India Check Your Progress Exercise 2
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E. 1) The Mesolithic tools are primarily:
a) Hand-axe and cleaver
b) Cleaver, chopper and chopping tools
c) Blade, core, point, and lunate
d) Chopping tool and flake.
2) Mesolithic sites have been reported from:
a) River Kothari
b) River Tapti
c) Godavari delta
d) Rivers Kothari, Tapti and Godavari delta.
3) Which one of the following statements is most appropriate?
Subsistence-pattern of the Mesolithic people was based on:
a) Hunting of animals
b) Gathering of wild fruits and seeds
c) Hunting of animals and gathering of wild fruits
d) Surplus food production.
4) What do Mesolithic tools and paintings suggest in terms of subsistence-pattern
and social organization?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

4.4 NEOLITHIC CULTURE

A Dolmen Erected by the Neolithic People in Marayur, Kerala. Credit: Sanandkarunakaran.

Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MarayoorDolmen.JPG).
106
In the previous section you have seen that human communities in general survived for Hunter-Gatherers:
the longest span of their existence as hunter-gatherers. This stage of their existence is Archaeological
Perspective, Origin of
revealed by their stone tools classified by the archaeologists as Palaeolithic and Mesolithic Agriculture and
as also by the remains of animals hunted and eaten by them. Domestication of
Animals
Human communities entered a new stage of culture when, instead of depending entirely
on the resources of nature for survival, they started producing their own food by cultivating
cereals like:
 barley,
 wheat, and
 rice
They started domesticating some species of animals both for supplies of milk and meat
as well as for harnessing their labour for various purposes. Beginnings of this stage of
human culture are revealed by new type of stone tools which are called Neolithic tools
or tools of the New Stone Age. Neolithic tools and various aspects of human life
associated with the stage when these tools were produced constitute various elements
of the culture in which Neolithic communities lived. The characteristics and spread of
Neolithic culture in the Nile valley and West Asia have been dealt with briefly in this
section as a background to the study of Neolithic Age in the Indian subcontinent.
Domestication of plants and animals has been considered as one of the main characteristic
features of Neolithic culture. The term Neolithic was coined by Sir John Lubbock in his
book Prehistoric Times (first published in 1865). He used this term to denote an age
in which the stone implements were more skillfully made, more varied in form and often
polished. Later on, V. Gordon Childe defined Neolithic-Chalcolithic culture as a
self-sufficient food producing economy and Miles Burkitt stressed that the following
characteristic traits should be considered to represent the Neolithic culture:
 practice of agriculture,
 domestication of animals,
 grinding and polishing of stone tools, and also
 the manufacture of pottery.
The concept of what is Neolithic has been undergoing some change in recent years.
One study states that the term Neolithic should represent a culture of pre-metal stage
where inhabitants had an assured supply of food by the cultivation of cereals and
domestication of animals and led a sedentary life. However, ground stone tools remain
the most essential characteristics of the Neolithic culture.
The domestication of plants and animals led to:
i) Emergence of village communities based on sedentary life,
ii) Beginnings of agriculture technology, and
iii) Greater control over nature by exploitation of natural resources.
However, before discussing the evidences and specificities of the Neolithic age in our
own subcontinent we shall briefly discuss the beginning of the process of domestication
of animals and plants by human beings in areas outside India and in the Indian
subcontinent. Chart-1 describes the approximate time period in which the domestication
of plants and animals seems to have begun.
107
History of India Chart-1
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E. Region Age Cultivation of
Nile valley c. 12,500 BCE Wheat and barley
West Asia c. 8500 BCE onwards - do -
Baluchistan From c. 6000 BCE - do -
Belan valley in Uttar Pradesh c. 5440-4530 BCE Rice
South India c. 2500-1500 BCE Ragi

4.5 THE EARLIEST FARMERS

Till recently it was believed that the beginning of domestication of plants and animals
took place in West Asia and from there it spread to various other regions of the world
through diffusion. But now, on the basis of archaeological evidences obtained from Nile
valley in Egypt and other regions such views may have to be modified. Let us have a
look at such regions:

4.5.1 Nile Valley

Evidence regarding the earliest cultivation of wheat and barley comes from excavations
conducted at:
 Wadi Kubbaniya (located at a short distance north of Aswan in south Egypt),
 Wadi Tuska (near Abu Simbel now under water),
 Kom Umbo (to the north of Aswan about 60 km from Kubbaniya sites), and
 a group of sites near Esna.
What is significant about this evidence is that they are all upper Palaeolithic sites located
in the Nile valley and are not Neolithic sites.
These sites are dated between c. 14500-13000 years before present by the
archaeologists.
The evidence obtained from the Nile valley raises the following important issues:
 As there is no evidence of domestication of animals at the Egyptian sites it may be
concluded that the cultivation of cereals preceded the domestication of animals in
this region. Domestication of plants and domestication of animals are, thus, not
necessarily inter-related. As the cultivation of cereals is associated with late
Palaeolithic tools it may be concluded that food production, in some cases, may
have preceded the Neolithic culture with which ground stone tools are associated.
 Cultivation of cereals gave rise to the Neolithic revolution and preceded it.
 As the Kubbaniya sites lie far outside the known range of both wild wheat and
wild barley it may be concluded that food production did not necessarily originate
in areas where the plants existed in wild forms.
 Domestication of plants did not originate in Western Asia as believed earlier.

4.5.2 Early Farmers of Western Asia

108
Let us now consider the process of evolution in West Asia. The region embraces:
 Palestine, Hunter-Gatherers:
Archaeological
 Syria, Perspective, Origin of
Agriculture and
 Turkey, Domestication of
Animals
 Iraq,
 Caspian basin, and
 the adjoining regions of Iran.
These are modern countries where archaeologists have identified the earliest farming
village settlements. It is now well-known that farming began in Palestine, Syria and
Turkey in 9th-8th millennium BCE. Significantly, hunter-gatherers of this region gave up
their movements and began a sedentary life first in some areas depending upon the
exploitation of wild resources. On sites such as Mureybat, north of Abu Hureyra on the
Euphrates in north Syria and Suberde in southern Turkey on the same river permanent
settlements could flourish entirely on hunting and gathering. Transition to farming was a
slow process but from about the 9th millennium BCE evidence is found that settled
communities were emerging, with farming as the essential basis of the pattern of their
settled life. There are a number of sites which demonstrate settled communities of farmers
in West Asia:
i) Between c. 8500-7500 BCE Jericho in Palestine became a large village where
agriculture is evidenced but there is no evidence of animal domestication (which
developed later). During excavations it was found in the later levels that Jericho
was surrounded by a two meter wide stone wall with rounded towers. This is one
of the earliest instances of fortification in the world.
ii) Catal Huyuk in southern Turkey was a large village. Here wheat, barley and peas
were grown. Animals like cattle, sheep and goat were domesticated. The mud
houses which were supposed to be entered through the roof consisted of two
rooms and were built back to back. The walls of the houses were found painted
with:
 leopards,
 erupting volcano, and
 vultures devouring human corpses without heads.
Evidence of material culture at this place has been found in the forms of:
 pottery,
 stone axes,
 stone ornaments,
 bone tools,
 wooden bowls and
 basketry.
iii) In Iraq at Jarmo there is also evidence of permanently established farming villages
(c. 6500-5800 BCE) with about 20-30 mud houses, each with a courtyard and
several rooms associated with ground stone axes, querns, pottery, etc. The people
grew wheat and barley and domesticated sheep and goat.
iv) In Iran farming began in the region of Khuzistan during 8th millennium BCE, almost 109
History of India the same time as in Palestine and Anatolia. At Ali Kosh in south Iran (from about
from the Earliest 7,500 BCE) we have the evidence of a winter camp of people who were cultivating
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
wheat and barley. They were also domesticating sheep. It appears that in this
region herding and agriculture were inter-related.
In West Asia crop cultivation and domestication of animals are inter-related at certain
sites whereas in some regions agriculture came before the domestication of animals.
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
1) Discuss the main characteristics of Neolithic culture.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
2) Discuss some of the main issues relating to early farming which excavation in the
Nile valley have raised.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
3) Fill in the blanks:
a) According to Gordon Childe, Neolithic culture represents a................
(dependent/self-sufficient) food producing economy.
b) ................. (Ground stone/copper) tools remain the essential characteristic
of Neolithic culture.
c) Jericho is the earliest known village with a................. (water-tank/mud-
fortification).
d) Catal Huyuk was a............... (large/small) village in................. (Turkey/Iran).

4.6 EARLY FARMERS OF THE INDIAN

SUBCONTINENT
The history of domestication of plants and animals in the subcontinent practically began
with the emergence of Neolithic cultures. Except for ground stone axes all the Neolithic
cultures of the subcontinent can be classified into geographical regions as mentioned in
the following chart:
Chart-2: Regions of the Indian Subcontinent

North-western region – including Afghanistan and western Pakistan, particularly

the Kacchi/Kachhi plains in Baluchistan.
Northern region – covering the Kashmir valley.
South-eastern UP – covering the Vindhyan outcrops in the districts of Prayagraj,
Mirzapur, Reva and Sidhi, particularly Belan Valley.
110
 Hunter-Gatherers:
Mid-eastern region – northern Bihar. Archaeological
North-eastern region – covering Assam and adjacent sub-Himalayan region. Perspective, Origin of
Agriculture and
Central-eastern region – covering Chhota Nagpur plateau with extensions in Domestication of
Odisha and West Bengal. Animals
Southern region – covering peninsular India.
We shall discuss the characteristics of Neolithic cultures in these regions separately.

4.6.1 North-Western Region

It was in this region (present-day Afghanistan and Pakistan) that we find the earliest
evidence of the origin of wheat and barley cultivation. In northern Afghanistan caves
occupied by hunters and gatherers have been discovered by archaeologists which
contained the bone remains of:
 wild sheep,
 cattle, and
 goat.
By about 7000 BCE sheep and goat were domesticated in Afghanistan. It is believed
that centralAsian region and its peripheries comprising the present-day Punjab, Kashmir,
west Pakistan, Afghanistan and Soviet Republics of Tajikistan and Uzbekistan and
west Tian Shan were the original places of bread-wheat and spelt-wheat cultivation.
The beginning of agriculture and domestication of animals in Baluchistan (Pakistan) are
attested by archaeological excavations. The Kacchi/Kachhi plains in Baluchistan have
several advantages which contributed to the appearance of early farming economy in
the region. Located between the barren ranges of inner Baluchistan small valleys consisting
of fertile alluvium brought by the streams from the hills and perennial river systems
make irrigation easy on stretches of land which had vegetation.
It is in this ecological setting that the ancient site of Mehrgarh is located at about 150
km. from Quetta. Excavations here have revealed a long cultural history ranging from
the pre-pottery Neolithic to the mature Harappan period. The Neolithic levels at
Mehrgarh have been classified into two phases:
i) Early aceramic without pottery, and
ii) Later phase.
Cereals cultivated here included two varieties of barley and three varieties of wheat.
Charred seeds of plum and also of date were found from the very beginning of the
settlement. During excavations the earliest layers of the Neolithic period (Period-I)
yielded bones of wild animals like:
 gazelles,
 swamp deer,
 antelope,
 sheep,
 goat, and
 cattle.
But the top layers (later phase of the Neolithic deposits) yielded bones of domesticated 111
History of India cattle, sheep and goat besides bones of wild gazelle, pig and onager. Thus, there is
from the Earliest clear-cut evidence that the process of domestication of sheep and goat was done locally.
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
Here, the beginning of pre-pottery settlement phase has been fixed to about 6000
BCE.
Subsistence pattern of the Neolithic period is characterized by a mixed economy based
on early farming and domestication of animals supplemented by hunting. The inhabitants
lived in rectangular houses of mud-bricks. Some of the structures were divided into
small square compartments and used for storage. The tool kit included:
 one stone axe,
 five stone adzes,
 25 grinding stones and
 16 mullers
supplemented by abundant microliths of typical blade industry. Some of the blades
show sheen which is characteristic of flint used to cut grains.
On the basis of the evidence from Mehrgarh it appears that the Kacchi/Kachhi plains
may have been an independent epicentre (centre of origin) for cattle and sheep
domestication and for cultivation of wheat and barley. Period-II at Mehrgarh represents
the Chalcolithic phase (c. 5000 BCE) from which cultivation of cotton and grape is
attested in addition to the cultivation of wheat and barley. Probably, the Harappans
inherited the knowledge of wheat, barley and cotton cultivation from their early ancestors
at Mehrgarh (for the Harappans read the next Unit). The idea that farming and the
domestication of animals spread from West Asia to the direction of the Indian subcontinent
may, thus, have to be given up in the light of the evidence which Mehrgarh provides.

Neolithic Houses at Mehrgarh. Source: EHI-02, Block-1, Unit-4.

4.6.2 Neolithic Culture of the Kashmir Valley

Village settlements appeared in the Kashmir valley by about 2500 BCE. Excavations at
Burzahom and Gufkral throw significant light on the Neolithic culture of this region. The
Neolithic stage of this region has been classified into:
 two phases at Burzahom, and

112
 three at Gufkral.
At the latter site the earliest phase is aceramic (pre-pottery) discovered for the first time Hunter-Gatherers:
in India. The Neolithic culture of Kashmir valley is characterized by pit-dwellings with Archaeological
Perspective, Origin of
well made floors smeared with red-ochre as well as dwellings in the open. The presence Agriculture and
of a large number of unique bone tools suggests that the economy was predominantly a Domestication of
hunting economy. Animals

At Gufkral in phase-I charred wild grains of lentil, masoor, pea, wheat and barley were
found besides bones of wild animals such as:
 cattle,
 sheep,
 goat,
 ibex,
 red deer, and
 wolf.
Phases II and III are characterized by the presence of domesticated plants and animals.
Other notable objects found from later phases are:
 long celts,
 stone points,
 sophisticated bone tools (harpoons, arrowheads etc.), and
 perforated harvesters.
Dog burials placed along some of human burials have also been reported. These findings
indicate how an essentially hunting- gathering economy of Phase-I gradually developed
into a well settled agricultural economy in Phase-II.
It is worth mentioning here that the Neolithic culture of Burzahom displays affinities with
Sarai Khola and Ghaligai of Swat valley in:
 pottery,
 bone remains, and
 stone objects.
Pit-dwellings, harvesters and dog burials are characteristics of north Chinese Neolithic
culture. Contact with the pre-Harappans is also indicated by the pottery found at
Burzahom.
Available C-14 dates from the two sites indicate a time range of c. 2500-1500 BCE
for the Neolithic culture of Kashmir valley.

4.6.3 Early Farmers of Belan Valley

River Belan flows down from east to west along the edge of the Vindhyan plateau out-
crop. It is a tributary of the Tons which joins the Ganga near Prayagraj. This region is
part of the monsoon belt. It is covered with thick forest of teak, bamboo and dhak.
The forests are the natural habitat for wild animals like tiger, nilgai, chital etc. The
vegetal cover is provided by thickly grown grasses including wild rice. The area was a
favourite hunting ground of early stone-age people down to the epi-Palaeolithic period.
Relevant excavated sites of the Belan valley which indicate transition from the food-
gathering stage to food-producing stage are: 113
History of India  Chopani-Mando,
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.  Koldihawa, and
 Mahagara.
At Chopani Mando a three-phase sequence from epi-Palaeolithic to late Mesolithic or
proto-Neolithic period has been established by archaeologists. Phase-III (advanced
Mesolithic) is characterized by semi-sedentary community life and specialized hunting-
gathering economy. Beehive type of hutments, common hearths, unportable anvils,
geometric microliths, large number of ring-stones and hand-made impressed pottery
were found here. Querns and mullers of wide range in forms and sizes indicate emphasis
on food-gathering. The phase also yields significant evidence of the presence of wild
rice and bones of:
 wild cattle,
 sheep, and
 goat.
A single culture site refers to an archaeological site which was occupied for a single phase
of culture like Neolithic or Chalcolithic. There are, however, other sites which were occupied
through different cultural phases. If a site, after excavations, shows that it was under
occupation during the Neolithic, Chalcolithic and Iron-using phases then it would be
considered a multi-culture site and the Neolithic phase would be called Period-I, the
Chalcolithic phase period-II and the Iron-using phase period-III. These periods would
show chronological sequence of cultures at the site.

The excavations at Koldihwa revealed a three-fold cultural sequence (Neolithic,

Chalcolithic and Iron age). Mahagara is a single culture (Neolithic) site. The combined
evidence from two sites indicates sedentary life, domestication of rice (oriza sativa)
and of cattle and sheep/goat. Other objects throwing light on the life of people living in
this area are:
 Cord-impressed pottery,
 Round celts and adzes with rectangular or oval cross-section and chalcedony
blades,
 Circular/oval floors littered with artefacts,
 A large cattle-pen with hoof-marks of cattle.
The Neolithic culture of the Belan valley shows a developed and advanced sedentary
life with:
 defined family units,
 standardization of pottery forms,
 portable size of food-processing units like querns and mullers,
 specialized tools like chisels, celts and adzes,
 cultivation of domesticated rice,
 domestication of cattle, sheep/goat and horse.
It has been suggested that the Neolithic farmers of Belan valley emerged as the earliest
rice farming community in India (c. 6th millennium BCE), although the suggestion is not
accepted by all. The transition from gathering to farming economy is also clearly
documented in this region. However, pottery makes its appearance in the late Mesolithic/
114
proto-Neolithic phase at Chopani Mando (c. 9th-8th millennium BCE). This is indicative Hunter-Gatherers:
of the primacy of the manufacture of pottery over the domestication of plants (rice) and Archaeological
Perspective, Origin of
animals (cattle, sheep/goat and horse). Agriculture and
Chopani-Mando provides the earliest evidence of the use of pottery in the world. Domestication of
Animals
4.6.4 Neolithic Culture of Bihar/Mid-Ganga Valley
The lower central Gangetic valley with all its flora and faunal resources was occupied
by sedentary village settlements much later (c. 2000-1600 BCE). Excavations at
Chirand, Chechar, Senuwar, Taradib etc. throw significant light on the life pattern of
Neolithic people of this region. At Senuwar (dist. Rohtas) the Neolithic farmers cultivated:
 rice,
 barley,
 field pea,
 lentil, and
 some millets.
A variety of wheat and grass pea have also been found from the upper levels of habitation
at this site. The Neolithic levels at Chirand (dist. Saran) situated on the left bank of the
Ganga revealed the remains of:
 mud floors,
 pottery,
 microliths,
 ground celts,
 bone tools,
 beads of semi- precious stones, and
 terracotta human figurines.
Both Chirand and Senuwar are known for their remarkable bone tools. The grains
cultivated at Chirand were:
 wheat,
 barley,
 rice, and
 lentil.
Later Neolithic-Chalcolithic people at Senuwar also started cultivating gram and moong
in addition to crops raised by the earlier people.

4.6.5 Early Farmers of Eastern India

The area comprises the hills of Assam including north Cachar, the Garo and the Naga
hills. Ecologically the area falls in the monsoon zone with heavy rainfall. The Neolithic
culture of this region is characterized by shouldered celts, small ground axes of rounded
form and cord-impressed pottery, heavily tempered with quartz particles. Excavations
at Deojali Hading in north Cachar hills have yielded all the objects noted above. These
objects are the types which have extensive distribution in China and south-east Asia
with a long ancestry there. Yet, the affinity of Assam Neolithic traits with China or
south-east Asia has not been finally settled, as there is a wide chronological gap. The
Assam Neolithic culture phase has been tentatively dated around 2000 BCE. 115
History of India
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.

Stone Axes from Garo Hills (Assam). Source: EHI-02, Block-1, Unit-4.

4.6.6 Early Farmers of South India

The problem of transition from the stage of advanced hunting to that of food producing
economy in south India has not yet been clearly established. Neolithic settlements are
found on the hilly and dry Deccan plateau drained by the Bhima, Krishna, Tungabhadra
and Kaveri rivers. These settlements flourished particularly in those areas where normal
rainfall is below 25 cm. per annum. Excavated sites which throw light on the various
aspects of the Neolithic culture of south India are:
 Sangankallu,
 Nagarjunakonda,
 Maski,
 Brahmagiri,
 Tekkalakota,
 Piklihal,
 Kupgal,
 Hallur,
 Palavoy,
 Hemmige, and
 T. Narsipur.
South Indian Neolithic culture has been classified into three phases by archaeologists.
The earliest phase is represented at Sangankallu and Nagarjunakonda. Faint traces of
dwellings, crude handmade pale reddish brown pottery with slipped outer surface,
blade tools of chert and ground stone tools found at Nagarjunakonda demonstrate that
the people had only rudimentary knowledge of cultivation. Probably, they did not
domesticate animals. This phase can be dated to c. 2500 BCE or earlier.
In Phase-II besides the continuation of the features of Phase-I, pottery is mainly of red
ware fabric. However, lapidary art and domestication of animals are new features.
Now microliths were made of quartz crystals.
In phase-III (datable to around 1500 BCE) grey ware pottery is predominant. The red
ware and short blade industry of quartz crystals of Phase-II continued into this phase.
116
Neolithic tools of various types are also found in this phase. These indicate greater Hunter-Gatherers:
practice of agriculture with food-gathering and hunting now assuming a subsidiary role. Archaeological
Perspective, Origin of
The latter two phases are characterized by dwelling pits at Nagarjunakonda with roofs Agriculture and
Domestication of
supported by wooden poles. Wattle-and-daub houses are reported from other sites.
Animals
Millet (ragi) was one of the earliest crops cultivated by the Neolithic farmers of south
India. It is cultivated even today and forms an important source of food for the poor
classes. It is also used as fodder for the cattle. It is generally believed that domesticated
ragi came from east Africa. The wild ragi, which grew as weeds along with the
domesticated variety, was not the direct ancestor of the latter. But, it was ancestrally
associated with the African variety. Other crops cultivated by the Neolithic farmers of
south India were:
 wheat,
 horse gram, and
 moong (green gram).
Date palm was also grown. Terracing seems to have been an important feature of the
method of cultivation during this period. It was employed for making tiny fields for
growing crops.
The nature of animal bones found from excavations indicates that animals were used for
draught-work or putting heavy material and ploughing the fields. It is clear from
excavations at Nagarjunakonda that domestication of plants preceded the domestication
of animals. Domesticated animals like cattle, sheep and goat, buffalo, ass, fowl, swine
and horse are also reported from some sites. Sambar, deer, barasinghaa, spotted
deer and gazelle were hunted and pond snails and tortoise were caught for food.
Abundance of cattle and other kinds of food articles suggest sedentary agriculture-
cum-pastoral economy of the Neolithic people. On the basis of C-14 dates the Neolithic
culture of south India has been placed between c. 2600 and 1000 BCE.
Many ashmounds (composed of ash) are found in the vicinity of Neolithic sites like:
 Utnur,
 Kodekal, and
 Kupgal.
Some of them are also found in forests, remote from any settlement. It has been suggested
that these ashmounds were sites of Neolithic cattle-pens. From time to time the
accumulated dung was burned either by design as a part of some ritual or by accident.
Some of the ashmounds in remote areas may suggest seasonal migrations to forest
grazing grounds by people.

4.6.7 Neolithic Cultures of Upper, Central and Western

Deccan
In the midde and the upper reaches of the Krishna and the Godavari and their tributaries
the picture is somewhat different. In these regions besides the ground stone tools made
on black trap a large number of parallel-sided blades and microliths of agate, chalcedony
and carnelian (all semi-precious stones) were found along with grey ware and
Chalcolithic-type painted pottery. No clear-cut Neolithic phase has been recorded in
this region. But the evidence from Chandoli on the Bhima (a tributary of the Krishna) 117
History of India and Nevasa and Daimabad on the Pravara (a tributary of the Godavari) suggests that
from the Earliest Neolithic farmers in this region had moved into the Chalcolithic phase.
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
Further northwards in the Tapti and Narmada valleys of north Maharashtra, Madhya
Pradesh and Gujarat no clear-cut Neolithic phase was found. Only a small number of
triangular axes with pointed butt-end of south Indian affiliation found at Eran in the Bina
valley and at Jokha in south Gujarat are Neolithic finds from this region.
In the Chambal, Banas and Kali Sindh valleys there is scarcely any evidence of the
presence of ground stone tools. In spite of the fact that during an earlier Mesolithic
context domestication of animals had started, sedentary settlements started in this region
only after copper-bronze implements became known.
Check Your Progress Exercise 4
1) Discuss the main characteristics of Neolithic cultures in the north-western region.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
2) Which of the following statements are right or wrong? Mark (×) or ().
a) It can be said that the Harappan people inherited the knowledge of wheat,
barley and cotton cultivation from the earlier inhabitants of Mehrgarh. ( )
b) In Gufkral there is no presence of domesticated plants and animals. ( )
c) Excavations at the Belan valley sites have helped us in determining the nature
of transition from food-gathering to food -producing stage. ( )
d) A single culture site means a combination of various cultures into one cultural
site. ( )
e) The earliest crop cultivated in south India was millet. ( )
f) Excavations at Cachar hills have yielded no traces of Neolithic culture.
( )
3) What do finds of pottery, ground tools and mud hutments etc. indicate in terms of
the development in human society?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

4.7 SUMMARY
The Pre-historic societies of the hunter-gatherers are studied on the basis of archaeological
118
remains with help of anthropological theories. Palaeolithic and Mesolithic ages represent Hunter-Gatherers:
the hunting-gathering stage of social evolution. The Palaeolithic culture has three phases Archaeological
Perspective, Origin of
in terms of the nature of stone tools and changes in climate. Hand-axes, cleavers, Agriculture and
choppers and chopping tools were, predominantly, early Palaeolithic artefacts. The Domestication of
middle Palaeolithic tools were mainly flakes. The upper Palaeolithic culture is Animals
characterized by burins and scrapers. Mesolithic age started around 8000 BCE and
the age is associated with changes in climatic conditions. There was further technological
development reflected in the production of microliths and small-stone tools. The
Mesolithic tools are mainly blade, core, point, triangle and lunate.
Faunal remains give us considerable idea about the subsistence-pattern of the Palaeolithic
and Mesolithic people. During the Palaeolithic age people were primarily in the hunting
and gathering stage. People seem to have hunted large and middle sized mammals such
as elephant, ox, deer, wild bear and a variety of birds. At the same time they also
exploited plant foods like fruits, seeds etc. The hunting-gathering pattern continued
during the Mesolithic age. However, some animals like wild goat, fox etc. appeared
during this time. From Palaeolithic to Mesolithic Age there seems to have been a shift
from big animal hunting to small animal hunting and fishing. Pre-historic paintings give us
insight into the economic, social and cultural life of the people.
This Unit has also made you aware of the basic characteristics of the stage characterized
by transition to cultivation of plants and domestication of animals. The transition from
hunting-gathering to cultivation brought about many changes. Generally speaking, these
included fashioning of pottery which was, obviously, needed for storing grains as well
as eating food processed from them; refined tools which were ground and effective for
agricultural operations, settled villages communities etc.
Recent evidence seems to suggest that the earliest farming operations started in the Nile
valley and west Asia. These operations emerged at a later date. In certain regions the
process of cultivation of crops and domestication of animals went side by side whereas
in some regions cultivation of crops preceded domestication of animals.
You have also been familiarised with the geographical regions in which the evidence of
the Neolithic culture has been found in the Indian subcontinent. The Neolithic cultures
in these regions emerged at different points of time and their duration were also different.
Due to ecological variations within the subcontinent the crops grown also varied. The
emergence of Neolithic cultures and the variations between them have been shown by
archaeologists through extensive excavations at various ancient sites.

4.8 KEY WORDS

Acheulian : It is used for describing a particular type of hand-
axe. Such hand-axes were first found in France
in the deposits of the early part of glaciation.
Artefact : Any object that has been made, modified or used
by human beings. It may range from a coarse
stone used in the manufacture of flint to anything
of high technical accomplishment in any material.
Assemblage : A group of objects of different types found in
close association with each other. Where the
assemblage is frequently repeated and covers a
reasonably full range of human activity it is
described as a culture. 119
History of India Calibration : In the context of radiocarbon dating this term
from the Earliest refers to the adjustment of dates in radiocarbon
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
years by means of dendrochronological date so
that a date in real i.e. calendar years is achieved.
Un-calibrated dates are raw dates in radiocarbon
years and this is the way that most dates from
this technique are published.
Concave : Curving inwards and thinner at the centre than at
the edges.
Convex : Curving outwards and thicker at the centre than
the edges.
Ethnography : The subject that deals with descriptive recording
of cultures.
Ecology : Interrelationship between animal and plant life.
Epigraphy : The study of inscriptions.
Epi-Palaeolithic : Early Palaeolithic period.
Flora : Plant life of an area.
Fauna : Stands for animal life.
Geology : The subject that deals with the composition,
structure and history of earth.
Glaciation : A period of cold climate during which the area
covered by the ice caps increased. Several
glaciations may go to make up an ‘Ice Age’.
Hunter-gatherers : Refers to that stage of human development when
human beings procured their foods through
hunting and collecting from nature.
Hunting-gathering Economy : Refers to that stage of economy which was
dependent on hunting and gathering of foods.
Mammal : The animal that feed their young with milk from
the breast.
Numismatics : The study of coins.
Pleistocene : The geological period corresponding with the last
of the Great Ice Age. The onset of the Pleistocene
is marked by an increasingly cold climate.
Pollen Analysis : This technique is used in establishing relative
chronology. It is the analysis of the pollens of the
flowers.
Primate : Age of the highest order of mammals (including
human beings, apes, monkeys and lemur).
Proto-Neolithic : The stage before the beginning of the Neolithic
period.
120
Rectangle : A quadri-lateral with right angles between all four Hunter-Gatherers:
sides. Archaeological
Perspective, Origin of
Rectilinear : Consisting of straight line. Agriculture and
Domestication of
Radiocarbon : One of the best known chronometric dating Animals
techniques which can be used for dating of most
organic material up to 70,000 years old. Plants
and other living organizms consume carbon from
the atmosphere during their life time. This carbon
also includes carbon 14 (14c) which is a
radioactive element. After the death of plants and
the living organizms the accumulated 14c starts
decaying at a known rate and by measuring its
present concentration we can determine the age
of the organizms which became extinct a long
time ago.
Sedentary life : Refers to that stage of human development when
human beings started settled life.
Transverse : Cross-wise, in a direction at right angles to the
length of the body.
Terrace : A platform of land created by river. It is formed
beside the river.
Terracing : The method of cultivating crops by which the hilly
lands are divided into steps for cultivation.

4.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
i) (c), ii) (d), iii) (a), iv) (d), v) (d).
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) (c), 2) (d), 3) (c)
4) You have to use imagination for your answer, like whatever the human beings
painted reflects their life-pattern and surroundings. For example, a painting which
shows a mammal hunted by human beings indicates the formation of small social
groups to carry the hunt; it also reflects their food habits as to what animals they
ate and the type of tools they used for hunting.
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
1) Your answer should include the shift from hunter-gatherers to food producing-
process through cultivation of wheat, barley etc.; settled village life; advances
made in making of stone tools; emergence of pottery etc. See Section 4.4.
2) These were: the domestication of plants and animals are not necessarily interrelated;
food-production might have preceded Neolithic cultures etc. See Sub-Sec. 4.5.1
3) i) Self sufficient, ii) Ground stone, iii) Mud fortification, iv) large, Turkey.
121
History of India Check Your Progress Exercise 4
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E. 1) See Sub-sec. 4.6.1
2) i) , ii) ×, iii), iv) ×, v), vi) ×
3) You have to apply your imagination to answer this. Well, all these indicate a process
during which human beings were moving from simple to complex societies; division
of labour; advances in technology; need-based inventions etc. are some hints for
your answer.

4.10 SUGGESTED READINGS

Allchin, Bridget and Raymond (1988). The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan.
(Indian edition), Select Book Service, New Delhi.
Malik, S. C. (1968). Indian Civilization: The Formative Period. Shimla.
Sahu, H. P. (1988). From Hunters to Breeders. Anamika Prakashan, Delhi.
Sankalia, H.D. (1962). Prehistory and Protohistory in India and Pakistan. University
of Bombay.

122
UNIT 5 HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION:
CHRONOLOGY, GEOGRAPHICAL
SPREAD, DIFFUSION AND DECLINE*
Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 An Old City is Discovered
5.3 Age of the Harappan Civilization
5.4 Why it is Called the Harappan Civilization
5.5 Antecedents of Harappan Civilization
5.6 Geographical Features
5.7 Origins of Agriculture and Settled Villages
5.8 Early Harappan Period
5.8.1 Southern Afghanistan
5.8.2 Quetta Valley
5.8.3 Central and Southern Baluchistan
5.8.4 The Indus Area
5.8.5 Punjab and Bahawalpur
5.8.6 Kalibangan

5.9 Emergence of the Harappan Civilization

5.10 Decline of Harappan Civilization: Archaeological Evidence
5.11 Theories of Sudden Decline
5.11.1 Floods and Earthquakes
5.11.2 The Shifting Away of the Indus
5.11.3 Increased Aridity and Drying-Up of Ghaggar
5.11.4 Barbarian Invasions

5.12 Ecological Imbalance: Theory of Gradual Decline

5.13 The Tradition Survives
5.13.1 Sindh
5.13.2 Indo-Iranian Borderlands
5.13.3 Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan
5.13.4 Kutch and Saurashtra
5.14 Transmission of the Harappan Tradition
5.15 What Survives from Harappan Civilization?
5.16 Summary
5.17 Key Words
5.18 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
5.19 Suggested Readings
* This Unit has been adopted from EHI-02, Block 2. 123
History of India
from the Earliest 5.0 OBJECTIVES
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
After reading this Unit, you will be able to learn:
 how the Harappan civilization was discovered;
 how its chronology was determined;
 how the village communities gradually evolved into the Harappan civilization;
 about the geographical spread of Harappan civilization;
 about the problems faced by scholars to understand the decline of Harappan
civilization;
 about the theories put forward for the decline of Harappan civilization;
 that why, over the years, scholars have stopped looking for the causes of the
decline of Harappan civilization; and
 that, instead, scholars are trying to look for evidence of survival and the continuities
of the Harappan civilization.

5.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous Unit you learnt about the evolution of mankind from hunting-gathering
societies to agricultural societies. The invention of agriculture led to far-reaching changes
in human societies. One important result was the emergence of cities and civilizations.
In this Unit you will be made familiar with the birth of one such civilization, namely the
Harappan civilization and various aspects related to its origin and growth. The
disappearance of the various aspects of its maturity i.e. writing, town planning, etc. in
the subsequent phase of Indian history is rather mysterious. In this Unit we will also
examine various arguments put forward to solve this mystery.

5.2 AN OLD CITY IS DISCOVERED

In 1826, an Englishman Charles Masson visited a village named Harappa in western
Punjab (now in Pakistan). He noted the remarkably high walls and towers of a very old
settlement. He believed that this city belonged to the times of Alexander. In 1872 a
famous archaeologist, Sir Alexander Cunningham, came to this place. The people of
the surrounding areas told him that the high mounds of Harappa were parts of a thousand
years old city. It had been ruined because of the wickedness of its king. Cunningham
collected some archaeological objects from this site, but he could not determine to
which period of history they really belonged. He simply believed that these objects
were probably from outside India. Thus, he concurred with the opinion of the people of
the village that the city was about a thousand years old. However, in 1924, when
another archaeologist, Sir John Marshall, reported about Harappa he talked about the
discovery of a long forgotten civilization which was as old as the civilizations of Egypt
and Mesopotamia. Is it not curious? The people of the surrounding regions were indifferent
to the remains of the city. Then, a British archaeologist came and informed us that the
city was about 5000 years old. How could the people and the scholars form such
different ideas? What could be their methods of dating an old site?

5.3 AGE OF THE HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION

Archaeologists use various methods for finding out how old various settlements are.
Let us see how Marshall concluded that the Harappan civilization was about 5000
124
years old and not one 1000 years old, as believed by Cunningham. Marshall found that
seals, sealings, written script and works of art found in Harappa were totally different Harappan Civilization:
from those with which scholars were already familiar and which belonged to a much Chronology,
Geographical Spread,
later period. Similar finds were reported in another place called Mohenjodaro in Sindh. Diffusion and Decline
In Mohenjodaro the settlement lay underneath a Buddhist monastery belonging to the
Kushan period. It has been found that in ancient times if a house was destroyed for
some reason people would generally use the brick or mud of the house to prepare a
plinth and make another house on top of it. Thus, if an archaeologist excavates an area
and finds remains of a house beneath another house, he can figure out that the one
below is older than the one above. That is why the deeper he digs the earlier he moves
in time scale. Thus, Marshall could find out that the houses below the Buddhist monastery
must have been older than the Kushan period. Then, there was the evidence that people
living in these settlements did not know the use of iron. This meant that these cities were
part of an age when iron was unknown. Iron came in use in the beginning of the 2nd
millennium BCE. When Marshall published his discoveries, some other archaeologists
found objects similar to those found at Harappa and Mohenjodaro in Mesopotamia.
Mesopotamian cities came into existence in the early 3rd millennium BCE. Thus, if
anything Harappan was discovered in the ancient cities of Mesopotamia, it would indicate
that the people of Harappa lived at the same time. With these evidences scholars could
figure out that the conclusions of the local population and Cunningham were incorrect.
Marshall’s chronology of Harappa has been further supported by new methods of
dating, such as Radio carbon-dating. Thus, scholars accept the following chronology
for the pre-Harappan and Harappan cultures:
c.5500-3500 BCE Neolithic  In Baluchistan and Indus plains,
settlements like Mehrgarh and
Kili Ghul Muhammad came up.
 Beginning with pastoralism with
limited cultivation and seasonal
occupation of villages,
permanent villages emerged.
 Knowledge of wheat, barley,
dates, cotton and sheep, goat and
cattle.
 Evidences of mud houses, pottery
and craft-production found.
c.3500-2600 BCE Early  Many more settlements
Harappan established in hills and plains.
Period Largest number of villages occur
in this period.
 Use of copper, wheel and plough.
 Extraordinary range of pottery
forms showing beginning of many
regional traditions.
 Evidence of granary, defensive
walls, and long-distance trade.
 Emergence of uniformities in
pottery tradition throughout the
Indus valley. Also, origins of such
motifs as Pipal, humped bulls,
Cobras, horned- deity etc.

125
History of India c.2600-1800 BCE Mature  Emergence of large cities,
from the Earliest Harappan uniform types of bricks, weights,
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
Period seals, beads and pottery.
 Planned township and long-
distance trade.
c.1800 BCE Late Harappan  Many Harappan sites abandoned.
onwards period  Interregional exchange declines.
 Writing and city life abandoned.
 Continuation of Harappan crafts
and pottery tradition.
 The village cultures of Punjab,
Sutlej-Yamuna divide and Gujarat
imbibe Harappan crafts and
pottery traditions.

View of Granary and Great Hall at Mound F in Harappa. Monument in Pakistan Identified as the
PB-137. Credit: Muhammad Bin Naveed. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://
c ommons. wi ki me di a. or g/ wi k i / Fi l e :Anothe r _vi e w_of_G r anar y_and_G r e at_
Hall_on_Mound_F.JPG).

Dholavira, another Harappan Site, with Stepwell Steps to reach the Water Level in Artificially
Constructed Reservoirs. Credit: Rama’s Arrow. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dholavira1.JPG).

5.4 WHY IT IS CALLED THE HARAPPAN

CIVILIZATION?
Beginning with the discovery of Harappa, nearly 1000 settlements having similar traits
126 have been discovered. Scholars named it the “Indus Valley Civilization” because initially,
most of the settlements were discovered in the plains of the Indus and its tributaries. Harappan Civilization:
Archaeologists, however, prefer to call it the “Harappan Civilization” because in Chronology,
Geographical Spread,
archaeology there is a convention that when an ancient culture is described, it is named Diffusion and Decline
after the modem name of the site which first revealed the existence of that culture. We
do not know what those people called themselves, because we have not been able to
read their writing. Thus, we call them Harappans after the modern place Harappa
where the evidence of this forgotten civilization was first unearthed in our times.

5.5 ANTECEDENTS OF HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION

When we use the term “Harappan Civilization” we are referring to a large number of
cities, towns and villages which flourished in c. 3rd millennium BCE. These cities and
villages had formed a network of interaction over a large geographical space which
would roughly cover the areas of modern-day Rajasthan, Punjab, Gujarat, Pakistan
and some of the surrounding areas. If we study the remains left by the people who lived
in these areas before the emergence of the Harappan civilization, we can have some
idea of how Harappan cities emerged. Scholars believe that there was a time in human
past when cities did not exist and people lived in small villages. One might ask what the
ancestors of Harappans were doing before they built up these cities. There are evidences
to suggest that the forefathers of Harappans were living in villages and small towns.
Some of them were engaged in pastoral nomadic activities and some went in for trade.
The Harappan civilization represents the culmination of a long period of evolution of
agricultural and semi-nomadic communities. So, let us review the pre-history of the
Harappan civilization. We start with an understanding of their geography.

Sites of Early Harappan Period. Source: EHI-02, Block-2, Unit-5.

5.6 GEOGRAPHICAL FEATURES

The areas of present day Pakistan and north-western India formed the core region of
the Harappan civilization. These areas are characterized by dry weather and scanty
rainfall. However, there are some important variations among these areas. Whereas the
areas of Punjab and Sindh are dominated by alluvial plains of the Indus river system,
areas of Baluchistan are characterized by steep craggy hills. In north-eastern Baluchistan 127
History of India valley floors might provide some possibilities of agriculture. This area has been inhabited
from the Earliest by another set of people also, namely the pastoral nomads who with their herds of
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
sheep, goat and cattle kept shifting from uplands to low lands in search of pastures for
their herd. The areas of these borderlands which cut out into the Indus plains are a
continuation of eastern Iranian plateau. These hilly regions are fractured by many passes
like those of Khyber, Gomal and Bolan which have acted as highways of traffic for
nomads, merchants, warriors and various groups of people. The interaction among the
population of the uplands of Baluchistan and the plains of the Indus, on the one hand,
and the communities of Iran, on the other, seems to be related to this geographical
feature. The similarities in climate and landscape of the Harappan civilization and those
of Iran, Iraq borderlands had led scholars to hypothesize that agricultural communities
must have emerged in these areas in roughly the same period. In Iran and Iraq, agriculture
began around c. 8000 BCE. Let us see what are the evidences for the beginning of
agriculture in and around the Indus river system?

5.7 ORIGINS OF AGRICULTURE AND SETTLED

VILLAGES
The earliest evidence of the emergence of agricultural communities comes from a place
called Mehrgarh near the Bolan pass in the Baluchistan province of Pakistan (as we
have seen in the previous Unit). Beginning as a seasonal camp, the place turned into a
settled village in c. 5th millennium BCE. People at this place were growing wheat, barley,
cotton and dates and tending sheep, goat and cattle. Mehrgarh is located at the place
where the alluvial plains of the Indus join the uneven hilly plateau of the Indo-Iranian
borderland. People of Mehrgarh lived in mud houses which could sometimes have five
to six rooms. By the middle of 3rd millennium BCE many small and large villages had
sprung up around the Indus, Baluchistan and Afghanistan area. The better known
settlements among them are Kili Ghul Muhammad in Baluchistan and Mundigak in
Afghanistan. In the Indus flood plains villages like Jalilpur near Harappa had come
into existence. Once these agriculturists learnt to exploit the highly fertile flood-plains of
the Indus there was a sudden expansion in size and numbers of villages. These agriculturists
gradually learnt to exploit the Indus plains and control the flooding of Indus. Richer
returns per acre resulted in larger surpluses. This led to an increase in the number of
settlements in Sindh, Rajasthan, Baluchistan and other areas. They also managed to
exploit stone-quarries and mines useful to them. There are indications of the existence
of pastoral nomadic communities in this period in the form of seasonal settlements. The
interactions with these groups seem to have helped agriculturists exploit resources from
other regions, as the pastoral nomads are known to engage in trading activities over the
areas they covered during their travels. All this led to the development of small towns.
The period of this new development is called ‘the Early Harappan Period’ because of
certain uniformities found all over Indus.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) Read the following statements and mark right () or wrong (×).
i) John Marshall said that the Harappan civilization was 5000 years old. ( )
ii) People of the Harappan settlements were aware of the use of iron. ( )
iii) The Harappan civilization is so called because Harappa was the first site to
be discovered. ( )
iv) We have evidence to suggest that the forefathers of Harappans were living in
large cities. ( )
128
2) Write on geographical features of the early Harappan civilization. Harappan Civilization:
Chronology,
..................................................................................................................... Geographical Spread,
Diffusion and Decline
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

5.8 EARLY HARAPPAN PERIOD

We shall review the conditions of some of the settlements just before the emergence of
the Harappan civilization. Many scholars call this period ‘Early Harappan Period’ because
they believe that this was the formative epoch of the Harappan civilization when certain
trends of cultural unification are perceptible.

5.8.1 Southern Afghanistan

In southern Afghanistan there is a place called Mundigak. It seems to have been located
on a trade route. That is why in the early Indus period the inhabitants of this place were
using artifacts which show affinities with some Iranian towns on the one hand and some
Baluchistan towns on the other. Making a humble beginning as a camping site of some
nomadic groups, the place grew into a township of impressive proportions. There is
evidence of a defensive wall with square bastions of sun-dried bricks. A large building
with rows of pillars has been identified as a palace. Another large structure looks like a
temple. A variety of potteries have also been discovered at this place. They were using
naturalistic decorations showing birds, ibex, bull and Pipal trees. Terracotta female
figurines similar to those found at contemporary sites in Baluchistan have also been
found. They were also using bronze shaft-hole axes and adzes. Such semi-precious
stones as lapis-lazuli and steatite show their contacts with Iran and central Asia, since
these stones are not available locally.

5.8.2 Quetta Valley

To the south-east of Mundigak is Quetta valley. Here, in a place called Damb Sadaat,
large houses having brick walls belonging to the beginning of 3rd millennium BCE have
been discovered. Varieties of painted potteries similar to those of Mundigak have also
been found. These people were using clay seals and copper objects also. These
discoveries indicate the presence of a prosperous community which had solved its food
problem and established trading contacts with regions faraway. Similarly, from the
surrounding areas there are reports of distinct art and pottery traditions. In a place
called Rana Ghundai, people were using finely made painted pottery with friezes of
humped-bulls in black. The pottery showed distinct parallels with those of Quetta valley.
Another excavated site Periano Ghundai has yielded female figurines of a distinctive
type.

5.8.3 Central and Southern Baluchistan

In central and southern Baluchistan, sites like Anjira, Togau, Nindowari and Balakot
give us some idea of early Harappan societies. These small villages and townships
seem to fan out in conformity with the valley systems. At Balakot remains of large
buildings have been discovered. Many of the sites in this area show evidences of contact
with the Persian Gulf. In Balakot the people who first inhabited the place were using
potteries similar to those used in other contemporary villages in Baluchistan. However,
in course of time they started using potteries similar to the ones used in the Indus alluvial 129
History of India plain. What is important to us is that people of the entire Baluchistan province were
from the Earliest using similar kinds of pottery. They show distinct influences from Persian Gulf towns,
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
on the one hand, and from Indus valley towns, on the other. They were using motifs on
their pottery like the humped-bull and Pipal which continued into the mature Harappan
phase.

5.8.4 The Indus Area

By the middle of the 4th millennium BCE the Indus alluvial plains became the focal point
of change. Many small and large settlements came into existence on the banks of the
Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra. This area became the core region of Harappan civilization.
In the present discussion we shall try to show how these developments anticipate many
of the characteristics of Harappan civilization.
i) Amri
The Sindh province corresponding to the lower Indus plains showed interesting
development. At the site of Amri the habitations show people living in houses of stone
and mud brick. They had constructed some kind of a granary also. They painted such
animal motifs as the humped Indian bulls on their pottery. This motif was very popular
during the mature Harappan phase. They were using wheel-made pottery. Similar finds
have been reported at places like Tharro and Kohtras Buthi. They had fortified their
settlements before the coming of the Harappan civilization.
ii) Kot Diji
Opposite Mohenjodaro on the left bank of the Indus is the site of Kot Diji. The people
living here in the early Harappan period had a massive defensive wall built around their
settlement. The most interesting finds are their pottery. They were using a wheel-thrown
pottery having decorations of plain bands of dark brownish paint. This kind of pottery
has been reported from pre-Harappan habitations in far flung places like Kalibangan in
Rajasthan and Mehrgarh in Baluchistan. The Kot Diji variety of pottery has been found
along the entire stretch of Indus where settlements belonging to pre-urban and urban
phase of Harappan civilization have been reported. This movement towards similar
methods of decorating pottery indicates greater communication among the people of
Indus plains. It also anticipates the process of the convergence of cultures seen in the
Harappan civilization. Many of the designs on pottery were carried over to the urban
phase. At the same time certain other earthen vessels showed similarity with those of
Mundigak. This shows enlarged interaction sphere of the early Harappan sites. In
Mohenjodaro itself archaeologists have discovered occupation deposits to a depth of
39 feet below the modern level of the plain. Similarly, at the site of Chanhu-daro, early
Harappan habitation has been reported. At Mohenjodaro the early levels could not be
excavated, but many archaeologists believe that these occupation levels represented an
early Harappan culture, probably similar to that of Kot Diji.

Early Indus Pottery: Kot Diji Early Indus Pottery: Kalibangan

130 Source: EHI-02, Block-2, Unit-5.
iii) Mehrgarh Harappan Civilization:
Chronology,
Earlier we talked about the site of Mehrgarh. In the period preceding Harappan Geographical Spread,
urbanization, the people of Mehrgarh had established a prosperous township. They Diffusion and Decline
used to make various kinds of beads of stone. Lapis-lazuli, one of the precious stones
used by them is found only in the Badakshan region of central Asia. Many seals and
sealings have been reported. Seals are used as a mark of authority in situations of
interpersonal exchange. Mehrgarh seals were probably used by merchants for
guaranteeing the quality of goods that were being sent to faraway lands. Similarities in
designs of potteries, terracotta figurines and objects of copper and stone indicate that
these people were in close contact with neighbouring towns of Iran. However, most of
the pottery used by the people of Mehrgarh was similar to the ones used in the
neighbouring settlements of Damb Sadaat and the Quetta valley. Similarly, a large number
of female terracotta figurines are also found which are very similar to the ones found in
Zhob valley. These parallels indicate a close interaction among surrounding communities.
iv) Rahman Dheri
If we follow Indus northwards we come across some more settlements which give us
an idea of how people lived in the early Harappan times. At a place called Rahman
Dheri an early Indus township has been excavated. Oblong in shape with houses, streets
and lanes laid out in a planned fashion, it is protected by a massive wall. Here too,
beads of turquoise and lapis-lazuli have been found. This shows their contact with
central Asia. A large number of graffiti found on pot-sherds could be the forerunners of
the Harappan script. The independent pottery tradition in this area was gradually modified
and supplemented by a pottery similar to that of Kot Diji. Seals, tools made of stone,
copper and bronze have also been found.
v) Tarkai Qila
In Bannu area, in North-West Frontier Province, the site of Tarkai Qila has also yielded
evidence of fortification. Archaeologists have discovered large samples of grains which
included many varieties of wheat and barley, lentils and field pea. Tools for harvesting
have also been found. In the same area, at a site called Levan, a huge factory site for
making stone tools was discovered. The Harappans and their predecessors did not
know about iron and copper was rare. So, most of the people used tools made of
stone. That is why in some places where good quality stone was available tools would
be made on a large scale and then sent to distant town and villages. The people in
Levan were making ground stone axes, hammers, querns etc. for which they were
importing suitable rocks from the surrounding areas too. The presence of lapis-lazuli
and terracotta figurines indicates links with central Asia. At the site of Sarai Khola
which is located on the northern tip of western Punjab another early Harappan settlement
has been discovered. Here too the people were using the pottery of the Kot Diji type.

5.8.5 Punjab and Bhawalpur

In western Punjab, Harappa is well-known. During one of the excavations, habitations
preceding the urban phase have been discovered. Unfortunately, they have not been
excavated as yet. The pottery found here seems to have similarities with Kot Diji type
ware. Scholars believe that these habitations represent the early Harappan phase at
Harappa. In the Bahawalpur region about 40 sites of the early Harappan period are
located in the dry bed of the Hakra river. Here too, the early Harappan phase is
characterized by Kot Diji type of pottery. A comparative analysis of settlement pattern
of these sites shows that in the early Harappan period itself a variety of habitations had
come up. Whereas most of the sites were simple villages, some of them were carrying 131
History of India out specialized industrial activities. That is why we find most of the sites averaged about
from the Earliest five to six hectares in size. However, Gamanwala spreads over an area of 27.3 hectares.
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
This means that Gamanwala was larger than the Harappan township of Kalibangan.
These larger townships must have carried administrative and industrial activities apart
from agricultural activities.

5.8.6 Kalibangan
The site of Kalibangan in north Rajasthan has also yielded evidence of the early Harappan
period. People lived in houses of mud bricks of standard sizes. They also had a rampart
around the settlement. The pottery used by them was different in shape and design from
that of other areas. However, some of the pottery was similar to that of Kot Diji. A few
varieties of potteries like the ‘offering stand’ continued to be used during the urban
phase. A remarkable find was that of a ploughed field surface. This proves that even at
this stage the cultivators already knew about the plough. In more primitive situations the
farmers either simply broadcast the seeds or used hoes for digging the fields. With
plough one can dig deeper using much less energy. That is why it is considered an
advanced tool of cultivation having potentialities of increasing food production.

Early Indus Pottery: Kalibangan. Source: EHI-02, Block-2, Unit-5.

In the dry bed of Ghaggar several early Harappan settlements have been found. They
seem to line the now extinct water ways of the region. Sites like Sothi Bara and
Siswal have reported ceramic styles similar to those of Kalibangan. The exploitation of
Khetri copper mines in Rajasthan might have begun in the early Harappan period itself.
We have stressed on the similarities found in cultural traditions of diverse agricultural
communities living in and around the Indus regions in the early Harappan period.
Beginning with small agricultural settlements the areas of Baluchistan, Sindh, Punjab
and Rajasthan saw the emergence of distinct regional traditions. However, the use of
similar kinds of potteries, representations of a horned deity and finds of terracotta
132 mother goddesses show the way to the emergence of a unifying tradition. The people of
Baluchistan had already established trading relations with the towns of Persian Gulf and Harappan Civilization:
central Asia. Thus, the early Harappan phase anticipates many of the achievements of Chronology,
Geographical Spread,
the Harappan civilization. Diffusion and Decline
We have seen the developments that took place over a period of nearly 3000 years.
Cultivators colonized the alluvial plains of the Indus during this period. These communities
were using tools of copper, bronze and stone. They were using plough and wheeled
transport for greater productivity of labour. Also, unlike in Iran where sheep and goat
rearing was prevalent, the Indus people reared cattle. This gave them better possibilities
of harnessing animal power for transportation and, possibly, cultivation. At the same
time a gradual unification too took place in the pottery tradition. In the early Harappan
period a particular kind of pottery, first identified at Kot Diji, spread over almost the
entire area of Baluchistan, Punjab and Rajasthan. Terracotta mother goddesses or the
motif of horned-deity could be seen at Kot Diji or Kalibangan. Some of the communities
surrounded themselves with defensive walls. We do not know the purpose behind the
construction of these walls. It could be defense against other communities or it could
be, simply, a bund against flooding. All these developments were taking place in the
context of a much larger network of relationships with the contemporary sites of Persian
Gulf and Mesopotamia.

5.9 EMERGENCE OF THE HARAPPAN

CIVILIZATION
In the backdrop of these processes of technological and ideological unification emerged
the Harappan civilization. The particular mechanisms of the birth of the civilization are
obscure, because we have not read their script and a lot many more excavations need
to be carried out. Some of the general processes have been outlined above. The
increasingly efficient technology and exploitation of the fertile plains of the Indus must
have given richer returns of grain production. This created the possibilities for larger
surpluses. It would also lead to an increase in population. At the same time, trading
contacts would be established with distant communities by richer section of society
who would like to possess precious commodities. The larger surpluses would also
permit the elaboration of non-farming specialization. That is how the village priest could
become the part of a clan of priests spread over the entire region. Similar processes will
occur in the case of metallurgists, potters and craftsmen. In villages small silos for keeping
grains would be transformed into elaborate granaries.
The existence of umpteen agricultural groups and pastoral nomadic communities in
close contact with each other could lead to conflict among them. Once the agriculturalists
had become prosperous they would attract other groups which might be less fortunate.
The pastoral nomads are known to engage in trading and looting, depending on their
own economic conditions.
The agricultural communities, too, could fight with each other for the control of more
fertile tracts of land. Probably that is the reason why some of the communities surrounded
themselves with a defense-wall. We know that at the time of the emergence of the
Harappan civilization many sites like Kot Diji and Kalibangan were destroyed by fire.
We do not know the reasons behind this. They could simply be accidental conflagrations.
However, what seems more plausible is the fact that among the various competing
communities in the Indus region, one set of people established their power over others.
This signaled the beginning of the mature Harappan phase. Thus, the mature Harappan
period would not begin on one particular date, considering the large geographical space
covered by the Harappan civilization. It is likely that the city, as the centre of evolution, 133
History of India emerged over a long span of time covering hundreds of years, but the city had arrived
from the Earliest and it was there to dominate the entire north-west for the next 700-800 years.
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) Read the following statements and mark right () or wrong (×).
i) People of the early Harappan period were involved in active trade with Iran
and central Asia. ( )
ii) Many characteristics of the mature Harappan phase had already taken shape
in plains of the river Indus. ( )
iii) There is no evidence of any communication between different areas of the
Indus plains. ( )
iv) The pottery used in Kalibangan was the same in shape and design as used in
other areas during the early Harappan period. ( )
2) What were the Early Harappan settlements and their conditions before the
emergence of Harappan civilization?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

5.10 DECLINE OF HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION:

ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE
Cities like Harappa, Mohenjodaro and Kalibangan experienced gradual decline in urban
planning and construction. Houses made of old dilapidated bricks and shoddy
construction encroached upon the roads and streets of towns. Flimsy partitions sub-
divided the courtyards of houses. The cities were fast turning into slums. A detailed
study of the architecture of Mohenjodaro shows that many entry points to the ‘Great
Bath’ were blocked. Sometimes later, the ‘Great Bath’ and the ‘Granary’ fell into total
disuse. At the same time, the late levels (i.e. later habitations) at Mohenjodaro showed
a distinct reduction in the number of sculptures, figurines, beads, bangles and inlay
works. Towards the end, the city of Mohenjodaro shrank to a small settlement of three
hectares from the original 85 hectares.
Before its abandonment Harappa seems to have witnessed the arrival of a group of
people about whom we know through their burial practices. They were using a pottery
which was different from those of the Harappans. Their culture is known as the ‘Cemetery
H’ culture. Processes of decline were in evidence also in places like Kalibangan and
Chanhu-daro. We find that buildings associated with power and ideology were decaying
and goods related to displays of prestige and splendour were becoming increasingly
scarce. Later on, cities like Harappa and Mohenjodaro were abandoned altogether.
A study of the settlement-pattern of the Harappan and late-Harappan sites in the
Bahawalpur area also indicates a trend of decay. Along the banks of the Hakra the
number of settlements came down to 50 in the late-Harappan period from 174 in the
134 mature Harappan period. What seems likely is that in the last 200-300 years of their
life, the settlements in the core region of the Harappan civilization were declining. The Harappan Civilization:
population seems to have either perished or moved away to other areas. Whereas the Chronology,
Geographical Spread,
number of sites in the triangle of Harappa, Bahawalpur and Mohenjodaro declined, the Diffusion and Decline
number of settlements in the outlying areas of Gujarat, east Punjab, Haryana and upper
Doab increased. This indicates a phenomenal increase in the number of people in these
areas. This sudden increase in the population of those regions can be explained by the
emigration of people from the core regions of Harappa.
In the outlying regions of Harappan civilization, i.e. the areas of Gujarat, Rajasthan and
Punjab, people continued to live. But life had changed for them. Some of the important
features associated with Harappan civilization – writing, uniform weights, Harappan
pottery and architectural style – had disappeared.
The abandonment of the cities of the Indus is roughly dated to about 1800 BCE. This
date is supported by the fact that Mesopotamian literature stops referring to Meluhha
by the end of 1900 BCE. However, even now, the chronology of the end of the Harappan
cities remains tentative. We do not as yet know whether major settlements were
abandoned at one and the same or at different periods. What is certain, however, is the
fact the abandonment of the major cities and the de-urbanization of other settlements
indicates the decline of the Harappan civilization.

Sites of late Harappan Period. Source: EHI-02, Block-2, Unit-9.

5.11 THEORIES OF SUDDEN DECLINE

Scholars have given different answers to the question as to why did the civilization end?
Some scholars, believing in a dramatic collapse of the civilization, have looked for
evidences of a calamity of catastrophic proportions, which wiped out the urban
communities. Some of the more plausible theories for the decline of the Harappan
civilization are:
a) that it was destroyed by massive floods,
135
History of India b) that the decline took place because of the shift in the course of rivers and the
from the Earliest gradual drying up of the Ghgggar-Hakra river system,
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
c) that barbarian invaders destroyed the cities,
d) that the growing demands of the centres disturbed the ecology of the region and
the area could not support them anymore.
Let us discuss these explanations on their merits.

5.11.1 Floods and Earthquakes

Among the causes spelled out for the decline of the Harappan civilization scholars have
used the evidence of flooding in Mohenjodaro. It appears from the records of the
principal excavators that in Mohenjodaro various periods of occupation were separated
by evidences of deep flooding. This can be inferred from the fact that the houses and
streets of Mohenjodaro were covered with silty clay and collapsed building material
many times in its long history. This silty clay seems to have been left by the flood-waters
which had submerged the streets and houses. The people of Mohenjodaro again built
up houses and streets on top of the debris of previous buildings, after the floods had
receded. This kind of catastrophic flooding and rebuilding on top of the debris seems to
have happened at least thrice.
Borings in the occupation deposit indicated successive phases of occupation levels
spanning a vertical distances of 70 feet which is equivalent to the height of a seven-
storied building. Many occupation deposits were divided by silt deposits. Thick silt
deposits have been noticed at points as high as 80 feet above the present-day ground
level. Thus, many scholars believe that the evidences are indicative of abnormal floods
in Mohenjodaro. These floods led to temporary desertion and reoccupation of the city
throughout its history.
That these floods were catastrophic is shown by silt deposits 80 feet above the present
ground-level, meaning that the flood waters rose to such great heights in this area. The
Harappans at Mohenjodaro tired themselves out, trying to cope with the recurring
floods. A stage came when the impoverished Harappans could not take it anymore and
they simply abandoned the settlement.
Raikes’s Hypothesis
The theory of catastrophic flooding has been carried further by a famous hydrologist
R.L. Raikes. He argued that such flooding, which could drown buildings 30 feet above
the ground-level of the settlement, could not be the result of normal flooding in the
Indus. He believes that Harappan civilization declined because of catastrophic flooding
causing prolonged submergence of cities located on the bank of the Indus. He has
shown that geomorphologically speaking, the Indus area is a disturbed seismic zone.
Earthquakes might have raised the level of flood plains of the lower Indus. This uplift of
the plain along an axis roughly at right angles to that of the Indus blocked the passage of
the river-water to sea. This led to the ponding of the waters of Indus. A lake was
formed in the area where cities of the Indus had once flourished. And, thus, the rising
water levels of the river swallowed up the cities like Mohenjodaro.
It has been pointed out that sites like Sutkagedor and Sutka-koh on the Makran coast
and Balakot near Karachi were seaports of the Harappans. However, at present, they
are located far away from sea-coast. This has happened because of the upliftment of
the land on sea-coast possibly caused by violent tectonic uplifts which, some scholars
believe, took place somewhere in the 2nd millennium BCE. These violent earthquakes,
damming rivers and burning the towns destroyed the Harappan civilization. This led to
136 the disruption of commercial life based on river and coastal communication.
Criticism Harappan Civilization:
Chronology,
This grand theory of the catastrophic fall of the Harappan civilization is not accepted by Geographical Spread,
many scholars. H.T. Lambrick points out that the idea that a river would be dammed in Diffusion and Decline
such a manner even by tectonic uplifts is incorrect due to two reasons:
i) Even if an earthquake artificially raised a bund down-stream, the large volume of
water from the Indus would easily breach it. In recent times, in Sindh a swell of
ground raised by the earthquake of 1819 was breached by the first flood it faced
from one of the smaller streams of the Indus called Nara.
ii) Silt deposition would parallel the rising surface of water in the hypothetical lake. It
would take place along the bottom of the former course of the river. Thus, the silt
of Mohenjodaro might not be the deposition of a flood.
Another criticism of this theory is that it fails to explain the decline of settlements outside
the Indus system.

5.11.2 The Shifting away of the Indus

Lambrick has offered his own explanation for the decline. He believes that changes in
the course of the Indus could be the cause of the destruction of Mohenjodaro. The
Indus is an unstable river system which keeps shifting its bed. Apparently, it shifted
about 30 miles away from Mohenjodaro. The people of the city and the surrounding
food production villages deserted the area because they were starved of water. This
kind of thing happened many times in the history of Mohenjodaro. The silt observed in
the city is actually the product of wind action, blowing in lots of sand and silt. This,
combined with the disintegrating mud, mud-brick and baked-brick structures, produced
what has been mistaken for silt produced by floods.
This theory, too, cannot explain the decline of the Harappan civilization in totality. At
best, it can explain the desertion of Mohenjodaro. And, if the people of Mohenjodaro
were familiar with those kinds of shifts in the river-course why could not they themselves
shift to some new settlement and establish another city like Mohenjodaro? Obviously,
it appears that some other factors were at work.

5.11.3 Increased Aridity and Dying up of Ghaggar

D .P. Agarwal and Sood have introduced a new theory for the decline of the Harappan
civilization. They believe that the Harappan civilization declined because of increasing
aridity in this area and the drying up of the Ghaggar-Hakra. Basing their conclusions on
the studies conducted in the U.S.A., Australia and Rajasthan they have shown that
there was an increase in arid conditions by the middle of the 2nd millennium BCE. In
semi-arid regions like those of Harappa, even a minor reduction in moisture and water
availability could spell disaster. It would affect agricultural production which, in turn,
would put the city economies under stress.
They have discussed the problem of unstable river-systems in western Rajasthan. As
stated earlier, the Ghaggar-Hakra area represented one of the core regions of the
Harappan civilization. The Ghaggar was a mighty stream flowing through Punjab,
Rajasthan and the Rann of Kutch before debouching into the sea. The Sutlej and the
Yamuna used to be its tributaries. Because of some tectonic disturbances, the Sutlej
stream was captured by Indus and the Yamuna shifted east to join the Ganges. This
kind of change in the river regime, which left the Ghaggar waterless, would have
catastrophic implication for the towns located in this area. Apparently, the ecological
disturbances brought by increased aridity and shift in drainage pattern led to the decline
of the Harappan civilization.
137
History of India Interesting though this theory is, it has some problems. The theory about the onset of
from the Earliest arid conditions has not been fully worked out and one needs more information. Similarly,
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
the drying up of the Ghaggar has not been dated properly as yet.

5.11.4 Barbarian Invasions

Wheeler believed that the Harappan civilization was destroyed by the Aryan invaders.
It has been pointed out that in the late phases of occupation at Mohenjodaro, there are
evidences of a massacre. Human skeletons have been found lying on streets. The Rig
Veda time and again refers to the fortresses of the Dasas and the Dasyus. The Vedic
god Indra is called Purandara meaning ‘destroyer of forts’. The geographical area of
the habitation of the Rig Vedic Aryans included Punjab and the Ghaggar-Hakra region.
Since there are no remains of other cultural groups having forts in this area in this
historical phase, Wheeler believed that it was the Harappan cities that were being
described in the Rig Veda. In fact, the Rig Veda mentions a place called Hariyupiya.
This place was located on the bank of Ravi. The Aryans fought a battle here. The name
of the place sounds very similar to that of Harappa. These evidences led Wheeler to
conclude that it was the Aryan invaders who destroyed the cities of Harappa.
Attractive though this theory is, it is not acceptable to a host of scholars. They point out
that the provisional date for the decline of the Harappan civilization is believed to be c.
1800 BCE. The Aryans, on the other hand, are believed to have arrived here not earlier
than a period around 1500 BCE. At the present state of knowledge, it is difficult to
revise either of these dates and so, the Harappans and the Aryans are unlikely to have
met each other. Also, neither Mohenjodaro nor Harappa yield any other evidence of a
military assault. The evidence of human bodies lying exposed in streets is important.
This, however, could have been caused by raids by bandits from the surrounding hilly
tracts. In any case, the big cities were already in a state of decay. This cannot be
explained by the invasion hypothesis.
Theories of Decline I: Sudden (Catastrophic) Theories
Flood and Earthquake Mohenjodaro Destroyed Increased Aridity Led to Barbarian or Aryan
by Shifting of the Indus the Decline Invasions Destroyed
Harappa
Flood: Evidence Evidence Evidence Evidence
a) Occupation levels Silt is there in Harappa a) Middle of 2nd a) Human skeletons
divided by silt deposits. because of wind action millenniun BCE – a have been found lying
b) Houses and streets which brought sand and period of increased on streets.
covered by silt up to 30 silt. Sand silt not due to arid conditions. b) The Rig Veda refers
ft. above ground level. floods. b) In such a situation, to fortresses of dasas
c) Houses built on silt a semi-arid region which god Purandara
covered debris. (like Harappa) (Indra) destroys.
would be affected c) The geographical area
most – decline of of the RigVeda
agriculture would Aryans includes
be the result. Punjab and the
c) Tectonic movement Ghaggar region.
would affect river d) The Vedas mention a
system like the place called
Ghaggar which Hariyupiya on the
would dry up. bank of Ravi where
Aryans fought a
battle. Name similar
to Harappa.

138
 Earthquake: Evidence
a) The Indus area is a
disturbed earthquake
zone.
b) Earthquakes raised the
level of flood plains,
blocking the passage of
river-water to sea,
forcing water into
cities.
c) Earthquakes caused
shift of land away
from the sea-coast,
affecting commercial
cities.
Criticism Criticism Criticism Criticism
a) The decline of This can explain only the a) Not fully worked out. The decline of Harappa
settlements outside desertion of b) Drying-up of the occurred around 1800
Indus valley will not be Mohenjodaro, but not its Ghaggar not dated BCE, whereas the Aryans
explained by this decline. yet. were not earlier than
theory. c.1500 BCE. So, the
b) A river cannot be theory of the Harappans-
dammed by Aryans clash seems
tectonic effects. difficult to accept.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1) The decline of the Harappan civilization cannot be explained by floods and
earthquakes theory because:
i) it explains the decline of settlements outside the Indus valley.
ii) it cannot explain the decline of settlements outside the Indus valley.
iii) the Harappans knew how to face floods and earthquakes.
iv) none of the above.
2) The increased aridity in the Harappan area cannot explain the decline of Harappan
Civilization because:
i) it is a fully worked out theory.
ii) it is not a fully worked out theory.
iii) drying-up of the Ghaggar is not dated yet.
iv) both (ii) and (iii).
3) Discuss in about 50 words the evidence for and against the theory of the Barbarian
invasions having destroyed Harappa.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

5.12 ECOLOGICAL IMBALANCE: THEORY OF

GRADUAL DECLINE
Scholars like Fairservis tried to explain the decay of Harappan civilization in terms of
problems of ecology. He computed the population of the Harappan cities and worked
out food requirements of the townsmen. He also computed that the villagers in these
areas consumed about 80% of their produce, leaving about 20% for the market. If
similar patterns of agriculture existed in the past, a city like Mohenjodaro, having a
population of about 35,000, would require very large number of villages producing 139
History of India food. According to Fairservis’s calculation the delicate ecological balance of these semi-
from the Earliest arid areas was being disturbed because human and cattle population in these areas was
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
fast depleting the scanty forests, food and fuel resources. The combined needs of the
Harappan townsmen, peasants and pastoralists exceeded the limited production
capacities of these areas. Thus, a growing population of men and animals confronted
by scanty resources wore out the landscape.
With the forests and the grass cover gradually disappearing, there were more floods
and droughts. This depletion of the subsistence-base caused strain on the entire economy
of the civilization. There seems to have been a gradual movement away to areas which
offered better subsistence possibilities. That is why the Harappan communities moved
towards Gujarat and eastern areas, away from the Indus.
Of all the theories discussed so far, Fairservis’s theory seems to be the most plausible
one. Probably, the gradual deterioration in town-planning and living standards was a
reflection of depleting subsistence base of the Harappans. This process of decline was
completed by raids and attacks from the surrounding communities. However, the theory
of environmental disaster also has some problems, which are as follows:
 The enduring fertility of the soils of the Indian sub-continent over subsequent millennia
disproves the hypothesis of soil exhaustion in this area.
 Also, the computation of the needs of the Harappan population is based on scanty
information and a lot more information would be needed to make a calculation of
the subsistence needs of the Harappans.
Thus, any theory based on such scanty information will remain a hypothesis, unless
substantiated by more evidence in its favour.
The emergence of Harappan civilization involved a delicate balance of relations between
cities, towns and villages, rulers, peasants and nomads. It also means a fragile but
important relationship with the communities of neighbouring areas who were in possession
of minerals crucial for trade. Similarly, it meant maintenance of contact with contemporary
civilizations and cultures. Apart from this, we have to take into account the ecological
factor of relationship with nature. Any breakdown in these chains of relationships could
lead to the decline of the cities.

5.13 THE TRADITION SURVIVES

Scholars working on the Indus civilization no longer look for the causes of its decline.
This is because of the fact that the scholars who studied the Harappan civilization right
up to the 1960s believed that the collapse of the civilization was sudden. These scholars
concentrated their work on the studies of the cities, town planning and large structures.
Such problems as the relationship of Harappan cities with contemporary villages and
continuity of various elements of Harappan civilization were ignored. Thus, the debate
about the causes of the decline of the Harappan civilization became more and more
abstract. It was towards the end of 60s that scholars like Malik and Possehl focused
their attention on various aspects of the continuity of the Harappan tradition. These
studies have yielded more exciting result than the debate about the causes for the decline
of the Harappan civilization. It is true that Harappa and Mohenjodaro were abandoned,
and the urban phase came to an end. However, if we take a perspective covering the
entire geographical spread of the Harappan civilization, quite a few things seem to
continue in old style.
Archaeologically speaking, some changes are observable – some of the settlements
were abandoned but most other settlements remained in occupation. However, the
140 tradition of uniform writing, seals, weights and pottery was lost. Objects showing intensive
interaction among far-flung settlements were lost. In other words, the activities associated Harappan Civilization:
with city-centered economies were given up. Thus, the changes that came about simply Chronology,
Geographical Spread,
indicated the end of the urban phase. Small villages and towns continued to exist and Diffusion and Decline
the archaeological finds from these sites show many elements of Harappan tradition.
In most of the sites in Sindh it is difficult to observe any change in pottery tradition. In
fact, in the areas of Gujarat, Rajasthan and Haryana, vibrant agricultural communities
emerged in large numbers in the succeeding period. Thus, from a regional perspective,
the period succeeding the urban phase can be treated as one of the flourishing agricultural
villages which outnumber those of the urban phase. That is why scholars now discuss
issues like cultural change, regional migrations and modifications in the systems of
settlement and subsistence. After all, no one talks about the end of the ancient Indian
civilization in early medieval India when most of the cities of the Gangetic valley declined.
Let us see what kinds of archaeological remains survive after the end of the urban
phase.

5.13.1 Sindh
In Sindh, i.e. at the Harappan towns Amri, Chanhu-daro, Jhukar etc., people continued
to live as of old. They were still staying in brick houses but they gave up the planned lay
out. They were using a slightly different pottery called Jhukar pottery. It was a buff-
ware with red slip with paintings in black. Recent studies have suggested that this pottery
evolved from mature Harappan pottery and as such, need not be considered as something
new. At Jhukar certain distinctive metal objects have been found which might be indicative
of trade links with Iran or what is more likely – the influx of a migrant population having
Iranian or central Asian influences. A shaft-hole, axes and copper pins with looped or
decorated heads have parallels in Iranian settlements. Circular stamp seals of stone or
faience and a bronze cosmetic jar are also indicative of contacts with cultures to the
west of Indus.

5.13.2 Indo-Iranian Borderlands

The areas to the west of Indus – Baluchistan and the Indo-Iranian borderlands – also
show the presence of people using copper stamp seals and copper shaft-hole axes.
Sites like Shahi Tump, Mundigak, Naushahro and Pirak indicate movements of people
and contacts with Iran. Unfortunately, the dating of these settlements is still not clearly
worked out.

5.13.3 Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan

In the areas of Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan, several settlements have been reported
where people continued to live in the same old way after the decline of cities. However,
Harappan influences on the pottery tradition gradually declined and the local pottery
traditions which were always present along with Harappan pottery gradually replaced
the Harappan pottery altogether. Thus, the decline of urbanizm was reflected in the
reassertion of regional traditions in these areas. The sites of Mitathal, Bara, Ropar and
Siswal are well known. Brick houses have been reported from Bara and Siswal. In
many of these sites, Ochre Coloured Pottery has been found. This pottery underlay
many early historical sites in ancient India. As such, these village cultures of Punjab,
Haryana and Rajasthan are linked with Harappan tradition of the past and anticipate
the early Indian tradition. In the upper Gangetic valley, 139 late Harappan settlements
were established. They show remote late Harappan influences. This area became the
heartland of the subsequent phase of the Indian civilization .

141
History of India
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.

Late Harappan Pottery from Haryana. Source: EHI-02, Block-2, Unit-9.

5.13.4 Kutch and Saurashtra

In Kutch and Saurashtra, the end of urban phase is clearly documented in places like
Rangapur and Somnath. Even during the urban phase, they had a local ceramic tradition
co-existing with Harappan pottery. This tradition continued in later phases. Some sites
like Rangapur seem to have become more prosperous in the succeeding period. They
were using potteries called Lustrous Red Ware. However, the people stopped using
Indus weights, script and tools imported from distant areas. Now they were using stone
tools made of locally available stones.
In the mature Harappan phase there were 13 settlements in Gujarat. In the subsequent
late Harappan period dated to about 2100 BCE the number of settlements went up to
200 or more. This increase in the number of settlements indicating an increase in
population cannot be explained by biological factors. In pre-modern societies population
could not increase so much in a space of a few generations that 13 settlements would
multiply into more than 200 or more settlements. Thus, there is a distinct possibility that
people inhabiting these new settlements came from other areas. Late Harappan
settlements have also been reported from Maharashtra where their culture merged into
those of the emerging agricultural communities.

5.14 TRANSMISSION OF THE HARAPPAN

TRADITION
The end of cities did not mean the end of the Harappan tradition. It is evident from our
discussion that archaeologically speaking, the Harappan communities merged into
surrounding agricultural groups. However, the centralized decision-making in the polity
and economy had ended. The Harappan communities which continued after the urban
phase would have definitely retained their older traditions. It is likely that the Harappan
peasants would retain their forms of worship. The priests of the Harappan urban centres
were part of a highly organized literate tradition. Even if literacy ended they are likely to
have preserved their religious practices. The dominant community of the subsequent
early historic period called itself ‘The Aryans’. Possibly, the priestly groups of Harappans
merged into the ruling groups of the Aryans. As such, the Harappan religious tradition
would be transmitted to historical India. The folk communities also retained the traditions
of craftsmanship as is evident from pottery and tool-making traditions. Once again,
when literate urban culture emerged in early India, it absorbed elements of folk cultures.
This would provide a more effective channel of transmission of the Harappan tradition.

142
 Harappan Civilization:
Theories of Decline II: Gradual Decline Theories Chronology,
Geographical Spread,
Decline Due to Ecological Imbalance Diffusion and Decline
Evidence
1) The calculation that ecological balance in these semi-arid areas was being
disturbed because the human and cattle population was depleting scarce forests,
food & fuel resources.
2) With the forests disappearing, there were more floods and droughts.
3) Townsmen moved away to Gujarat and eastern areas.
4) This process of decline was completed by raids and attacks by nearby
settlements.
Criticism
1) The soil continues to be fertile till today in this area. This disproves the soil-
exhaustion hypothesis.
2) The calculation of the needs of Harappan towns requires more information before
this hypothesis is substantiated.
The No-Decline or Continuity Hypothesis
The ecological argument has focused on the relationship between humans and nature
in Indus valley. The problems in explaining decline has led the scholars to:
a) abandon the search for the causes of decline.
b) look for continuities of Harappa in a geographical perspective.
c) accept that the cities declined and certain traditions like seals, writing, pottery
were lost.

5.15 WHAT SURVIVES FROM HARAPPAN

CIVILIZATION?
The cults of Pashupati (Shiva) and of the mother goddess and phallic worship seem to
have come down to us from the Harappan tradition. Similarly, the cult of sacred places,
rivers or trees and sacred animals show a distinct continuity in subsequent historic
civilization of India. The evidence of fire-worship and sacrifice at Kalibangan and Lothal
is significant. These were the most significant elements of the Vedic religion. Could the
Aryans have learnt these practices from Harappan priesthood? This hypothesis would
require more evidence, but it is not unlikely.
Many aspects of domestic life like house-plans, disposition of water supply and attention
to bathing survived in the settlements of subsequent periods. The traditional weight and
currency system of India, based on a ratio of 16 as the unit, was already present in the
Harappan civilization. It might well have been derived from them. The techniques of
making potter’s wheel in modern India are similar to those used by the Harappans.
Bullock-carts and boats used in modem India were already present in the Harappan
cities. As such, we can say that many elements of Harappan civilization survived in the
subsequent historical tradition of India.
143
History of India
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.

Archaeological Remains of Washroom Drainage System at Lothal. Credit: Abhilashdvbk. Source:

Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:The_drainage_system_
at_Lothal_2.JPG).

Check Your Progress Exercise 4

1) It is difficult to accept the theory of ecological imbalance because: (Mark () the
correct statement).
i) it does not explain why soil continues to be fertile in the Indus valley area
( )
ii) we do not have adequate data to tell us about the needs of Harappan towns
( )
iii) the townsmen continued to stay on in Harappa ( )
iv) both (i) and (ii) ( )
2) Mark () the correct statement.
Scholars today:
i) are looking for fresh causes of the decline of the Harappan civilization ( )
ii) have stopped looking for fresh causes of the decline of Harappan civilization
( )
iii) are looking for what survived from Harappan civilization in the later settlements
( )
iv) both (ii) and (iii) ( )
3) Write in about 50 words about the importance of what has survived from Harappan
civilization.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

144
 Harappan Civilization:
5.16 SUMMARY Chronology,
Geographical Spread,
The discovery of the Harappan civilization holds a very special significance for the Diffusion and Decline
study of Indian history. It altered the notions about the origins of Indian history and
stretched it much further back so as to put it at par with other oldest civilizations of the
world, namely Egypt and Mesopotamia. The discovery of Harappan civilization was a
result mainly of archaeological sources. In this Unit, you learnt about the process through
which the civilization came to be discovered, various details about the stages through
which the early Harappan civilization passed, its gradual evolution and spreading out
into many areas.
In this Unit we also saw that scholars have offered various theories of the sudden
decline of Harappa. But all these theories had to be given up because of lack of adequate
evidence. Gradually, scholars have given up looking for causes of the decline of Harappa.
Now the focus is on understanding the late phases of Harappan civilization. This is
looked into to expose the continuities of Harappan civilization which might have survived
in to the flourishing agricultural communities of the time. And, no doubt, there have been
certain characteristics of Harappan civilization which transcended down to the subsequent
historic phase.

Perforated Jar. Source: EHI-02, Block-2, Unit-9.

5.17 KEY WORDS

Alluvial Plain : The area bordering the river-bank on which fine
material is deposited by the river at the time of
flood.
Arid : Dry.
Catastrophic : Disastrous.
Chronology : The method of computing time.
Dasa and Dasyu : Peoples mentioned in the Rig Veda. The Aryans
were in conflict with their chiefs.
Ecology : Study of plants or animals or peoples and
institutions in relationship to environment.
Late Levels : An excavated archaeological site is divided into 145
History of India layers or settlement levels according to their ages.
from the Earliest Accordingly, the late or the youngest settlement
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
level will be somewhere near the top of the site
and the oldest will be at the bottom-most layer.
Nomadism : A way of life associated with cattle-herders and
foraging communities. People do not stay at one
place but keep moving from one place to another.
Occupational deposits : At each level of the excavated site, there will be
evidence in form of pottery etc. to show that the
site was occupied. These deposits are called
occupational deposits.
Ochre Coloured Pottery : A kind of pottery found in the upper Gangetic
plains. It has been found at levels that underlie
early Indian historical pottery.
Pastoral Nomadism : A social organization associated with cattle,
sheep and goat herders who move from one
place to another in search of pastures.
Radio-Carbon Dating : It is also called C-14 dating. It is a method of
measuring in dead organic matter the radio-active
isotope C-14 which disappears at a known and
calculable rate.
Seal : A piece of wax or stone or some other material,
on which some design is carved. It is used as a
means of authentication.
Sealing : The object carrying the stamp of the seal.
Silt : Material deposit from a flowing river on the
banks.
Tectonic Uplift : Relating to the process which elevates large areas
of the earth’s surface.

5.18 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) (i) , (ii) ×, (iii) , (iv) ×
2) See Section 5.6
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) (i) , (ii) , (iii) ×, (iv) ×
2) See Section 5.8 and Section 5.9.
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
1) (ii), 2 (iv), 3) See Sub-sec. 5.11.4. Your answer should include both material and
written evidence.
146
Check Your Progress Exercise 4 Harappan Civilization:
Chronology,
1) (iv), 2) (iv), 3) See Sec. 5.15. Your answer should tell us how this points to the Geographical Spread,
continuity of Harappan tradition. Diffusion and Decline

5.19 SUGGESTED READINGS

Agrawal, D. P. and Chakrabarti, D. K. (1979). [Ed] Essays in Indian Proto-History.
New Delhi.
Allchin, Bridget and F.R. (1988). The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan.
New Delhi: Select Book Service.
Kosambi, D. D. (1987). The Culture and Civilization of Ancient India in its Historical
Outline. New Delhi: Vikas.
Lal, B. B. and Gupta, S. P. (1982). [Ed.] Frontiers of the Indus Civilization. New
Delhi.
Marshall, John (1973). Mohenjodaro and the Indus Civilization. Volumes I and II.
(Reprint).

147
 UNIT 6 HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION:
MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS,
NATURE OF CONTACTS, SOCIETY
AND RELIGION*
Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 From Villages to Towns and Cities
6.3 Sources to Know About the Harappan Civilization
6.4 Geographical Spread
6.5 Important Centres
6.5.1 Harappa
6.5.2 Mohenjodaro
6.5.3 Kalibangan
6.5.4 Lothal
6.5.5 Sutkagen-Dor

6.6 Material Characteristics

6.6.1 Town-Planning
6.6.2 Pottery
6.6.3 Tools and Implements
6.6.4 Arts and Crafts
6.6.5 The Indus Script
6.6.6 Subsistence Pattern

6.7 Establishment of Trading Networks

6.8 Intra-Regional Contacts
6.8.1 Cities
6.8.2 Villages

6.9 Source of Raw Materials

6.10 Exchange System
6.11 Trade with the Persian Gulf and Mesopotamia
6.11.1 Archaeological Evidence of Contacts
6.11.2 Literary Evidence

6.12 Mode of Transport

6.13 Society
6.13.1 Dress Styles
6.13.2 Food Habits
6.13.3 Language and Scripts
6.13.4 Warfare
6.13.5 Main Crafts/Occupations
148 * This Unit has been adopted from EHI-02, Block 2.
6.14 Who Ruled Them? Harappan Civilization:
Material Characteristics,
6.15 Religion and Religious Practices Nature of Contacts, Society
6.15.1 Places of Worship and Religion
6.15.2 Objects of Worship
6.15.3 Burial of the Dead

6.16 Summary
6.17 Key Words
6.18 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
6.19 Suggested Readings

6.0 OBJECTIVES
This Unit deals with the geographical extent and material features of the Harappan
civilization. It describes main sites of the civilization as well as the material remains
which characterized these sites. It also throws light on different aspects of society and
religious practices of the Harappan people. After reading this Unit you should be able
to:
 understand that there was continuity of population and material traditions between
the early-Harappan cultures and Harappan civilization;
 know about the geographical and climatic aspects of the settlement pattern of the
Harappan civilization;
 describe the specific geographical, climatic and subsistence related characteristics
of important centres of the Harappan civilization;
 learn about the material features of the important Harappan sites and especially,
the uniformities in the material features of these sites;
 explain why the Harappans tried to establish links with faraway lands;
 know about the nature of contact among Harappan towns and the surrounding
areas;
 learn about trade and exchange activities of the Harappans with contemporary
west Asian civilizations;
 know about our sources of information on this nature of contact and exchange
network;
 know about dresses and food habits of the Harappans;
 discuss the controversy about their script and language;
 list their main occupations;
 understand the nature of ruling classes;
 recall their religious practices and prominent gods; and
 know about their burial practices.

6.1 INTRODUCTION
In this Unit we discuss the geographical spread and the material characteristics of the
Harappan civilization which arose on the foundation of pastoral and agricultural
communities and small townships. It refers to the continuity of population and material
traditions between the early-Harappan cultures and Harappan civilization. It, then,
attempts to familiarize you with town planning, important structures, arts and crafts, 149
History of India housing patterns, pottery, tools and implements, subsistence patterns and script of the
from the Earliest civilization. This Unit also brings out the uniformities in the material characteristics of
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
Harappan sites.
The civilization was characterized by the presence of a large number of small and large
towns. Apart from the cities like Harappa and Mohenjodaro even very small settlements
like Allahdino (near Karachi) have yielded material characteristics of an urban economy.
An urban economy is characterized by a vast network of relationships which transcend
its physical space. You will see in this Unit how the people of Harappa were in active
interaction with other cities and towns located at a distance of hundreds of miles from
Harappa. This Unit goes on to explain the reasons why did the cities establish trading
networks and also forms of inter-regional trade. It also takes into account the sources
of raw materials and extent of contact with contemporary west Asian civilizations. Of
course, all this knowledge about the Harappan civilization is gained through various
historical sources and they have been explained in the Unit as well.
Finally, in this Unit we will discuss the society and religion of the Harappans. One might
ask what the Harappans looked like. What was their clothing pattern? What did they
read and write? What kinds of jobs did their townsfolk do? What language did they
speak? What food did they eat? Did they play games and did they fight? Who ruled
over them? What were their temples and gods like? These are some very simple questions
which the scholars find difficult to answer. This is because of the nature of sources
available for knowing about this period. The main sources available are in the form of
archaeological findings excavated from different sites. Answers to many of the questions
related to the realm of ideas and feelings are difficult to provide with our present
knowledge about this civilization. Even an innocuous question like – whether a Harappan
was feeling a sense of pleasure while making a carnelian bead? – cannot be answered.
In this Unit we will try to derive some answers from the silent objects which had been
lying abandoned for thousands of years.

6.2 FROM VILLAGES TO TOWNS AND CITIES

In the previous Unit we saw how pastoral nomadic and agricultural communities
established themselves in the Indus plain and how some small townships, having contacts
with faraway lands, had come into existence. On the foundation of these agricultural
communities and small townships emerged the Harappan civilization. By the term
‘Harappan Civilization’ we mean that the Harappan society was characterized by the
presence and domination of large cities in this phase of history. This would also mean
the presence of specialized craftsmen, long-distance trade, existence of rich and poor
people and presence of kings. Apart from these general features common to all
civilizations, there were some particular features of the Harappan civilization. In the
geographical space where the remains of the civilization have been found communities
were using the same written script. A Harappan community, whether it was staying in
Rajasthan or Punjab or Sindh, would be using the same sets of weights and measures.
The copper-bronze tools used by them were also uniform in design, shape and size; the
bricks they used had a proportion 4:2:1. Some of their towns were also characterized
by uniformities in the planning of buildings, citadels etc. The seals, shell (shankha)
bangles, carnelian beads and disc beads of steatite were also uniformly designed in the
entire geographical space covered by the cities of the civilization. Most of the time, a
Harappan site is identified by the use of a pinkish pottery with bright red slip, having
standard representations of trees, animals, birds and geometric motifs in black. These
uniformities in material features of the Harappan sites were the characteristic traits of
Harappan civilization.
150
 Harappan Civilization:
6.3 SOURCES TO KNOW ABOUT THE HARAPPAN Material Characteristics,
CIVILIZATION Nature of Contacts, Society
and Religion
The information about the civilization comes from reports of excavations at places like
Harappa and Mohenjodaro. The excavations at Harappa began in 1921. Many
Harappan settlements have been located and excavated since then. Famed archaeologists
like Sir John Marshall and Sir Mortimer Wheeler conducted excavations at Harappan
settlements. These scholars, by carefully studying material remains, have made the relics
of the past speak. Since we cannot read the written words of the Harappans we have
to draw conclusions on the basis of the study of artifacts used by them. By now, more
than 1000 settlements bearing Harappan material have been discovered. However,
most of these settlements have not been excavated. According to one estimate only 3%
of reported Harappan settlements have been excavated. Even at sites where excavation-
work has been carried out not more than one-fifth area has been excavated. Some sites
like Ganweriwala in the Hakra valley and Furukslan in Punjab, which are reported to
be nearly as large as Mohenjodaro, have not even been touched by the excavators.
This is because excavation involves a very large investment of money and manpower.
At present the Governments of India or Pakistan do not have sufficient money to fund
these excavations. However, one thing is clear: when we are making generalisations
about Harappan civilization we have to be extremely cautious. Any new discovery or
excavation report can substantially modify our views about the Harappans. For example,
scholars like Mortimer Wheeler, who wrote nearly 20 years ago, believed that the
civilization appeared fully developed in the Indus valley and it had little in common with
the people who lived in these areas in the preceding period. However, a careful analysis
of the available materials and new excavation reports have convinced the archaeologists
that the civilization developed over a long period of time in and around Indus valley
region itself. We have studied the developments in the ‘early-Harappan’ period in the
preceding Unit: we find that there was a continuity of population and technical skill
between the ‘early-Harappan’ and the Harappan periods. A process of evolution was
evident in agricultural settlements, and basic crafts and distinct Indus style itself were
probably carried over from earlier regional traditions. Since the study of Harappan
civilization remains, in many respects, incomplete, therefore, it is one of the most
challenging areas of study and research for the students and historians of ancient Indian
history.

6.4 GEOGRAPHICAL SPREAD

Scholars generally believe that Harappa-Ghaggar-Mohenjodaro axis represents the
heartland of Harappan civilization. Most of the Harappan settlements are located in this
region. It is characterized by certain uniformities. The entire zone is a flat stretch of land
having similar subsistence pattern. Snowmelt from the Himalayas and monsoon rains
define its flooding pattern. This would create similar kinds of possibilities for agriculture
and pastoralism. The Kachhi plain to the west of Indus system is in the transitional zone
of Iranian borderlands. It is a flat alluvial outwash located at the foot of Bolan pass and
lake Manchar. It is an inhospitable country and, except for its periphery, is completely
dry. Sites like Nowsharo, Judeirjodaro and Ali-Murad have been reported from this
area. The settlements of Sutka-koh and Sutkagen-Dor on Makran coast represent the
driest part of the hilly Baluchistan region. They are the known western boundaries of
the Harappans. The Harappan settlements at Shortughai in north-eastern Afghanistan
seem to have been isolated colonies of the Harappans.
The eastern borderlands of the civilization are represented by such settlements as
Bargaon, Manpur and Alamgirpur in UP. The subsistence system of these sites located 151
History of India in the Ganga-Yamuna doab was in conformity to their geographical location. This area
from the Earliest had higher rainfall and denser forests. It falls outside the zone of pastoral nomadism and
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
falls in the wheat-producing area. Therefore, it would pose different kinds of problems
of settlement. This is why some scholars believe that this area represents an independent
cultural province receiving stimulus from the Harappans. Manda in Jammu and Ropar
in Punjab represent the northern extremities of the Harappans in India. The settlements
of Daimabad in Maharashtra and Bhagatrav in Gujarat might have formed the southern
frontier of the Harappans.
In Gujarat too the settlement pattern was not uniform. There were small dissected
plateaus and scraplands in Kutch and Kathiawad. On the other hand, this area had a
large seacoast in Gulf of Cambay and Rann of Kutch. The Harappans in Gujarat were
familiar with rice and millet.
The Harappan civilization seems to have covered a very large area. Its area was larger
than those of contemporary civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt. In Mesopotamia
settlements were spread out all across the riverine plains in dense clusters. However,
except in the Ghaggar-Hakra region the Harappan settlements were very thinly spread
out. Sites in Rajasthan and Gujarat could be divided by hundreds of kilometers of
deserts and marshes. The nearest Harappan neighbour of Shortughai would be about
300 km. away. These vacant spaces might have been inhabited by primitive communities
who were still surviving by hunting-gathering or by pastoral nomadism. Similarly, we
get some idea of the size of population that lived in any of the Harappan cities from the
studies conducted in this field. Scholars believe that the largest Harappan city, i.e.
Mohenjodaro, had a population of about 35,000. The smallest towns of modern India
would have a larger population than the biggest towns of Harappans. We have to
remember that in Harappan period the fastest means of transport was bullock-cart,
iron was unknown and the use of plough was considered a revolutionary discovery.
With such primitive technology a civilization which managed to bring together far-flung
areas in a complex web of socio-economic relationship was a stunning achievement in
those days.

6.5 IMPORTANT CENTRES

152
Sites of the Harappan Civilization. Source: EHI-02, Block-2, Unit-6.
One might ask why the Harappans tried to occupy such faraway places as Shortughai Harappan Civilization:
in Afghanistan or Surkotada in Gujarat. We may find the answer to this question if we Material Characteristics,
Nature of Contacts, Society
try to examine the details of the location and characteristics of some important sites. and Religion

6.5.1 Harappa
Harappa was the first site to be excavated. From the 1920s onwards archaeologists
like Dayaram Sahni, M.S.Vats and Mortimer Wheeler carried out excavations at
Harappa. It is located on the bank of Ravi in western Punjab. In terms of its size and
variety of objects discovered it ranks as the premier city of the Harappan civilization.
The ruins of the city cover a circuit of about three miles. What is intriguing, however, is
the fact that there are no clusters of sites around Harappa. A substantial section of the
population here was engaged in activities other than food production. These activities
could relate to administration, trade, craft work or religion. Since these people were
not producing food for themselves someone else would have to do it for them. Productivity
was low and transportation was quite difficult. Thus, for maintaining these non-food
producers the community would have to mobilize a very large number of people for
procuring and transporting food from food-producing areas. However, these areas
would not have been very far from the city because the transportation of grains was
done by bullock-carts and boats. Some scholars have suggested that the surrounding
villages might have been engaged in shifting cultivation in meander flood plains of the
rivers. Villages had to keep shifting according to changes in the flood plains of the
rivers. The location of Harappa in isolation can be explained by the fact that it was
located in the midst of some important trade routes which are still in use. These routes
connected Harappa with central Asia, Afghanistan and Jammu. Its pre-eminent position
was linked to its ability to procure exotic items from faraway lands.

A Fortification Wall, Harappa. Monument in Pakistan Identified as the PB-138. Credit: Haseeb
Ur Rehman malik. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Fortification_Wall.JPG).

6.5.2 Mohenjodaro
Mohenjodaro, located in the Larkana district of Sindh on the bank of Indus, is the
largest site of Harappan civilization. Most of the information regarding town planning,
housing, seals and sealings of this civilization comes from this site. Excavations began
here in 1922, with Rakhal Das Banerjee and Sir John Marshall taking up the work.
Later on, Mackay and George Dales also conducted excavations. Small scale excavations
and plotting of the site have continued up to the 80s.

153
History of
India
from the
Earliest
Times Upto
C. 300 C.E.

LEFT: City Walls, Mohenjodaro. Author: Quratulain. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:City_walls_Moenjodaro.jpg).
RIGHT: ‘Proto-Shiva’ Seal from Mohenjodaro, c. 2600-1900 BCE. Source: http://
www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/bce_500back/indusvalley/protoshiva/
protoshiva.jpg. Photo Courtesy: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Shiva_Pashupati.jpg).

Excavations show that people lived here for a very long time and went on building and
rebuilding houses at the same location. As a result of this the height of the remains of
building and debris is about 75 feet. Ever since the time of occupation there were
regular floods at Mohenjodaro which caused deposition of alluvial soil. The continuous
deposition of silt over the centuries has raised the level of the land around Mohenjodaro
by about 30 feet. The ground water table has risen correspondingly. Thus, the oldest
buildings in Mohenjodaro have been found to be about 39 feet below the level of
modern level at the plain. Archaeologists have not been able to excavate these levels
because of the rise in water table.

LEFT: Painting of the Skeletons found during the Digging at Mohenjodaro. Author: Soban.
Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Painting_of_the_
skeletons_found_during_the_digging.jpg).

6.5.3 Kalibangan
The settlement of Kalibangan is located in Rajasthan along the dried up bed of Ghaggar.
As pointed out earlier, this area has had the largest concentration of Harappan settlements.
154 Kalibangan was excavated in the 1960s under the guidance of B. K. Thapar. This
place has yielded evidence of the existence of pre-Harappan and Harappan habitations. Harappan Civilization:
It shows significant variation from Harappa in the sphere of religious beliefs. Some Material Characteristics,
Nature of Contacts, Society
scholars have suggested that Kalibangan might have been part of the ‘Eastern Domain’ and Religion
of Harappan civilization. In the areas of present-day Haryana, east Punjab and western
U.P., Harappan sites like Bara, Siswal and Alamgirpur have been discovered. They
give evidence of the presence of distinct local traditions in pottery along with Harappan
pottery. Kalibangan might have been a mediator between the Harappan cultural zone
and eastern provinces.

6.5.4 Lothal
In Gujarat, settlements such as Rangapur, Surkotada and Lothal have been discovered.
Lothal is located in the coastal flats of Gulf of Cambay. This place seems to have been
an outpost for sea-trade with contemporary west Asian societies. Its excavator S. R.
Rao claims to have discovered a dockyard here.

6.5.5 Sutkagen-Dor
Sutkagen-Dor is located near Makran coast which is close to Pakistan-Iran border. At
present the settlement is land-locked in dry inhospitable plains. The town had a citadel
surrounded by a stone wall built for defence. Its location in an inhospitable area can
only be explained by the need of sea-port for trading.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) Discuss the geographical location of important centres of the Harappan civilization.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
2) Match the following sites with their present-day geographical location.
1) Harappa a) Rajasthan
2) Kalibangan b) Sindh (Pakistan)
3) Mohenjodaro c) Makran coast (Pakistan-Iran border)
4) Sutkagen-Dor d) West Punjab (Pakistan)
3) Mark right ( ) or wrong (×) against the following statements:
i) Harappa, located in west Punjab, is the largest site of Harappan civilization.
( )
ii) Mohenjodaro was the first Harappan site to be excavated. ( )
iii) Excavations at Harappa were first conducted by R. D. Banerjee and Sir
John Marshall. ( )
iv) Scholars believe that Harappa-Ghaggar-Mohenjodaro axis represents the
heartland of Harappan civilization. ( )
155
History of India
from the Earliest 6.6 MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
In this section we discuss the material characteristics of Harappan civilization. We will
take into account town planning, pottery, tools and implements, arts and crafts, scripts
and subsistence pattern of the civilization.

6.6.1 Town-Planning
Archaeologists like Mortimer Wheeler and Stuart Piggot believed that Harappan towns
had a remarkable unity of conception. This was suggested by the division of each town
into two parts. In one part was a raised citadel where the rulers were staying, in the
other part of town lived the ruled and poor. This unity of planning would also mean that
if you were walking on the streets of Harappa – houses, temples, granaries and streets
themselves will be almost identical to those of Mohenjodaro or any other Harappan
town for that matter. The entire idea of unity of conception was derived from the notion
of a community of foreigners suddenly conquering the Indus valley and building new
towns. Such towns were designed to separate the natives from the rulers. Thus, the
rulers built citadels which kept them in glorious isolation. Such ideas of the sudden
emergence of Harappan towns and unity of planning are being increasingly rejected by
new scholars. The Harappan towns were located on the flood-plains of rivers, on
fringes of deserts or on sea coast. This meant that people living in these different regions
faced different kinds of challenges from nature. Their adaptation to environment would
introduce diversity in their town-planning and life style too. Also, many large and seemingly
important buildings were located in the lower city.
The settlements of Harappa, Mohenjodaro and Kalibangan show certain uniformities
in their planning. These cities were divided into a citadel on the west side and a lower
town on the eastern side of the settlement. The citadel was built on a high podium of
mud brick. It seems to have contained large structures which might have functioned as
administrative or ritual centres. The lower city contained residential areas. In
Mohenjodaro and Harappa, the citadel was surrounded by a brick wall. At Kalibangan,
both the citadel and the lower city were surrounded by a wall; streets ran from north to
south in the lower city and cut at right angles. Obviously, this kind of alignment of streets
and houses represents conscious town-planning. However, the resources of town
planners in those days would be very limited. This assumption is based on finds from
Mohenjodaro and Kalibangan where the streets stagger from block to block and the
alignments of streets and buildings in one part of Mohenjodaro (Moneer area) are quite
different from the rest of the areas. Mohenjodaro was not constructed in homogeneous
horizontal units. In fact, it was built in different times. At Harappa and Mohenjodaro,
baked bricks were used for buildings. At Kalibangan mud bricks were used. In
settlements like Kot Diji and Amri in Sindh there was no fortification of the city. The site
of Lothal in Gujarat also shows a very different layout. It was a rectangular settlement
surrounded by a brick wall. It did not have any internal division into citadel and lower
city. Along the eastern side of the town was found a brick basin which has been identified
as a dockyard by its excavator. The site of Surkotada in Kutch was divided into two
equal parts and the building materials were basically mud bricks and lumps of mud.
Harappans were using baked and unbaked bricks of standard size. This shows that it
was not the individual house owners who made their own bricks, but that brick-making
was organized on a large scale. Similarly, cities like Mohenjodaro showed excellent
arrangements for sanitation. Waste water from houses would pass through chutes
connected with public drains aligned to the margin of the streets. This, again, indicates
the presence of a civic administration which would take decisions for the sanitary
requirements of all townsmen.
156
Some Large Structures Harappan Civilization:
Material Characteristics,
 In Harappa, Mohenjodaro and Kalibangan, the citadel areas contained monumental Nature of Contacts, Society
structures which must have had special functions. This is clear from the fact that and Religion
they stood on a high mud-brick platform. Among these structures is the famous
‘Great Bath’ of Mohenjodaro. This brick built structure measures 12 m. by 7 m.
and is about 3 m. deep. It is approached at either end by flights of steps. Bed of
the bath was made water-tight by the use of bitumen. Water was supplied by a
large well in an adjacent room. There was corbelled drain for disgorging water
too. The bath was surrounded by porticoes and sets of rooms. Scholars generally
believe that the place was used for ritual bathing of kings or priests.

The Great-Bath at Mohenjodaro. Credit: Saqib Qayyum. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Great_bath_view_Mohenjodaro.JPG).

 Another important structure discovered in the citadel mound of Mohenjodaro is

the ‘Granary’. It consists of 27 blocks of brickwork crisscrossed by ventilation
channels. Below it lie the brick loading bays from which grains were raised into the
citadel for storage. Though some scholars have questioned the identification of
this structure with a granary, it is certain that this large structure must have had
some important function.
 To another side of the Great Bath is a long building (230 × 78 feet) which has been
identified as the ‘residence’ of a very high official. It includes an open court of 33
square feet on to which three verandas open.
 Another significant building was an ‘Assembly hall’. It had four rows of five brick
plinths upon which wooden columns were erected. In a row of rooms to the west
of it was found a seated male statue.
 Among the well known buildings of Harappa is the ‘Great Granary’. It consisted
of a series of brick platforms forming the base of two rows of six granaries. To the
south of the granary were found rows of circular brick platforms. That they were
used for threshing grains is clear from the fact that chaffs of wheat and barley were
found in the crevices of the floors.
 Kalibangan was a smaller city compared to Mohenjodaro and Harappa. The
157
History of India most significant discoveries here have been those of fire-altars. A series of brick
from the Earliest platforms were discovered. On one of them was found a row of seven fire altars
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
as well as a pit containing animal bones and antlers.
Housing Pattern
The average citizen seems to have lived in blocks of houses in the lower city. Here too
there were variations in the sizes of houses. It could be single room tenements meant for
slaves like the ones discovered near the granary at Harappa. There were other houses
complete with courtyards and having up to 12 rooms. The bigger houses were provided
with private wells and toilets. These houses had much the same plan – a square courtyard
around which were a number of rooms. The entrances to the houses were from the
narrow lanes which cut the streets at right angles. No windows faced the street. This
meant that the road ward facing of the house would be like a row of brick walls.
The description of houses and townships of the Harappan civilization indicates that
there were people who owned large houses. Some of them bathed in an exclusive
swimming pool (the Great Bath). There were others who lived in barracks. One can
say with certainty that those who lived in larger houses belonged to the rich class whereas
those living in barracks might have been part of a servile class of labourers.
The houses in the lower city also contained a large number of workshops. Potters kilns,
dyers vats and shops of metal workers, shell-ornament makers and bead makers have
been recognized.

6.6.2 Pottery
Among the remains discovered at Harappan settlements, pottery forms an important
category. It represents the blending of ceramic traditions of Baluchistan and cultures
east of the Indus system. Most of the Harappan pottery is plain, but a substantial part is
treated with a red slip and black painted decoration.
The painted decorations consist of horizontal lines of varied thickness, leaf patterns,
scales, chequers, lattice work , palm and Pipal trees. Birds, fishes and animals are also
shown. Among notable shapes found in the Harappan pottery are pedestal, dishes,
goblets, cylindrical vessels perforated all over, and various kinds of bowls. The uniformity
in forms and paintings on pottery is difficult to explain. Normally, the explanation of this
uniformity is the fact that local potters made the pottery. But in areas like Gujarat and
Rajasthan a variety of other kinds of potteries continued to be produced along with
Harappan pottery. Some of the pottery has shown marks of stamp which might indicate
that a few varieties of vessels were traded also. However, it is still unclear how such a
large area exhibited a uniform pottery tradition.

6.6.3 Tools and Implements

The tools and implements used by Harappans also show a striking degree of uniformity
in designs and technique of production. They were using tools made of copper, bronze,
and stone. The basic tools types were flat axe, chisels, knives, spear heads and
arrowheads for copper and bronze implements. In the later stages of the civilization
they were also using daggers, knives, and flat tongs. They were familiar with the
techniques of casting bronze and copper. Stone tools were also in common use. They
were produced on a large scale at factory sites like Sukkur in Sindh and then sent to
various urban centres. Only this could explain the uniformity in tool types. Unlike the
‘early Harappan’ period when there were various tool making traditions, the ‘mature
Harappans’ concentrated on making long regular blades. They indicate a high level of
competence and specialization with little or no concern for beauty and innovation.
158
 Harappan Civilization:
Material Characteristics,
Nature of Contacts, Society
and Religion

Stone-blade tools found at Mohenjodaro. Source: EHI-02, Block-2, Unit-6.

LEFT: Copper and Bronze tools used by the Harappans. Source: EHI-02, Block-2, Unit-6.

RIGHT: Hooks for Fishing. Source: EHI-02, Block-2, Unit-6.

6.6.4 Arts and Crafts

Works of art give us an insight into how society relates itself to its surroundings. They
also give us an idea of how it views nature, human beings and divinity. In pre-modern
societies it is difficult to separate arts and crafts. That is why we shall study them together.
Probably, the most famous art piece from Harappan civilization is the bronze dancing
nude figure discovered at Mohenjodaro. With head drawn backwards, drooping eyes,
right arm on hip and the left arm hanging down, the figure is in a dancing stance. She is
wearing a large number of bangles, and her hair is plaited in an elaborate fashion. It is
considered a masterpiece of Harappan art. The bronze figurines of a buffalo and ram
have beautifully caught the stance of animals. The two little toy-carts of bronze are also
fairly well known objects. Although one was discovered at Harappa and the other at
Chanhudaro, a distance of over 650 km., they are identical in design.

159
History of India
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.

LEFT : Bronze Dancing Girl found at Mohenjodaro. Source: EHI-02, Block-2, Unit-6.
RIGHT : Bearded Man (Mohenjodaro). Source: EHI-02, Block-2, Unit-6.

The stone sculpture of a bearded head found at Mohenjodaro is another well known
piece of Harappan art. Face is bearded with the upper lip shaved. The half closed eyes
might indicate a state of meditation. Across the left shoulder is a cloak carved in relief
with trefoil pattern. Some scholars believe that it is the bust of a priest.
The two small male torsos discovered at Harappa are sometimes believed to have
belonged to later periods. The refined and wonderfully realiztic modeling of the fleshy
parts is extraordinary. However, the Harappans do not seem to have used stone or
bronze for their artistic creations on a large scale. The findings of such works are rare.
Terracotta figurines have been found in large numbers from Harappan settlements. They
were used as toys or cult figures. A variety of birds, monkeys, dogs, sheep and cattle
are represented in these forms along with humped and humpless bulls. A large number
of male and female figurines have also been found. Various models of terracotta carts
are remarkable for the vivacity of modeling. These models show that the bullock-carts
used in those times are ancestors of the actual bullock carts used in modem times.
The Harappans used remarkably beautiful beads made of such precious and semi-
precious stones such as agate, turquoise, carnelian, and steatite. The processes of making
these beads are clear from the finds of a workshop at Chanhudaro. In these processes
the stone was first sawn into an oblong bar, then flaked into a cylindrical shape and
polished. Finally, it was bored either with chert drills or with bronze tubular drills. Gold
and silver beads have also been found. The commonest material used for making beads
was steatite.
The barrel shaped beads with trefoil pattern are typically associated with the Harappan
culture. Carnelian beads are also quite common. At Mohenjodaro was also discovered
a hoard of jewellery consisting of gold beads, fillets and other ornaments. Small dishes
of silver, too, have been found.
160
More than 2000 seals have been found from Harappan settlements. They are considered Harappan Civilization:
‘the outstanding contribution of the Indus civilization’ to ancient craftsmanship. They Material Characteristics,
Nature of Contacts, Society
were generally square in shape and made of steatite, but some round seals have also and Religion
been found. The designs on the seals include a wide range of animals associated with
groups of signs in a semi-pictographic script. Some seals have only scripts carved on
them and some others bear human and semi-human forms. Some seals show the use of
various kinds of geometric patterns. The animal motifs used are Indian bison, Brahmani
bull, rhinoceros, tiger, and elephant. A series of composite animals are also shown. One
such recurrent representation is that of a face of a man with trunk and tusks of an
elephant, horns of bull, fore-part of a ram and hind-quarters of a tiger. These kinds of
seals might have been used for religious purpose. Seals could have also been used for
exchange of goods between distant cities. The seal of a horned deity sitting in a yogic
posture and surrounded by animals has been identified with the god Pashupati.

Some Seals of Harappan Civilization. Source: EHI-02, Block-2, Unit-9.

However, the artworks of the Harappans leave us a little disappointed on two counts:
i) The finds are very limited in number, and
ii) They do not seem to have the variety of expression seen in the artworks of
contemporary civilizations of Egypt and Mesopotamia. 161
History of India Stone sculptures were rare and undeveloped compared to those fashioned by the
from the Earliest Egyptians. The terracotta pieces, also, cannot be compared with those of Mesopotamia
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
in quality. It is possible that the Harappans were using less durable medium like textile
designs and paintings for their artistic expression which have not survived.

6.6.5 The Indus Script

The seals used by the Harappans carried some form of writing. This script is still a
mystery to us because we cannot read it. So far, the other forgotten scripts like those of
ancient Egypt could be read again because scholars found some inscriptions written in
the forgotten script, followed by some of its forms in a known script. We have not
discovered any bilingual inscription at any Harappan site so far. Thus, we do not know
what language the Harappans spoke and what they wrote. Unfortunately, the inscriptions
discovered so far are short, usually engraved on seals. This makes the task of
decipherment all the more difficult. All we know is that they used ideograms and wrote
from right to left. However, scholars are still struggling to unveil the mystery of the
script. If this is successfully done, it might reveal much more about the civilization.

10 Indus Characters from the Northern Gate of Dholavira, called the “Dholavira Signboard”.
Credit: Siyajkak. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
File:The_%27Ten_Indus_Scripts%27_discovered_near_the_northern_gateway_of_
the_Dholavira_citadel.jpg)

6.6.6 Subsistence Pattern

The Harappan urbanizm was based on agricultural production. During various
excavations a large volume of information has emerged about the dietary habits of
Harappans. Apart from sheep and goat, humped cattle seem to have been domesticated.
Bones of boars, buffaloes, elephants and camels have also been found from many
settlements. We do not know as yet whether these animals had been domesticated or
hunted wild. However, a representation of a caparisoned elephant on some seals indicates
that this animal had been domesticated. Bones of fowls have also been found. Possibly,
they had been domesticated. Bones of a large number of the following wild animals
have been found:
 deer,
 rhinoceros,
 tortoise etc.
Horse seems to have been unknown to the Harappans.
Two varieties of wheat are frequently found at Harappan sites. Barley has been frequently
found. Other crops include dates and varieties of leguminous plants such as peas. Besides
these, mustard and sesamum were also grown. At Lothal and Rangapur, rice husk was
found embedded in clay and pottery. We do not as yet know whether they represented
variety of wild rice or rice domesticated and regularly cultivated. India has traditionally
been famous for its cotton clothes. At Mohenjodaro was found a fragment of cotton
cloth. This indicates that the Harappans had already mastered the art of growing and
162 wearing cloth.
The evidence of a furrowed field at Kalibangan indicates that the Harappans were Harappan Civilization:
using some sort of wooden plough. The pattern of crossed furrows, widely spaced in Material Characteristics,
Nature of Contacts, Society
one direction and closely spaced in another, is still followed in this area. The modern and Religion
cultivator furrows his field in this pattern for sowing horse gram or sesamum in one
direction and mustard in another. This was probably true of the Harappans also.
Thus, we find that the Harappan subsistence system was based on the exploitation of a
fairly wide range of crops, domesticated animals and wild animals. This variety would
account for the strength of the subsistence system. They were probably already growing
two crops annually. They also grew two or more kind of crops simultaneously. This
provided strength to the economy to support the large population which lived in the
cities and did not produce its own food.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) Discuss the material characteristics of the Harappan civilization.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
2) Mark right () or wrong (×) against the following statements:
i) The Great Bath is a brick built structure excavated at Harappa. ( )
ii) Great Granary is an important building discovered at Mohenjodaro. ( )
iii) The discovery of fire altars has been made at Lothal. ( )
iv) The Harappans used tools made of iron. ( )
v) The Harappan script has not yet been deciphered.
3) Fill in the blanks with the correct answers:
i) The bronze dancing girl discovered at.................. (Mohenjodaro/Harappa/
Kalibangan) is considered a masterpiece of Harappan art.
ii) At Lothal.................... (rice/wheat/barley) was found embedded in clay.
iii) Among the animals.................. (elephant/camel/horse) seems to have been
unknown to the Harappans.
iv) The evidence of cotton comes from................... (Harappa/Mohenjodaro/
Kalibangan).

6.7 ESTABLISHMENT OF TRADING NETWORKS

It is believed that active interaction among far-flung areas did not exist in the pre-urban
society. One might ask why did the townsmen establish contacts with faraway lands
and how do we know that they had contacts? In urban centres a significant part of
population is engaged in non-food producing activities. These people perform
administrative, religious, trading and manufacturing functions. At the same time, if they
are not producing their own food, someone else has to do it for them. That is why
towns are dependent on the surrounding countryside for food supplies.
163
History of India What is important for us is the fact that the relationship between the city and village was
from the Earliest unequal. By developing as centres of administration or religion the cities attracted wealth
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
of the entire country. This wealth was siphoned off from the hinterland in the form of
taxes, tributes, gifts or purchases of goods. In the Harappan society this wealth was
controlled by the most powerful section of urban society. At the same time, the rich and
well-off sections in the city led a luxurious life. Their social superiority was reflected in
the buildings constructed by them and the acquisition of luxury items which were not
locally available. This indicates that a major reason for the cities to establish contacts
with faraway lands was to cater to the needs of the rich and powerful. This may be one
of the factors behind the Harappans attempting to establish links with faraway lands.
The area formed by Harappa, Bahawalpur and Mohenjodaro seems to have been the
core region of Harappan civilization. However, settlements showing overwhelming
Harappan influence have been found in an area of approximately 1.8 million square km.
A pertinent question to ask here is that how some Harappan out-posts are found in
such far flung areas as Shortughai inAfghanistan and Bhagatrav in Gujarat? The plausible
answer seems to be the economic inter-dependence and trade network between different
regions. Differential access to basic resources was crucial in linking various regions of
the Indus valley. These resources included agricultural products, minerals, timber, etc.
and this could be achieved by establishing trade routes. Emerging in the fertile Indus-
Hakra plains, the rich Harappans wanted possession of more and more luxury items. In
quest of this they strengthened ties that already existed with centralAsia and Afghanistan.
They also established settlements in places like Gujarat and Gangetic valley.

6.8 INTRA-REGIONAL CONTACTS

In the following sections we shall try to assess the nature of contact among the Harappan
towns themselves and with other cities and societies of that period. Our information on
such contacts is based on the reports of objects found during excavations of Harappan
towns. Some of this information is substantiated by references found in literary sources
of the contemporary Mesopotamian civilization.

6.8.1 Cities
We could begin with the evidence of the existence of granaries at Harappa and
Mohenjodaro. These large structures were meant for storing grains. As pointed out
earlier, urban centres depend on villages for their foods. The presence of granaries
indicates the attempt of the rulers to possess an assured source of food supply.
Presumably, food grains were brought from surrounding villages and stored here. This,
in turn, would be redistributed to the townsmen. Grains are a bulk commodity which is
consumed every day. Vast quantities of grains would have to be collected and transported
in bullock-carts and boats. It would be difficult to haul up large quantities of food over
a great distance. That is why it has been found that the towns were usually located in the
most fertile areas that were available in region, and probably grains were collected
from surrounding villages.
For example, Mohenjodaro was located in the Larkana district of Sindh. Even in modern
times this is the most fertile area of Sindh. However, some other settlements sprang up
on important trade routes or industrial sites. In such cases, the location was determined
not so much by the presence of fertile agricultural tracts as by the possibilities of trade
and exchange.
That is why, when scholars analyze the causes for the location of large cities they look
164 for:
 the potentialities of the place for food-production, and Harappan Civilization:
Material Characteristics,
 its proximity to trade routes and mineral sources. Nature of Contacts, Society
and Religion
If we go by these considerations, Harappa is very well located. The entire geographical
space to its north-west has not yielded evidence of any other Harappan settlement.
Even in the 19th century this area was largely inhabited by pastoral nomads. Some
scholars are of the opinion that Harappa was located at a point which separated the
zone of agricultural settlements to its south and a zone of pastoral nomads to its north-
west. This way Harappa could exploit the resources of both the neighbouring
communities. It has also been suggested that although Harappa did not have any
advantage in terms of food production, it grew into a large city because of its strategic
location as a trading settlement. If we place Harappa in the centre and draw a circle
around it covering an area of about 300 km. we can see that Harappa had a very
advantageous location:
i) Harappans would have access to the Hindukush and north-west frontier. This
meant that within a distance covered by about 10 days of travelling, Harappans
had access to such precious stones as turquoise and lapis lazuli which were brought
through these routes.
ii) They could get mineral salt from the salt range.
iii) Tin and copper were accessible to them from Rajasthan.
iv) Probably, they could also exploit the sources of amethyst and gold in Kashmir.
v) This 300 km. circle would give them access to the point where all five rivers of
Punjab joined into a single stream. This means that the Harappans could control
the river transport of all the five rivers of Punjab. River transportation was far
easier in those times when concrete roads did not exist.
vi) This could provide them access to timber from the mountains zones of Kashmir.
That is why it has been found that Harappa is located at a place which is crossed by
many trade routes from the west and east even in modern times.
The settlements at Mohenjodaro and Lothal also had their own logic in terms of location.
Some scholars believe that the apparently religious nature of large structures at
Mohenjodaro might indicate that it was a ritual centre. Whether it was a ritual centre or
not, the rich people here were using gold, silver and all kinds of precious articles which
were not locally available. Mohenjodaro was closer to the sea compared to Harappa.
This would give it easier access to the Persian Gulf and Mesopotamia which were,
probably, the chief suppliers of silver. Similarly, Lothal was drawing resources from
southern Rajasthan and Deccan. The people of Lothal probably helped Harappans
procure gold from Karnataka where contemporary Neolithic sites have been discovered
near gold mines.

6.8.2 Villages
The villages supplied essential food grains and other raw materials to towns, but what
were the Harappan towns giving to the villages in return? We have few clues for an
answer. One answer is that the rulers of the towns used force to collect grains – calling
it tax which was to be given in return for administration. However, one important
ingredient of this rural-urban relationship was the ability of urban centres to collect a
whole range of items that were not available locally and supply them to rural hinterland.
165
History of India One item of interest was stone-tools. People in almost all Harappan towns and villages
from the Earliest were using parallel-sided stone blades. These blades were made out of very good
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
quality stone not found everywhere. It has been found that such stone was brought
from sites like Sukkur in Sindh. This hypothesis is proven by the fact that at sites like
Rangapur in Gujarat people were using stone tools brought from distant areas during
the urban phase of Harappa. Once the Harappan civilization declined, the people in
these areas started using tools made of local stones. Other such items would be copper
and bronze. Copper is available only in certain pockets. However, almost all Harappan
sites have yielded copper-bronze tools. These tools also show uniformity in design and
execution at almost all Harappan sites. This indicates that their production and distribution
must have been handled by centralized decision making bodies who could be the
merchants or the administrators residing in towns.
Apart from these items which were strategically important in terms of economic activities,
the Harappan settlements – big and small – have yielded objects of gold, silver and
many precious and semi-precious stones. These metals and stones were procured by
merchants and rulers of the cities. With the inception of urbanizm the volume of trade
within Harappan civilization increased in scale and variety to an unprecedented scale.
Sites like Mohenjodaro reveal evidence of extensive bead-making. These products
filtered down to the rich and powerful in small villages and towns.
What emerges from the preceding discussion is:
 That the location of villages could, primarily, be determined by the availability of
fertile soil and irrigation facilities.
 The location of towns will be determined by such additional factors as their proximity
to mining districts or trade routes.
 Sometimes, the factor of trade became so important that towns were established
in inhospitable plains where agricultural yields were very poor. For example,
Sutkagen-Dor on the Makran coast was one such site. It is located in an inhospitable
area and its prime activity was a trading post between the Harappans and
Mesopotamians.
Similarly we can look at the functions performed in other cities of the Harappan civilization:
 Balakot on the coast of Baluchistan and Chanhu-daro in Sindh were centres for
shell-working and bangle making.
 Lothal and Chanhu-daro were producing beads of carnelian, agate etc.
 Some unfinished beads of lapis lazuli found at Chanhu-daro might indicate that the
Harappans imported precious stones from faraway places and then worked them
before selling them.
 Mohenjodaro has yielded evidence for the presence of a large number of craft
specializts like, stone-workers, potters, copper and bronze-workers, brick-makers,
seal-cutters and bead-makers etc.

6.9 SOURCE OF RAW MATERIALS

Excavations at different Harappan sites provide us with large number of bangles, beads,
potteries, various copper, bronze and stone objects. This range of objects indicates
that they were using many kinds of metals and precious stones which would not be
uniformly available in every region. The interesting thing is that even in very small Harappan
166 sites precious stones and metal tools have been found. This indicates an intensive
exchange network among the Harappans catering to the needs of the rich. What were Harappan Civilization:
the sources of the minerals and metals used by the Harappans? The answer can be Material Characteristics,
Nature of Contacts, Society
summarized as follows: and Religion
 They acquired copper from Khetri mines of Rajasthan.
 The settlements of Jodhpur, Bagor and Ganeshwar in central Rajasthan, which are
generally considered contemporary with the Harappans, might have supplied copper
ore to them.
 At Ganeshwar over 400 copper arrowheads, 50 fish-hooks and 58 copper axes
were found.
At the same time the people in these settlements were subsisting with a combination of
pastoral nomadism and hunting-gathering. They do not indicate influences from the
Harappan civilization. This adds complexity to our problem of trade linkages.
Archaeologists believe that the Harappans were importing copper tools from an area
where people were still pastoralists and hunters. However, we do not know the
mechanism through which these two groups, one representing an advanced urban
civilization and the other representing a pastoral tribe, interacted. Probably, the contacts
were indirect.
The Harappans might have met some of their needs of copper from sources in Baluchistan
and North-West Frontier Provinces also. Gold was, most probably, obtained from
Kolar gold fields of Karnataka and Kashmir. Some Neolithic sites have been located in
this region that were contemporary with Harappans. Gold washing is reported from
Jaipur and Sirohi in Rajasthan, Hazara, Kangra and Jhang in Punjab and along Kabul
and Indus rivers.
Silver vessels are frequently found at Harappan sites. However, there are no known
sources of silver in this area. It might have been imported from Afghanistan and Iran.
Probably, the Indus merchants also exchanged their goods with the Mesopotamians for
silver. Lead may have come from Kashmir or Rajasthan. Some minor sources were
located from Punjab and Baluchistan also.
The precious stone –lapis-lazuli –was available only in Badakshan in north-east
Afghanistan. That the Harappans exploited this source is confirmed by the discovery of
Harappan sites like Shortughai and Altyn-Depe in this area. Turquoise and Jade could
have been obtained from central Asia alone. Agate, chalcedony and carnelian were
from Saurashtra and western India. Sea-shells, so very popular with Harappans, must
have come from the sea-coast of Gujarat and western India. Manda in Jammu is located
at a point where river Chenab becomes navigable. Probably, good quality timber was
acquired from the regions further up and sent to central Indus valley down the rivers. At
Shortughai large quantity of lapis lazuli was discovered in association with Harappan
remains. This indicates that the Harappans were colonizing far-flung areas for the
exploitation of mineral resources. This also indicates that trading and procurement of
exotic materials was an important concern for Harappans.
Trading seems to have been more an administrative activity than an exchange activity
between traders, since establishing a colony at a distance of around 500 km would not
be possible for a trader. It were the administrators of Harappa who were trying to bring
under direct control resources of distant areas.

6.10 EXCHANGE SYSTEM

The Harappans had established an extensive network of inter-regional trade inside and
outside the Indian subcontinent. However, we do not know what were the actual
167
History of India mechanisms of exchange between the Harappans and non-Harappans. Such a large
from the Earliest area of interaction would inevitably involve communities having divergent life styles. In
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
those times large areas of the country were inhabited by hunter-gatherers. Some other
areas were occupied by pastoral nomads. Still others were just beginning cultivation.
Compared to them the Harappans represented an advanced stage of civilization. If the
Harappans had to exploit some mineral sources from the regions inhabited by hunter-
gatherers or some other communities, how would they go about it? In some cases, the
Harappans established their settlements in those areas. But this would not be feasible in
every case. Probably, these non-Harappan communities would be given items which
they considered valuable. In such cases, the exchange might not have been a regular
affair. Rather, it would be determined by seasonal migrations and gatherings of these
communities. The Harappans would send their merchants to spots where such seasonal
gatherings took place. The pastoral nomads, too, could have brought goods from distant
regions, in course of their migrations. These kinds of exchange activities are known
from modem examples in India. However, we know very little about the Harappan
exchange system.
The Exchange System among the Harappan Towns
The Harappans had made distinct attempts at regulating trade and exchange amongst
themselves. Even far flung Harappan sites have yielded uniform systems of weights and
measures. The weights followed a binary system in the lower denominations: 1,2,4,8,
to 64, then going to 160 and then, in decimal multiples of 16, 320, 640, 1600, 3200
etc. Made of chert, limestone, steatite, etc. they are generally cubical in shape. The
measures of length were based upon a unit of foot of 37.6 cm and a unit of cubit of
about 51.8 to 53.6 cm. Such uniform system of weights and measures indicates an
attempt by the central authorities to regulate exchange among the Harappans themselves
and, possibly, with non-Harappans too.
Seals and sealings have been discovered in large numbers at Harappan settlements.
They are marks of ownership meant to guarantee the quality of product being sent to
faraway lands. That they were used for trade is confirmed by the fact that many of the
sealings bear impressions of cords and matting behind them. This indicates that the
sealings bearing these impressions, were originally stuck to bales of merchandise. At
Lothal many sealings were discovered lying among the ashes in the ventilation shafts of
warehouses. They must have been discarded and thrown away after the imported goods
had been unpacked. The seals carried intaglio designs of various animals and writing
which has not been deciphered as yet. However, their use in long-distance exchange
seems certain.
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
1) State whether the following statements are true or false.
a) The Harappan towns were self-sufficient. ( )
b) The motive behind the colonization of far-flung areas by Harappans was
basically economic. ( )
c) The location of large cities was decided only by the potentialities of food
production. ( )
d) River transportation was the cheaper and easier means of communication.
( )
e) The tools found at different Harappan sites do not show any uniformity in
168 design. ( )
 f) The Indus merchants exchanged their goods with the Mesopotamians for Harappan Civilization:
silver. ( ) Material Characteristics,
Nature of Contacts, Society
2) Fill in the blanks. and Religion
i) The Harappans obtained gold from.................... (Kashmir/Rajasthan).
ii) (Iron/tin) ..................was not known to the Harappans.
iii) Lapis Lazuli was discovered in large quantity at....................(Kalibangan/
Shortughai)
iv) Copper was obtained from..................... (Rajasthan/Gujarat).
v) (Suktagen-Dor/Kalibangan)..................was important as a trading port
between the Harappans and Mesopotamians.
3) Discuss about the exchange system among the Harappan towns.
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6.11 TRADE WITH THE PERSIAN GULF AND

MESOPOTAMIA
So far, we have talked about the inter-regional exchange activities of the Harappans. In
these activities Harappans were the dominant partners. Now we shall discuss the trade
and exchange activities of Harappans with contemporary west Asian civilizations.
Mesopotamia was located thousands of miles away from the Harappan heartland. Yet
these two civilizations had some kind of trade linkage.

6.11.1 Archaeological Evidence of Contacts

Our information about the exchange comes from the finds of typical Harappanseals in
Mesopotamia. About two dozen seals, either Harappan or made in imitation of Harappan
seals, have been found at the Mesopotamian cities like Susa, Ur etc. Recently, some of
the Persian Gulf ancient sites like Failaka and Behrain have also yielded Harappan
seals. In the Mesopotamian city of Nippur a seal has been found with Harappan script
and a unicorn shown on it. Similarly, two square Indus seals with unicorn and Indus
script were reported from the Mesopotamian city of Kish. In another city called Umma
was found a sealing from Indus valley, implying that some goods had been received
here from Indus valley.
In the settlement of Tell Asmar were found certain Harappan ceramics, etched carmelian
beads and kidney shaped bone inlay. All of these indicate trade linkages between
Mesopotamia and Harappans. A distinctive type of terracotta figurines generally found
in the Indus valley has been found at Nippur in Mesopotamia. These figurines depicting
a male nude with obese stomach, animal like faces, stubby tails and shoulder holes for
the attachment of movable arms are common at Harappan sites. The finds of three
similar figurines at Nippur are indicative of some Harappan influence. Again, it has been
found that the Indus dice types (1/2, 3/6, 4/5) were found at the Mesopotamian cities
of Ur, Nippur and Tell Asmar. Apart from these, beads having distinctive designs have
been found in Mesopotamia and they seem to have been brought from the Indus valley.
169
History of India Beads from Chanhudaro with single, double or triple circular designs closely resemble
from the Earliest some beads discovered at Kish in Mesopotamia. Harappan weights have been found
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
in Persian Gulf and Mesopotamian sites.
From Harappan civilization the finds of objects of Mesopotamian origin are almost
non-existent. At Mohenjodaro three cylinder seals of the Mesopotamian type have
been found. However, they too seem to have been made at some centre of Harappan
civilization. Some metal objects might have been derived from Mesopotamia. At the
settlement of Lothal was found a circular button seal. This seal has been found in large
numbers in the excavations at the port at Behrain. These seals seem to have originated
in the Persian Gulf ports. Also, bun-shaped copper ingots have been found at Lothal.
These are similar to the ones found in the Persian Gulf islands and Susa.
Given the scarcity of material objects which could show contacts between the Harappans
and Mesopotamians, some scholars have questioned the notion of direct trade exchange
between these civilizations. It is believed that the Harappans might have taken their
wares to the settlements in the Persian Gulf. Some of these were further transported to
Mesopotamian towns by the merchants of Persian Gulf ports like Behrain.

6.11.2 Literary Evidence

In Mesopotamia some ancient writings have been discovered which give us an idea of
their trade linkages with Harappan civilization. The famous king Sargon ofAkkad (c.2350
BCE) in Mesopotamia boasts that the ships of Dilmun, Magan and Meluhha were
moored at his capital. Scholars have generally identified Meluhha with the coastal towns
of Harappans or the region of the river Indus. Some scholars have suggested that
Magan referred to the Makran coast. Some other documents used by the merchants of
the city of Ur have also come down to us. They indicate that the merchants of Ur
imported copper, carnelian, ivory, shell, lapis lazuli, pearls and ebony from Meluhha.
All these objects seem to have been available in plenty at Harappan sites.
In some cases, like copper, we are not aware of any major sources of supply to the
Harappans. However, we should remember that the Harappans were exploiting a very
large geographical zone extending up to central Asia. They might have captured the
trading networks that had existed in central Asia and Afghanistan in the early Harappan
period. Early Mesopotamian literature also refers to a community of merchants from
Meluhha living in Mesopotamia. In another instance, written documents from
Mesopotamia refer to an official interpreter of the Meluhhan language. All these examples
indicate that links between the Harappans and the Mesopotamians were not indirect.
Given the distance between these societies, we cannot expect regular interaction.
However, the relations were fairly close for the Mesopotamian kings to boast about the
ships from Meluhha coming to their ports.
The absence of Mesopotamian goods in Harappa can be explained by the fact that
traditionally, the Mesopotamians exported items like:
 garments,
 wool,
 perfumed oil, and
 leather products.
All these items are perishable and as such, they have not left any trace. Silver might
have been one of the items of export. Silver was not available at any known Harappan
170
source. However, they were using it in large quantities. This could be an import from Harappan Civilization:
Mesopotamia. Material Characteristics,
Nature of Contacts, Society
and Religion
6.12 MODE OF TRANSPORT
The discussion about the nature of contact and exchange brings in the question of
transportation. Many representations of ships and boats are found on seals found at
Harappa and Mohenjodaro. At Lothal was found a terracotta model of a ship with a
stick impressed socket for mast and eyeholes for fixing rigging. At Lothal was also
discovered a brick basin 219 by 37 m. in length, with brick walls of 4.5 m. in height.
The excavator believed that it was a dockyard. Apart from this site the seashore of
Arabian sea seems to have been dotted with many sea-ports. Places like Rangapur,
Somnath and Balakot would have functioned as outlets for the Harappans. Even in the
inhospitable Makran coast Harappan sites like Sutkagen-Dor and Sutkakoh have been
discovered. The primary reason for their location in those inhospitable tracts was that
they were safe from the dangerous monsoon storms and currents hitting the sea-coast
in western India and Sindh. In the monsoon months they could function as outlets for
the Harappans. Sutkagen-Dor is located on the borders of present-day Pakistan and
Iran. It is likely that even in the Iranian side there were some Harappan settlements.
They have not been explored so far. But this kind of extension along the sea-coast
would provide the Harappan ships points of anchorage right up to the Persian Gulf.
The inland transport was done with bullock-carts. Many terracotta models of bullock-
carts have been found at Harappan settlements. At Harappa was found a bronze model
of a cart with a seated driver and also models of little carts which are very similar to the
modem Ikka used in Punjab. For longer journey through wooded country, caravans of
pack-oxen would be the chief means of transport. In historical times a large number of
goods were transported by pastoral nomadic communities. Possibly, the Harappans
also engaged in similar practices. However, in those times river systems would have
been the channels of transportation because they were cheaper and safer.
Check Your Progress Exercise 4
1) State whether the following statements are true or false.
a) The literary sources of the contemporary Mesopotamian civilization do not
mention any contact with the Harappan civilization. ( )
b) The discovery of Harappan seals in Mesopotamian cities proves contact
between the Harappan and the Mesopotamian civilizations. ( )
c) The discovery of a dockyard at Lothal refers to maritime trade of the
Harappans. ( )
d) Bullock-cart was not known to Harappans as means of transport. ( )
2) Mark () the right answer.
i) What was exported from the Harappan cities to Mesopotamia?
a) Garments, Perfumed oil, leather products.
b) Silver, gold, bronze.
c) Copper, ivory, lapis lazuli.

171
History of India ii) Some of the important ports of the Harappan period were:
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E. a) Dilmun, Magan, Meluhha
b) Kalibangan, Banawali, Lothal
c) Ur, Nippur, Chanhu-daro
iii) Some important Mesopotamian sites where Harappan seals have been found
are:
a) Susa, Ur, Kish
b) Tell Armar, Behrain, Akkad
c) Dilmun, Magan, Meluhha.
3) Write in five sentences on the transportation system of the Harappans.
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6.13 SOCIETY
Archaeological finds from Harappan sites help us in reconstructing the society of that
period. We get an idea about their dress styles and food habits. We also get clues about
trade and crafts and various social groups. Let us first examine the external appearance
and dresses of the Harappans.

6.13.1 Dress Styles

How did the Harappans look like? The only way of finding out an answer for this would
be examining the terracotta figurines and stone sculptures surviving from that period.
Another way of knowing would be examining the skeletal remains found at some of the
Harappan settlements.
The study of skeletal types shows that the Harappans looked like the present day north
Indians. Their faces, complexion and height were more or less similar to the present-
day people living in those areas. But the similarities end here. They did not wear the
shirts and trousers or Salwar-Kameez like the modern men and women. We can have
some clue about their dresses and fashions by a study of their sculptures and terracotta
figurines. Men are mostly shown wearing a dress which would be wrapped round the
lower half of the body with one end worn over the left shoulder and under the right arm
– like the modern saree. The other dress was a kilt and a shirt worn by both men and
women. The men arranged their hair in various ways, sometimes making buns and using
headbands. They used many more ornaments than the modern Indians. They would be
wearing rings, bracelets and ornaments around their neck and hands. Growing beard
was fashionable, but they would shave their moustaches. Women seem to have used
ornaments on their waist. They wore a large number of necklaces. Bangles, too, were
in fashion and of course, there was no end to the number of ways in which hair was
arranged. Men and women, alike, had long hair. We know that they used cotton clothes,
also that in one sculpture the cloth was shown as having trefoil pattern and red colour.
However, for all his fashionableness if we saw a man from Harappa walk on the road –
to our eyes he will probably resemble a mendicant more than anyone else.
172
 Harappan Civilization:
Material Characteristics,
Nature of Contacts, Society
and Religion

Harappan Jewellery of Gold and Precious-Stones. Source: EHI-02, Block-2, Unit-8.

6.13.2 Food Habits

What did they eat? Again, we know very little. The Harappans of Sindh and Punjab ate
wheat and barley as their staple food. Those who stayed in towns of Rajasthan had to
be content with barley only. The Harappans of Gujarat in places like Rangpur and
Surkotada preferred rice and millet. They got their supply of fat and oil from sesame
seeds, mustard and possibly, ghee. We do not know whether they were familiar with
sugarcane to supply them sugar. They might have used honey to sweeten their food.
Seeds of jujube and dates found at Harappan sites indicate their preference for these
fruits. It is likely that they also ate bananas, pomegranates, melons, lemons, figs and of
course, mangoes. They seem to have consumed a whole range of wild nuts and fruits
but it is difficult to identify them. They were eating peas too. Apart from this, the
Harappans seem to have relished non-vegetarian food. Bones of deer, bears, sheep
and goats have been frequently found at Harappan settlements. Fish, milk and curd,
too, would have been known to them. However, they had neither tea nor potato-chips.
Could you yourself find out the reason for this?

6.13.3 Language and Scripts

What language did they speak and what did they read and write is, again, not clear to
us. We have discovered the written script of Harappans. But, as pointed out earlier, we
have not deciphered it as yet. Some scholars believe that the language written there is
ancestral to the Dravidian group of languages like Tamil. Some other writers like to
think that it was ancestral to an Aryan language like Sanskrit.
However, no one has proved this case beyond doubt. However, one noticeable thing
about their script is that it did not change all through the life of the civilization. All the
other ancient scripts have showed distinct changes over a period of time. This indicates
that the Harappan script was not in common use. Perhaps, a very small section of
privileged scribes had a monopoly over the written word. About what they learnt and
how they learnt – we have no answers. Whether they had some kind of school for
teaching, as was the case in contemporary Mesopotamia, is not known to us.

6.13.4 Warfare
Did they play and fight? We know that they played dice. But beyond that we again
draw a blank. They did fight – there is enough evidence for it – possibly because the
archeologists who were digging up the various Harappan sites were looking for evidences
of war and not of sport. One important indicator, of course, is that at the time of the
emergence of Harappan civilization many early Harappan sites like Kot Diji and
Kalibangan were burnt down. However, an accidental fire could destroy large towns,
but it is more likely that some of the settlements were burnt down by victorious human 173
History of India groups. Then, there is the evidence of some skeletons lying scattered on the streets of
from the Earliest Mohenjodaro. Human societies, from times immemorial, have disposed off the bodies
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
of their dead in some ordered fashion. As such, it is natural that the Harappans would
not leave their dead to rot on the streets. So, obviously, some extraordinary conflict is
indicated when the Harappans did not get an opportunity to bury their dead. The presence
of citadels and fortification around many Harappan towns also indicates a need for
protection against outsiders. Some of the protection walls might have been bunds for
protection against floods. But, given the opulence of Harappan townships in contrast to
the surrounding rural communities it is likely that the Harappans wanted to protect their
wealth and life by fortifying their settlements. Many copper and bronze weapons have
also been reported at sites.

6.13.5 Main Crafts/Occupations

What did the Harappans do for a living? We are on surer grounds in answering this
question. This is because studies of pre-modern civilized societies show that most of
the people in those societies were engaged in agriculture. However, quite a few Harappan
townsmen were engaged in various other kinds of activities. Bead-making was one of
the favourite activities of the Harappans. At settlements like Mohenjodaro, Chanhu-
daro and Lothal a fairly large number of Harappans were engaged in this work. Since
a variety of stones like carnelian, lapis lazuli, agate and jasper were used for making
beads it is likely that there were specialized bead-makers for each type of stone. Some
other Harappans specialized in making stone tools. Apart from them, groups of potters,
copper and bronze workers, stone workers, builders of houses, brick-makers and
seal-cutters must have lived in Harappan towns. When we talk about Harappan
civilization we are basically referring to seals, bricks, pots and other such objects
surviving from those times which presuppose the existence of their makers.
Check Your Progress Exercise 5
1) Which of the following statements are right () and which are wrong (×)?
i) The Harappan script underwent a number of changes during the period this
civilization survived. ( )
ii) The Harappans were strict vegetarians. ( )
iii) Generally the Harappan towns were fortified. ( )
iv) The Harappan men were fond of wearing ornaments. ( )
2) Fill in the empty spaces given in the following sentences.
i) We get information about the dresses and fashions of Harappan people through
their ..............................
ii) .......................was used to make Harappan metallic tools.
iii) The staple food of the Harappans was .................. in Rajasthan, ……......
in Sindh and Punjab, and ................... in Gujarat.
iv) A large number of beads found in Harappan settlements are made of...........
3) Write five lines on Harappan script.
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174
 Harappan Civilization:
6.14 WHO RULED THEM? Material Characteristics,
Nature of Contacts, Society
At the top of pyramid of Harappan society were three invisible categories of people – and Religion
administrators, traders and priests. Their presence can be presumed on the basis of an
understanding of the problems of organization. The rise of a civilization is associated
with the emergence of centralized decision-making system called the State. In the
Harappan civilization we can perceive the presence of a decision-making authority for
running the municipal system that can be described as follows:
 The construction and maintenance of elaborate drainage system and streets would
require a municipal authority in cities.
 Similarly, the granaries indicate the presence of an authority which would collect
food grains from the surrounding hinterland and redistribute it among the citizens.
 As pointed out earlier, the tools, weapons, bricks etc. show a remarkable uniformity
of design. Some of the tools and weapons seem to have been mass-produced at
one place and then distributed to various cities and settlements. The organization
of production and distribution of these objects over an area covering thousands of
km. would give tremendous power to those who decided how much to produce
and where to send the products. If these people were to stop the supply of goods
to a particular town, that town would be starved of tools and implements.
 The sheer range and volume of products consumed by residents of the larger cities
indicate that some kind of ruling class resided in them. Many of the objects were
rarities brought from faraway lands. The possession of such precious stones or
metals would give immense prestige to owners vis-a-vis rest of the population.
 Similarly, the larger size of the cities did not simply indicate that a larger number of
people lived there but also the fact that they contained many monumental structures
like temples, palaces etc. The people who lived in these structures exercised
political, economic or religious authority. No wonder, the seals which are considered
marks of authority of traders, priests or administrators are found in largest numbers
at Mohenjodaro where largest numbers of monumental structures have also been
found.
However, we are not suggesting that Mohenjodaro functioned as the capital of the
civilization. It is possible that the civilization consisted of two or even five independent
political units. All we are suggesting is that the city had emerged as the centre of politico-
economic power. We do not know who the rulers of the Harappans were. They may
have been kings, priests or traders. However, we know that in many pre-modern societies
economic, religious and administrative spheres were not clearly demarcated. This means
that the same person could be the head-priest, king and the wealthiest merchant. But
all these evidences indicate the presence of a ruling authority. What was the form of this
authority is not, however, yet clear to us.

6.15 RELIGION AND RELIGIOUS PRACTICES

Who did the Harappans worship? This is one question about which there has been
considerable discussion among the scholars. The mute survivors of the Harappan past
do not tell us anything. So, we have to fit in our logic and our fancies to understand their
religious beliefs. One major problem is that without written information it is difficult to
differentiate their sacred and secular activities. Thus, it seems that any or every find
from Harappa might have a sacred content. However, we shall try to understand the
religious beliefs of the Harappans with the help of modern parallels.
175
History of India 6.15.1 Places of Worship
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E. A number of large buildings in the citadel and lower town at Mohenjodaro are believed
to have been temples of gods. This view is supported by the fact that most of the large
stone sculptures were found in these buildings.
In the lower city at Mohenjodaro a large building has been discovered. This building
has a monumental entrance and double stairway leading to a raised platform on which
was found a stone sculpture 16 ½ inches high. It is a seated man with hands on knees.
It has a bearded face with a fillet passing over receding forehead and hanging down in
two strands at the back. Another stone statue was discovered in the same building. This
is why the scholars have identified this building with a temple.
At Mohenjodaro several structures are reported from the citadel-mound which seem
to have had some ritual significance. Among them the Great Bath is the most famous.
Such elaborate bathing arrangements were made at very sacred ritual spots in the
subsequent historical phases in India. So, it is likely that the Great Bath was not simply
a swimming pool, but that it had prominent ritual significance.
Near the Great Bath was found another large structure (230 × 78 feet) which has been
identified as the residence of some high priest or college of priests. Similarly, an oblong
assembly hall has also been reported from the citadel area. To the west of this structure
was found a complex of rooms in one of which was discovered a seated male statue.
This, too, has been identified as part of some religious structure. These ritual structures
seem to provide us with a glimpse of the religious practices of the people in Mohenjodaro.
We can conjecture that some of the ritual performances took place in large temple like
structure.

6.15.2 Objects of Worship

The evidence of the objects of worship comes from the study of Harappan seals and
terracotta figurines. Amongst evidences that come from the seals, the most famous is a
deity who has been identified as proto-Shiva. On a series of seals a deity wearing a
buffalo-horned head-dress is shown sitting in a yogic posture. He is surrounded by
these animals:
 goat,
 elephant,
 tiger, and
 antelope.
Marshall identified him with the god Pashupati (Lord of Beasts). In several instances
he has a sprouting plant emerging between his horns. In another case a deity with horns
and flowing hair is standing nude between the branches of a Pipal tree. A worshipper is
kneeling in front of him. Behind the worshipper is a man-faced goat and below are
seven other human figures having long pigtails and tall head-dresses. In one seal are
shown snakes accompanying the yogic figure. Each of the features associated with the
horned deity are attributes of Shiva of the later Indian mythology or religious history.
Moreover, at some Harappan settlements the phallic emblem of Shiva (Lingam) has
been found. All these evidences have led scholars to believe that Shiva was the most
important male god of the Harappans. Perhaps, the temples were dedicated to the
same god. The other objects of veneration seem to have been the following:
176
i) The Mother Goddess Harappan Civilization:
Material Characteristics,
The Harappan settlements have yielded a very large number of terracotta figurines. Nature of Contacts, Society
Among them are the representations of females adorned with wide girdle, loin cloth and and Religion
necklaces. They wear a fan-shaped head-dress. Sometimes, they are shown with an
infant. The general notion of fertility is indicated by many representations of pregnancy.
These evidences indicate the prevalence of cults of fertility and Mother Goddess worship.
ii) Tree Spirits
The Harappans also seem to have worshipped tree spirits. Several seals depict the
Pipal tree. In many cases a figure is shown looking through the branches. Scholars
believe that this represents the tree-spirit. In many cases the worshippers are shown
standing in front of the tree. In many other cases a tiger or some other animal is shown
in front of the tree. In one case seven human figures are shown standing in front of it,
with a horned-figure standing in it. As discussed earlier, the horned figure, probably, is
Shiva. Pipal tree has been worshipped in India for ages and in many cases, the Pipal
tree and Shiva are worshipped together. The seven figures have sometimes been identified
with the seven great sages or seven mothers of the Indian mythology (sapta-matrikas).
iii) Some Mythical Heroes
Some other human figures which seem to have a religious significance are those found
on seals and amulets. Human figures with horns on head and long tails are frequently
shown on seals. Sometimes, they have hoofs of cattle and hind legs. Some other seals
remind us of Mesopotamian mythology. For example, a man grappling with a pair of
tigers immediately brings to mind a brave warrior called Gilgamesh who is said to have
killed two tigers.
iv) Animal Worship
A large number of animals also seem to have been worshipped. Again, our information
comes from their representation on seals and sealings and in terracotta. A seal has been
reported from Chanhudaro depicting a bull-bison with erect penis, fecundating a supine
human figure. A plant is sprouting from the head of the human figure. This, obviously, is
indicative of some fertility cult. The Brahmani bull with its heavy dewlap is frequently
represented on seals. It is possible that the present day reverence for bulls and cows
had its beginnings in the Harappan civilization.
v) Mythical Beasts
Many composite animals are depicted on seals. There are animal representations of
creatures with the foreparts of humans and the hind-quarters of tigers. Similarly, composite
creatures combining various portions of rams, bulls and elephants are a frequent
occurrence. They, obviously, represent objects of worship. The conception of composite
creatures like Narasimha was very much part of the mythology of later Indian tradition.
One important animal frequently represented on the Harappan seals is the unicorn. It is
a horse-like beast with a horn issuing from the middle of its head. In front of the animal
occurs a curious object which is not shown in association with any other animal. It
consists of a bowl on a central post carrying a cage like object. We do not know its
function – it has been taken for a sacred manger or an incense-holder. On another seal
impression a unicorn is shown being carried in a procession between two other objects,
one of which was similar to the one discussed above. Obviously, the unicorn was a
mythical animal, since there is no such real beast. It is likely to have been a cult object.
The Harappans at Kalibangan and Lothal seem to have followed different religious 177
History of India practices. At Kalibangan in the citadel were found a series of raised brick platforms
from the Earliest crowned with fire altars, i.e. a series of brick-lined pits containing ash and animal bones.
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
This area also had a well and bathing places. This complex seems to have represented
some kind of ritual centre where animal sacrifice, ritual ablution and some sort of fire
rituals were performed. Many houses in the lower town also contained a room having
fire altars. Several other fire altars are also reported. At Lothal, too, fire altars have
been found. These evidences are very important because:
a) they show that the Harappans staying in different geographical areas followed
different religious practices, and
b) the fire ritual was central to the Vedic religion.
The Vedic Aryans are believed to have been a different set of people. The evidence
from Kalibangan might indicate that the Aryans adopted the religious practices of the
Harappans when they came and settled down in these areas.

6.15.3 Burial of the Dead

Disposal of the dead has been an important activity of human groups. This is because
the attitude towards the dead is linked up with human beliefs regarding this life and the
life after death. The Harappan civilization has not yielded any monuments for the dead
which could equal the pyramids of Egypt or the Royal Cemetery of the Mesopotamian
city of Ur in its grandeur. However, we have certain evidences about the burial practices
of Harappans.
At Harappa many graves have been discovered. Dead bodies were generally placed in
north-south orientation. Bodies were laid on their back. A large number of earthen pots
were placed in the grave. In some cases the dead were buried with ornaments like shell
bangles, necklace, and ear ring. In some cases copper mirrors, mother of pearl shells,
antimony sticks etc. were kept in the grave. A number of graves were constructed with
bricks. A coffin burial has been found at Harappa. At Kalibangan some other kinds of
burial practices were encountered. Small circular pits containing large urns and
accompanied by pottery have been found. But they did not have any skeletal remains.
Some other burial pits with collected bones have also been found. From Lothal some
pairs of skeletons with male and female in each case buried together have been found.
These practices show that disposal of the dead among Harappans was different from
the one followed subsequently. In the subsequent historical phases, the predominant
system seems to have been cremation. At the same time the careful placement of bodies
provided with ornaments and toiletries is indicative of some belief in life after death.
What that belief was is unknown to us.
A study of various kinds of objects found in excavations shows that different regions of
the Harappan civilization followed different kinds of religious practices. Fire worship
was prevalent in Kalibangan and Lothal but unknown in Harappa and Mohenjodaro.
Ritual bathing evidenced at Mohenjodaro might have been absent in Harappa. The
burial practices show wide variation ranging from extended inhumation to double-burials
and pot-burials. Finds at Kalibangan also show that different kinds of burial practices
were being followed in the same settlement. This kind of diversity of religious beliefs
and practices, even in the same settlement, reflects the complex nature of urban centres.
Unlike tribal societies where every member of the tribe follows similar kinds of religious
practices, the urban centres were characterized by the presence of people following
different kinds of religious practices. This apparently means that the urban centres were
178 formed by political and economic integration of varied social groups. Also, an urban
centre means the presence of traders from different regions with their own religious Harappan Civilization:
practices. These groups retained their social mores and customs but lost their political Material Characteristics,
Nature of Contacts, Society
and economic independence. and Religion
Check Your Progress Exercise 6
1) On what basis can we say that Harappan was an urban civilization?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
2) A number of finds in Harappan excavations indicate the presence of civic and
political authority. What are these finds?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
3) Which of the Harappan religious structures indicate the prevalence of some
collective worship or rituals?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
4) Which of the following statements are correct?
a) Shiva seems to be the most important Harappan god. ( )
b) Female deities were absent in Harappan religious objects. ( )
c) Trees also seem to be worshipped by the Harappans. ( )
d) No animals were worshipped by the Harappans. ( )
5) Do we get any evidence of fire worship from the Harappan finds?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
179
History of India 6) What significant points emerge from the study of burial practices of the Harappan
from the Earliest people?
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

6.16 SUMMARY
In this Unit you have studied about the geographical location and material characteristics
of Harappan sites. The uniformities in geographical characteristics created similar
subsistence patterns in the Harappa-Mohenjodaro-Ghaggar axis. However, there were
other sites where the settlement pattern varied in accordance with varying geographical
features of these sites. The town planning of Harappans was extremely efficient. The
houses and drainage system of Harappan towns is indicative of remarkable material
achievements of their people. Generally the Harappan pottery, tools and implements
show a uniformity of tradition. The seals and beads are beautiful works of craftsmanship,
but the stone sculpture and terracotta figurines cannot compete with those of
contemporary Egypt and Mesopotamia in technical excellence. The subsistence system
was based on the cultivation of a number of crops and domestication of animals. This
gave strength to the economy to sustain the city population which did not produce its
own food which, in it turn, had to be transported from nearby areas.
We have also seen in this Unit that the Harappan civilization seems to have carried a
brisk internal trade which would mean exchange activities carried over an area of 1.3
million square km. This exchange activity is clear from the fact that even very small
Harappan sites like Allahdino have yielded seals, sealings, many kinds of beads of
semi-precious stones and metal utensils. Most of these objects were imported from
outside. The location of Harappan settlements along navigable waterways and traditional
land routes also indicates deep involvement of Harappans in exchange activities. Their
linkages with contemporary west Asian cultures are also well documented now. No
wonder we call them a city-centred community.
In this Unit we have also discussed the religious and social aspects related to their life
pattern. Their main dress was a big unsewn cloth like the modern day saree and was
wrapped on the body. Men and women, both, were fond of ornaments. Their food
included a large variety of items depending on the inhabited areas. The main items
included rice, barley, millet and wheat. A number of fruits, vegetables and non-vegetarian
items were also used. We hope you found the answer to the question raised in sub-
section 6.13.2. Well if not, it is because tea and potato were not grown in the region at
that time.
The Harappan script is still a mystery for archaeologists and linguists. It has not been
deciphered yet. The fortification of their settlements and weapons found indicate that
they were often engaged in combats. Pottery, metal-work, bead-making and a number
of crafts were practiced by the Harappans. This signals the presence of artisans and an
urban labour force. The society seems to have been divided into classes. There are
indications of the presence of some kind of political structure. Administrators, priests
and traders along with a large number of workmen seem to have constituted the society
180 in towns.
Some large structures indicate the prevalence of some collective worship or rituals. A Harappan Civilization:
number of gods, goddesses and objects seem to have been worshipped. The prominent Material Characteristics,
Nature of Contacts, Society
were Mother Goddess, Shiva and a number of trees and animals. Some composite and Religion
mythical beasts also seem to have had some significance in religious practices. The
most prevalent system for disposing the dead seems burial rather than cremation. A
number of ornaments and other objects are also found in burial pits. All these give us, if
not a total, but a nearer view of Harappan society.

6.17 KEY WORDS

Artefacts : A thing made by human workmanship.
Bead : A small piece of stone pierced in the middle for
stringing.
Chute : A passage for sending down dirty water.
Citadel : The fortress in city.
Eastern Domain of : Specifically refers to the Harappan sites in
the Harappans Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab and U.P.
Excavation : The act of digging an ancient site.
Fertility Cult : A system of worship in which the reproductive
aspects of nature and mankind are emphasized.
The worship is expected to ensure the production
of abundant crops or children.
Fire Altars : Brick-lined pits found at Kalibangan. They
contained ash and animal bones. In many
societies, fire is worshipped. In the Vedic society,
similar kinds of pits were dug for lighting fire and
worshipping it.
Granary : The storehouse for grains.
Hinterland : A region lying inland from a port of centre of
influence.
Meander : Curve of a river, where it is flowing sluggishly
with many twists and bends leading to the
deposition of silts.
Mesopotamia : Ancient name of Iraq.
Pictographic Script : The script which uses pictures as symbols.
Plateau : An extensive area of elevated land.
Region : An area having specific characteristics of
landscape which differentiate it from other areas.
Royal Cemetery of Ur : A cemetery discovered at the Mesopotamian city
of Ur belonging to c.3rd millennium BCE. It
contained the graves of many kings.
Script : System or style of writing.
181
History of India Terracotta : A composition of clay and sand used for making
from the Earliest statues. It is baked in fire and is brownish-red in
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
colour.
Unicorn : A mythical animal having a body of a horse with
one straight horn.

6.18 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) Your answer should include the following:
The description of the geographical location and subsistence-pattern of Harappa,
the discussion of the geographical location of Mohenjodaro, Kalibangan, Lothal
and Sutkagen-Dor. See Section 6.5 and Sub-secs. 6.5.1 to 6.5.5
2) i) d, ii) a, iii) b, iv) c
3) i) ×, ii) ×, iii) ×, iv) 
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) Your answer should include the following:
Discussion of the town planning of the Harappans; description of their pottery,
tools and implements, arts and crafts, Indus script and subsistence-pattern. See
Section 6.6 and Sub-Secs. 6.6.1 to 6.6.6.
2) i) ×, ii) ×, iii) ×, iv) ×, v) 
3) i) Mohenjodaro, ii) rice, iii) horse, iv) Mohenjodaro.
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
1) a) False, b) True, c) False, d) True, e) False, f) True
2) a) Kashmir, b) Iron, c) Shortughai, d) Rajasthan, e) Sutkagen-Dor
3) Your answer should include the uniform systems of weights and measures, the
binary system of weight, seals and sealings on the products to ensure quality and
ownership etc. See Section 6.10.
Check Your Progress Exercise 4
1) a) False, b) True, c) True, d) False
2) i) c, ii) a, iii) a
3) Your answer should include the archaeological evidence in support of transportation
system, river transport, inland transport. See Section 6.12.
Check Your Progress Exercise 5
1) i) ×, ii) ×, iii) , iv) 
2) i) Terracotta human figures, ii) Copper, iii) barley, wheat and barley, rice and millet
iv) stone.
3) Your answer should include which present language seems to have descended
182
 from the Harappan script, the changes it underwent and whether we are able to Harappan Civilization:
read it or not. Material Characteristics,
Nature of Contacts, Society
Check Your Progress Exercise 6 and Religion

1) Your answer should include things like large number of brick structures spread in
a big area, number of craft products, drainage system etc. Also see Section 6.14
2) Your answer should include things like well planned towns, big houses, presence
of granaries, their management and other such things. Read Section 6.14 again.
3) Big temple like structures with a number of sculptures, common baths, assembly
halls, structures with a number of fire pits etc. Read Section 6.15 and Sub-sec.
6.15.1
4) i) , ii) ×, iii) , iv) ×
5) In Harappan settlements like Kalibangan and Lothal number of findings such as
fire altars indicate the presence of fire-worship in apparently public worship places
and even houses. See Sub-section 6.15.2 last paragraph.
6) The most significant point is that burying the dead was accompanied by some
rituals. It appears that the Harappans believed in some sort of life after death,
because a number of items of every-day use or ornaments are also placed alongside
the dead. Sometimes, it is a paired burial with one male and one female. In some
cases, urns containing bones are also found buried.

6.19 SUGGESTED READINGS

Agrawal, D.P. and Chakrabarti, D.K. (eds.) (1979). Essays in Indian Proto-History.
New Delhi.
Allchin, B and F.R. (1988).The Rise of Civilizations in India and Pakistan. New
Delhi: Select Book Service.
Kosambi, D.D. (1987). The Culture and Civilization of Ancient India in its Historical
Outline. New Delhi: Vikas Publishers.
Lal, B.B.and Gupta, S.P. (eds.) (1982). Frontiers of the Indus Civilization. New
Delhi.
Marshall, John (1973). Mohenjodaro and the Indus Civilization. Volumes I and
II,(Reprint).
Wheeler, R. E. M. (1968). The Indus Civilization. London.

183
 UNIT 7 CHALCOLITHIC AND EARLY IRON
AGE*
Structure
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP) Culture
7.3 The Problems of Copper Hoards
7.4 Black and Red Ware (BRW) Culture
7.4.1 Pottery
7.4.2 Other Objects
7.4.3 BRW in the Doab and Other Regions

7.5 Painted Grey Ware (PGW) Culture

7.5.1 Pottery
7.5.2 Structures
7.5.3 Other Objects
7.5.4 Crops and Animal Remains
7.5.5 Trade Practices and Linkages

7.6 Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) Culture

7.6.1 Structures
7.6.2 Pottery
7.6.3 Other Objects
7.6.4 Ornaments
7.6.5 Terracotta Figurines
7.6.6 Subsistence Economy and Trade

7.7 Chalcolithic Cultures of Western, Central and Eastern India

7.7.1 Pottery: Diagnostic Features
7.7.2 Economy
7.7.3 Houses and Habitations
7.7.4 Other Characteristics
7.7.5 Religion/Belief Systems
7.7.6 Social Organization

7.8 Early Farming Settlements in South India

7.8.1 Cultural Phases
7.8.2 Subsistence Economy
7.8.3 Material Culture
7.8.4 Burial Practices

7.9 Neolithic Surface Finds in South India

7.10 Iron Age in South India
7.10.1 Megalithic Cultures
7.10.2 Origins of Megalithic Cultures
7.10.3 Material Culture
7.10.4 Subsistence Economy
184 * This Unit has been adopted from EHI-02, Block 3.
7.11 Summary Chalcolithic and
Early Iron Age
7.12 Key Words
7.13 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
7.14 Suggested Readings

7.0 OBJECTIVES
In previous two Units you learnt about antecedent stages and various aspects of
Harappan culture and society. You also read about its geographical spread and reasons
for its decline and diffusion. In this Unit you will learn about various post-Harappan,
Chalcolithic and early Iron Age cultures of northern, western, central and eastern India.
This unit also deals with early farming communities and the subsequent Iron Age in the
region of south India, with special reference to Megalithic Burials and their various
aspects. After reading this unit you, will be able to know about:

 geographical location and adaptation of the Chalcolithic communities across Indian

subcontinent to local conditions;

 the kind of houses they lived in, the varieties of food they grew and the kinds of
tools and implements they used;

 the varieties of potteries used by them;

 the kinds of religious beliefs they had;

 nature of their settlements, their economy and other traits;

 changes occurring during early Iron Age;

 successive phases of the early farming culture of southern India and their salient
features; and

 characteristic features of the early Iron Age in south India.

7.1 INTRODUCTION
By 2nd millennium BCE several regional cultures sprang up in different parts of Indian
subcontinent. These were non-urban, non-Harappan and were characterized by the
use of stone and copper tools. Hence, they are termed as Chalcolithic cultures. They
are identified on the basis of their geographical location. Thus, we have:

 Banas culture (located in the Banas basin) in Rajasthan,

 Kayatha culture (type site Kayatha on the bank of river Kalisindh, an affluent of
Chambal) and represented by other sites in Central India (in Narmada, Tapi and
Mahi valleys),

 Malwa culture (Malwa, and extending into other parts of Madhya Pradesh and
Maharashtra), and

 Jorwe culture (Maharashtra).

185
History of India With the excavations of type-sites of these cultures we have been able to form a detailed
from the Earliest idea about such dimensions of them as:
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
 pattern of settlement,

 pattern of economy,

 mortuary practices, and

 religious beliefs.

In addition to cultural material of this phase found at excavated sites, in parts of Uttar
Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan, Bihar, West Bengal, Odisha and Karnataka are found
catches of copper/bronze objects. As these have been found in hoards (about a thousand
objects altogether from 85 sites in above mentioned states) these sites were thought to
represent a distinct Copper Hoard Culture. At Saipai (Etawah distt.) – a site in Uttar
Pradesh – a copper harpoon has been found in association with a pottery known as
Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP). Though some of the other Copper Hoard sites have
yielded OCP, the copper objects are not found in direct association with OCP. As
more than 100 sites have yielded this characteristic pottery in the Ganga-Yamuna
doab, these sites are described as belonging to the OCP culture. OCP culture is
succeeded by Black- and- Red Ware (BRW) and Painted Grey Ware (POW) cultures
which are distinguished by diagnostic pottery types. In North India, there is a distinct
concentration of Painted Grey Ware sites in Haryana and Upper Ganga Valley, of
which 30 have been excavated. Iron makes its appearance in the Painted Grey Ware
Culture, and in the ensuing phase, known as Northern Black Polished Ware (NBP)
culture, its use becomes more widespread. Starting from 6th century BCE we also see
the beginnings of urbanization.

Terms like BRW Culture, PGW Culture and NBP Culture need to be clarified
here. These cultures are described by the pottery types only because that particular
pottery happens to be a distinctive feature of that culture, though there may be
many other aspects of that culture. The pottery type is used only to give an
identity or name to a specific culture. For example, in a particular region where
Painted Grey Ware is found, the culture of that site is referred to as the PGW
culture.

To understand cultural developments after the decline of Harappan civilization, we should

begin with northern India, especially Ganga-Yamuna doab.

7.2 OCHRE COLOURED POTTERY (OCP)

CULTURE
A pottery type was discovered in trial excavations conducted in 1950 at Bisauli (Badaun
district) and Rajpur Parsu (Bijnor district) in Uttar Pradesh, both of them being Copper
Hoard sites. This pottery is made of medium grained clay, underfired, and has a wash
of ochre (which has a tendency to rub off), ranging from orange to red. Hence, those
sites associated with this ware are ascribed to OCP culture. More than 100 OCP sites
have been discovered, which extend from Mayapur in Saharanpur district to Saipai in
Etawah district (U.P.).

On the basis of Thermoluminiscence dates obtained from the OCP pottery, the
186 culture has been ascribed to c. 2000-1500 BCE.
OCP sites are generally located on river banks. They are small in size and the mounds Chalcolithic and
have a low height at many of the sites (e.g. Bahadarabad, Bisauli, Rajpur Parsu, Saipai). Early Iron Age
This indicates a relatively short duration of these settlements. The distance between
settlements varies from five to eight kms. At some of the sites (e.g. Ambkheri, Baheria,
Bahadarabad, Jhinjhana, Lal Qila, Atranjikhera, Saipai) excavations have revealed no
signs of regular habitation. At Hastinapur and Ahichchhatra there is a break in occupation
between OCP culture and the succeeding PGW culture, while at Atranjikhera, the
OCP settlements are succeeded by BRW culture. More than 100 sites have yielded
this characteristic pottery in Ganga-Yamuna doab. OCP culture is succeeded by BRW
and PGW cultures, which are distinguished by diagnostic pottery types.

Material remains of OCP culture are largely in the form of pottery which consists of:

 jars (including storage jars),

 bowls, particularly ring-footed bowls,

 flasks,

 handled pots,

 miniature pots,

 basins,

 spouts etc.

The other objects found comprise:

 terracotta bangles,

 beads of terracotta and carnelian,

 terracotta animal figurines and cart wheels with a central knob,

 stone querns and pestles,

 bone points,

 a copper harpoon has been found in the OCP stratum at Saipai.

Not much evidence is available regarding structures. From the evidence recorded at
Lal Qila, which is scanty, it is known that floors were made of rammed earth. Structures
consisted of wattle- and- daub houses. This is suggested on the basis of burnt mud
plaster and clods with reed and bamboo impressions being found at Lal Qila.

Archaeobotanical remains recovered at Atranjikhera and related to this culture indicate

that rice, barley, gram and kesari were grown. On the basis of similarity in pottery types
some scholars believe that OCP represented a degenerated form of late-Harappan
pottery.

7.3 THE PROBLEMS OF COPPER HOARDS

First discovery of a copper object (copper harpoon) that belonged to the Copper
Hoard culture was made as early as 1822 at a place called Bithur in the Kanpur district
of U.P. Since then, nearly 1000 copper objects have been found in herds from 85 sites. 187
History of India State-wise Copper Hoard Sites
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E. STATE NUMBER OF SITES
Haryana 5
Rajasthan 6
Uttar Pradesh 33
Bihar 19
West Bengal 6
Orissa 7
Madhya Pradesh 8
Karnataka 1
It is possible that copper hoard objects have been found in other states like Gujarat and
Andhra Pradesh, but have not been properly reported.

Copper-Hoard Artefact from Rewari, Haryana (probably not a use-object but more likely had a
religious function). Credit: Pyule. Source: “Metalwork of the Bronze Age in India”, 1981. Photo
Courtesy: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Rewari_Cu_hoard_object,_1075.jpg)

The copper objects found in a hoard range from 1 to 47 except at Gungeria in Madhya
Pradesh where a single hoard contained 424 objects. These Copper Hoards came to
light while ploughing a field, digging a canal or making a road, i.e. all of them were
accidental discoveries. It is only at Saipai that a copper harpoon was found in excavation
in a stratum associated with OCP.
These copper objects are of following types:
a) celts,
b) rings,
188 c) harpoons,
d) antennae swords, Chalcolithic and
Early Iron Age
e) hooked swords,
f) anthropomorphs, and
g) double-axes.
Considering the occurrence of a copper harpoon in association with OCP at Saipai,
and the fact that Copper Hoards have been found at other OCP sites (though not in a
direct archaeological association), they can be related to the OCP culture. In this way,
the period of Copper Hoards can also be ascribed to c. 2000-1500 BCE.

OCP and Copper Hoard Cultures. Source: EHI-02, Block-3, Unit-10.

189
History of India
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.

Copper hoard objects: 1. harpoon; 2. hook sword; 3. sword; 4. Antenna sword; 5, 6. celts;
7. double-axe; 8. bar celt; 9. shouldered axe; 10. anthropomorph.
Source: EHI-02, Block-3, Unit-10.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1) Discuss main characteristics of OCP culture.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
2) Which of the statement is right or wrong? Mark () or (×).
a) OCP sites are located in mountains. ( )
b) Material remains of OCP culture are mainly house structures. ( )
c) The period of Copper Hoards is c. 2500 BCE. ( )
d) Most of the Copper Hoards found were accidental discoveries. ( )

7.4 BLACK AND RED WARE (BRW) CULTURE

Excavations at Atranjikhera in early 1960s revealed a distinct horizon, sandwiched
between OCP and PGW levels. This horizon has a characteristic pottery called BRW.
A similar stratigraphic sequence was discovered in 1970s at Jodhpura and Noh in
Rajasthan. But at Ahichchhatra, Hastinapura and Alamgirpur, the BRW is found
associated with PGW.

7.4.1 Pottery
Characteristic features of this pottery are: black colour inside and near the rim on outside,
and red colour over rest of the body. This colour combination, it is believed, has been
produced by inverted firing. The pottery is mostly wheel-turned, though some pots are
also handmade. It is made of fine clay and has a fine fabric with thin walls. BRW pottery
with paintings has also been found at sites in Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and
West Bengal. But, in BRW of the doab area, there is an absence of paintings.
190
7.4.2 Other Objects Chalcolithic and
Early Iron Age
Excavations at Atranjikhera have yielded:
 fragments of stones, waste flakes, chips;
 cores of quartz, chalcedony, agate and carnelian;
 one bead each of carnelian, shell and copper;
 a copper ring; and
 a fragment of comb made of bone.
No stone or metal tools have been found. Jodhpura has yielded a bone spike. From
Noh a shapeless piece of iron, a terracotta bead and a bone spike have been discovered.

7.4.3 BRW in the Doab and Other Regions

Some scholars see affinities between BRW of Atranjikhera and Gilund and Ahar of
southern Rajasthan on the basis of a comparison of fabric, texture and burnishing. But,
there are differences as well in the shape and designs of the potteries found in these
areas.
 The important feature of doab BRW (also of that at Noh) is its plain surface,
devoid of any paintings. The BRW found at Gilund and Ahar, on the other hand, is
painted in white on black surface.
 There are also typological differences. The painted BRW from Ahar has pronounced
carinated concave sides, and the fabric is coarse. Plain BRW of the doab has no
carination, and the fabric is fine.
 The dish with featureless rim and concave sides present in large numbers in BRW
of the doab is absent at Ahar and Gilund.
 Bowls with spouts and dish-on-stand present at Ahar and Gilund have not been
found in doab sites.
It is important to note that BRW with some variation from region to region has a wide
distribution. It occurs from Ropar in north to Adichanallur in south, and from Amra and
Lakhabhwal in west to Pandu-Rajar-Dhibi in east. It also covers a vast time span: from
c. 2400 BCE to early centuries of the Common era.

7.5 PAINTED GREY WARE (PGW) CULTURE

Since the first discovery of PGW at Ahichchhatra in 1946, a large number of sites, that
show a distinct concentration of PGW sites in Haryana and upper Ganga valley, have
been brought to light in different parts of north India. Out of these, 30 sites have been
excavated. Some of the well known excavated sites are:
 Ropar (Punjab),
 Bhagwanpura (Haryana),
 Noh (Rajasthan),
 Alamgirpur, Ahichchhatra, Hastinapura, Atranjikhera, Jakhera and Mathura (all in
Uttar Pradesh).
The concentration of PGW sites is in:
 Indo-Gangetic divide (Haryana),
191
History of India  Sutlej basin, and
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.  Upper Ganga plains.
Settlements are located along river banks. Average distance from one site to the other
is about 10-12 km., though in some cases it is also 5 kms. Settlements at these sites are
mostly small villages (1-4 hectares), with the exception of Bhukari (Ambala district,
Haryana) which is an extensive settlement covering 96,193 sq.m.

Painted Grey Ware from Sonkh (UP). Government Museum, Mathura. Credit: Biswarup Ganguly.
Source: Wikipedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Painted_Grey_Ware_-
_Sonkh_-_1000-600_BCE_-_Showcase_6-15_-_Prehistory_and_Terracotta_Gallery_-
_Government_Museum_-_Mathura_2013-02-24_6461.JPG).

Let us examine various objects that are found associated with the PGW culture:

7.5.1 Pottery
Pottery is wheel-made, out of well lavigated clay and has a thin core:
 It has a smooth surface, grey to ash-grey in colour.
 It is painted in black and sometimes in a deep chocolate colour on outer as well as
inner surface.
 It has nearly 42 designs and the most common types are bowls and dishes.

7.5.2 Structures
Houses and other structures were of wattle- and-daub. This is indicated by the occurrence
of patches of burnt earth, mud bricks, burnt bricks, mud platforms and mud plaster
pieces with reed and bamboo impressions in excavations at:
 Ahichchhatra,
 Hastinapura,
 Atranjikhera, and
 Jakhera.
Excavations at Bhagwanpura (Haryana) revealed different structural phases. Post-holes
in the first phase indicate circular and rectangular huts. In the second phase, one house
has 13 rooms with a corridor between two sets of rooms. This house also has a courtyard.

7.5.3 Other Objects

A variety of objects made of copper, iron, glass and bone were found in excavations.
These consist of:
 axes,
 chisels,
 fish hooks, and
 arrowheads.
192
Spearheads are made only of iron. Among agricultural implements, only a sickle and a Chalcolithic and
hoe, made of iron, have been found at Jakhera. Iron objects are found at all sites Early Iron Age
except Hastinapura. Atranjikhera alone has yielded 135 objects, a furnace, iron slag
close to the surface, and a pair of tongs. At Jodhpura, there is evidence of two furnaces.
It has been suggested that iron ore was procured from other regions.
People were fond of ornaments. Beads of terracotta, agate, jaspar, carnelian, chalcedony,
lapis lazuli, glass and bone have been found. Two glass bangles were found at Hastinapura
and copper bangles have been found at Jakhera.
Terracotta objects comprise:
 human (male and female) and animal (bull and horse) figurines,
 discs,
 balls,
 potter’s stamps, etc.

7.5.4 Crops and Animal Remains

Evidence of cultivated crops is available only at:
 Hastinapura, and
 Atranjikhera.
At the former site, remains of only rice were found and the latter has yielded remains of
wheat and barley.
Bones of horse, cattle, pig, goat and deer have been found at:
 Hastinapura,
 Allahpura, and
 Atranjikhera.
These include both wild as well as domesticated animals.

7.5.5 Trade Practices and Linkages

Beads made of a variety of semi-precious stones (like agate, jasper, carnelian, chalcedony,
lapis lazuli) are found at different PGW sites in the doab. None of these stones, as raw
material, are available in the doab. Thus, it could be cogently stated that these items
could have been obtained by trade. Agate and chalcedony are found in Kashmir, Gujarat
and Madhya Pradesh whereas lapis lazuli is to be found in the Badakshan province in
Afghanistan. People inhabiting the PGW sites must have obtained these stones through
trade or exchange with these regions.
Certain parallels in shape and size have been found between PGW and potteries found
in north-western India. Especially, the Grey Ware found in association with iron seems
to indicate some links with PGW cultures.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) What are the characteristic features of BRW? Discuss in about five lines the
difference of the BRW found in various regions.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
193
.....................................................................................................................
History of India 2) On what basis we can say that the people inhabiting PGW sites had trade links
from the Earliest with other regions? Answer in about five lines.
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

7.6 NORTHERN BLACK POLISHED WARE

(NBPW) CULTURE
Like the preceding cultures the NBPW culture is identified by its distinctive pottery.
This ware was first discovered at Taxila in 1930 and because of its black luster its
discoverer then took it as ‘Greek Black Ware’. Since then, nearly 1500 NBP sites
have come to light. They extend from Taxila and Udgram in north-west to Talmuk in
east Bengal and Amravati (Andhra Pradesh) in south. Out of these, about 74 have been
excavated.
Important Excavated NBP sites

NAME OF SITE STATE

Ropar Punjab
Raja-Karna-ka-Qila Haryana
Jodhpura Rajasthan
Noh Rajasthan
Ahichchhatra U.P.
Hastinapura U.P.
Atranjikhera U.P.
Kaushambi U.P.
Sravasti U.P.
Vaishali Bihar
Pataliputra Bihar
Sonepur Bihar
Chandraketugarh W. Bengal
Excavations have revealed that:
 at several sites NBPW culture succeeded PGW levels, and
 at some sites NBP succeeded BRW, and NBP is succeeded by Red Slipped
Ware.
On the basis of the kind of pottery frequency and associated objects it has been suggested
that two phases can be distinguished in NBPW culture:
 Phase I: This phase is also referred to as the pre-defence phase. It is characterized
by a predominance of NBPW and presence of sherds of BRW and PGW, though
in meager quantities. In this phase there is an absence of punch-marked coins and
burnt brick structures, which signify a higher level of development. This phase is
represented in:
 Atranjikhera,
 Sravasti, and
 Prahladpur.
194
 Phase II: Pottery specimens belonging to BRW and PGW are not found in this Chalcolithic and
phase. The NBPW is of poor quality (thicker in fabric) and is found in smaller Early Iron Age
numbers. A coarse grey ware comes into greater use. Punch-marked coins and
burnt bricks make their first appearance. This phase is represented in:
 Hastinapura,
 Atranjikhera,
 Sravasti II, and
 Prahladpur.
Taking into account the similarities between NBP and PGW, some scholars have
suggested that the former is a refined form of the latter, and that the difference between
the two appears to be confined only to the surface treatment. This has been proved
through chemical analysis carried out on PGW, BRW and NBPW.
As the concentration of NBPW is in eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, it is held that its
origin lies somewhere in this region. It spread beyond the Ganga plains in later times,
and such a spread is attributed to the activities of Buddhist monks and traders.

BRW, PGW and NBPW Cultures. Source: EHI-02, Block-3, Unit-10. 195
History of India 7.6.1 Structures
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E. From the excavations at Hastinapura, Atranjikhera and Kausambi it becomes evident
that during this period building activities began on a large scale and that cities began to
emerge. Excellent evidence of settlement layout was unearthed at Kaushambi. Here
were found lanes and bylanes with brick floorings. One road, which was first laid around
600 BCE, was relaid several times (varying in width between 5.5ms. and 2.5ms.) and
continued to function up to c. 300 CE. Houses were made of burnt bricks, and use of
timber in house construction is evidenced by post-holes and sockets for door jambs.
Roofs of houses were covered with tiles. Rooms were square as well as rectangular. All
this indicates a fairly planned building activity. This is further demonstrated from
excavations at Hastinapura which have revealed an elaborate drainage system.
Some of the settlements were fortified with a mud or brick wall and moats were
constructed encircling the fortification. The fortification wall at Kausambi had guard
rooms, towers and gates at regular intervals.
An important question to be asked here is that do these structures tell us anything about
social or political life in that period? They do. For example:
 fortifications signify defensive measures against invasion and speak of political
tensions,
 drainage system not only indicates concern of the people towards hygiene, but
also the advance they had made in this regard, and
 large buildings like the fortifications require that a large number of people participate
in construction activities. This might need an authority to mobilize the workers.

7.6.2 Pottery
The most characteristic feature of NBPW is its glossy surface. It is turned on a fast
wheel and is made of well levigated clay. Core of the pottery, in some cases, is as thin
as 1.5mms. In addition to glossy black surface, the NBPW is also found in golden,
silver, white, pinkish, steel blue, chocolate and brown colours. Recovery of rivetted
pots (i.e. made by joining broken pieces) from some sites (e.g. Ropar, Sonepur) indicates
how valuable NBPW was. This, along with the presence of other pottey types, leads us
to assume that NBPW was a luxury ware not accessible to everybody and suggests to
us that in the society in which NBPW was used the society was divided into unequal
groups.
Though NBPW is generally unpainted, some painted shreds too occur. Painting is done
using yellow and light vermilion colours. Common designs are:
 simple bands,
 wavy lines,
 dots,
 concentric and intersecting circles,
 semi-circles,
 arches, and
 loops.
Most common pottery shapes are bowls and different kinds of dishes.

196
 Chalcolithic and
Early Iron Age

NBP Pottery. Source: EHI-02, Block-3, Unit-10.

7.6.3 Other Objects

Several kinds of tools, weapons, ornaments and other objects made of copper, iron,
gold, silver, stone, glass and bone have been recovered from NBPW sites. They reveal
the technological progress achieved during this period, which is further corroborated
by early Buddhist texts which mention a number of arts and crafts. The Jatakas refer to
about 18 guilds, for instance, those of workers in wood, metal, stone, precious and
semi-precious stones, ivory textiles, etc.
The copper objects found at many sites consist of:
 chisels,
 knives,
 borers,
 pins,
 needles,
 antimony rods,
 nail parers,
 ferrules,
 reels, and
 bangles.
Iron objects not only preponderate but also exhibit a great variety in form when compared
to the PGW period. The site of Kausambi alone has yielded 1,115 iron objects from
deposits dating between c. 800 BCE to c.550 CE. These consist of:
197
History of India a) Agricultural implements like hoes and sickles, and tools of craftsmen such as
from the Earliest axes, adzes, chisels and screw rods.
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
b) Weapons like arrowheads, javelin heads and spearheads.
c) Miscellaneous objects which include knives, handles of different kinds, hooks,
nails, rivets, fishplates, rings and miniature bells.

Iron Implements: 1-3. Arrowheads; 4. Adze; 5. Hoe; 6-7. Sickles; 8. Dagger; 9. Chisel

Source: EHI-02, Block-3, Unit-10.

Silver punch-marked coins have been found from the middle phase of the NBP culture.
These indicate a possible shift from barter system to a system of exchange of goods
through metallic currency.

Punch-Marked Coins. Source: EHI-02, Block-3, Unit-10.

7.6.4 Ornaments
Beads made of semi-precious stones, glass, clay, copper shell and bone are most
commonly found. The usual shapes are:
 circular,
 spherical,
 biconical,
 cylindrical,
 barrel, and
 square.
Some beads are also etched. A single bead of gold is known from Kausambi (c. 300
BCE).
Among the other ornaments are:

198  bangles made of terracotta, faience, glass, shell, stone and copper;
 finger rings of copper, iron, horn and clay; and Chalcolithic and
Early Iron Age
 pendants of terracotta, agate and carnelian.
All these finds tell us about the:
 use of ornaments in that society,
 existence of specialized craftsmen to make them,
 level of technology for making them, and
 trade or exchange activities with other regions to procure various semi-precious
stones.

7.6.5 Terracotta Figurines

These comprise human and animal figurines and miscellaneous objects. Human figures,
in most cases, are cast in moulds. Male figurines are usually plain, excepting a few with
a head dress. Female figurines have:
 elaborate head dress,
 ear ornaments,
 necklaces, and
 girdles.
Animal figurines are hand-modeled but well executed. These consist of:
 horse,
 bull,
 ram, and
 elephant.
Miscellaneous terracotta objects are:
 toy carts,
 simple and animal headed gamesman,
 discs,
 balls,
 flesh rubbers, and
 potter’s stamps.
At a later stage of this culture are found seals and sealings bearing inscriptions in Brahmi
script. All these finds tell us a lot about people who inhabited these sites. For example,
toy carts tell us that carts were used as means of transportation.

7.6.6 Subsistence Economy and Trade

Archaeobotanical remains indicate that rice, wheat, barley, millet, pea and black gram
were cultivated. And animal remains found from some of the sites suggest dependence
on:
 cattle, 199
History of India  sheep,
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.  goat,
 pig, and
 fish.
Occurrence of a diverse variety of beads, found to be common at several sites, is seen
as evidence of trade. On this basis, it has been suggested that trade links existed between
Taxila, Hastinapura, Ahichchhatra, Shravasti and Kaushambi during c. 600 to 200 BCE.
Such a view is strengthened by references made in the Buddhist texts to trade guilds
and caravans of camels, horses, mules, oxen and buffalos. Between sixth and third
centuries BCE there was trade between India and countries to the west. The main
items of export were:
 textiles,
 spices, and
 probably, finished goods of iron and steel.
From the Arthashastra (Book-II), it would appear that the state not only exercised
control over trade but also had a monopoly over industries like gold, copper, iron, lead,
tin, silver, diamond, gems and precious stones.
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
1) From where does the NBPW culture get its name? Answer in three lines.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
2) Which of the following statements are right or wrong? Mark () or (×).
a) NBP was a luxury ware. ( )
b) It has been suggested that NBP culture had four phases. ( )
c) Literary evidence supports archaeologists’ conclusions of trading activities
during NBP period. ( )
d) None of the NBP settlements had fortification. ( )

7.7 CHALCOLITHIC CULTURES OF WESTERN,

CENTRAL AND EASTERN INDIA
There were several local Chalcolithic early farming cultures in western, central and
eastern India which flourished during the 2nd and the 1st millennia BCE. These cultures
were basically village settlements and they shared certain common elements. Distinctive
features of these cultures were:
 painted pottery, which is mostly Black-on-Red, and
 a highly specialized stone blade/flake industry of siliceous stones.
Copper was known but its use was on a limited scale, as the metal was scarce. The
200
settlements consisted of circular and rectangular huts and, in some cases, pit dwellings Chalcolithic and
are also known. Economy was based on farming and animal husbandry. These cultures Early Iron Age
are named after their type sites.
Chalcolithic Cultures
Name of the Culture Period
Kayatha c. 2000-1800 BCE
Ahar or Banas c. 2000-1400 BCE
Savalda c. 2000-1800 BCE
Malwa c. 1700-1200 BCE in central
India and c. 1700-1400 BCE
in Maharashtra
Prabhas c. 1800-1500 BCE
Rangapur c. 1400-700 BCE
Chirand c. 1500-750 BCE
In Tapi valley of Maharashtra, late Harappan, non-urban habitations (about 50) are
known (c.1800-1600 BCE). Excavations at Daimabad have shown that late Harappans
moved further south into Pravara valley (Maharashtra).
Kayatha culture is named after the site of Kayatha (25 kms. east of Ujjain) located on
the bank of Kalisindh, an affluent of the river Chambal. Ahar or Banas culture is
named after the river Banas and its type site is Ahar (Udaipur in Rajasthan). More than
50 sites of this culture are known in the valleys of Banas and Berach in south-east
Rajasthan. The type site of Savalda culture is Savalda (Dhulia district, Maharashtra).
It is mostly confined to Tapi valley but evidence from Daimabad suggests that it reached
up to Pravara valley. Malwa culture was discovered in excavations at Maheshwar and
Navadatoli (Nimar district, Madhya Pradesh) on the banks of Narmada. This culture is
so named as a large number of sites were brought to light in Malwa region. Malwa
people began to migrate to Maharashtra around 1600 BCE, and several settlements
have been discovered in Tapi, Godavari and Bhima valleys. Prakash (Dhulia district),
Daimabad (Ahmednagar district) and Inamgaon (Pune district) were most extensive
settlements of the Malwa culture in Maharashtra. Prabhas and Rangpur cultures,
respectively, are known after the type sites Prabhas Patan and Rangpur in Gujarat. The
type site of Jorwe culture is Jorwe (Ahmednagar district) in Maharashtra. Extensive
occupations of Jorwe culture succeed Malwa culture at Prakash, Daimabad and
Inamgaon.
Stone and copper using agricultural communities have been reported from eastern
India too. In northern Bihar at a place called Chirand remains of an ancient village
settlement have been found. People lived in small houses made of bamboo and mud
plaster. They ate rice and fish and hunted many wild animals. They too used Black- and
Red- Ware pottery. Similar kinds of settlements have been reported from Sahgaura in
Gorakhpur (U.P.) and Sonpur in Gaya (Bihar) where people seem to have grown
wheat and barley also. In West Bengal, the sites of Pandu-Rajar-Dhibi in Burdwan
district and Mahisdal in Birbhum district have yielded similar evidences. All these
settlements have been dated between c. 1500-750 BCE.

201
History of India
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.

Chalcolithic sites in Western and Central India. Source: EHI-02, Block-3, Unit-10.

Let us examine various characteristics of these cultures.

7.7.1 Pottery: Diagnostic Features

We will briefly review the pottery of these Chalcolithic cultures.
Kayatha ware is characterized by three fabrics:
 a thick and sturdy red slipped ware painted with designs in dark brown,
 a red painted buff ware (this ware is thin with a fine fabric), and
 a combed ware having incised patterns, and generally without a slip.
Majority of the pots of the sturdy red slipped ware have a ring base. The ring base
recalls the pre-Harappan Sothi types.
Sothi culture (in Rajasthan) is known from several sites in the valley of Ghaggar
(Sarasvati) which have yielded a pottery that is akin to the pre-Harappan pottery
of Kalibangan.
There are seven kinds of wares in Ahar pottery but its most characteristic type is the
Black-and-Red Ware painted in white. Savalda culture is characterized by a Black-
on-Red Painted pottery which is decorated with naturalistic designs such as:
 birds,
 animals, and
202  fishes.
Malwa ware is, to some extent, coarse in fabric and has a thick buff slip over which Chalcolithic and
patterns are executed in black or dark brown colour. Prabhas and Rangpur wares are Early Iron Age
both derived from the Harappan Black-on-Red painted ware, but since the latter has a
gloss, it is referred to as lustrous Red Ware. Jorwe Ware is painted Black-on-Red, and
has a matt surface treated with a red wash. In addition to these characteristic forms, all
these cultures have other associated wares which are mostly red or grey. Pottery is
wheel-made, but there are also hand-made forms. The pottery shapes which are usual
to these cultures are:
 bowls,
 basins,
 globular jars with concave necks,
 dishes,
 lotas (a small pot with a carinated body, a bulbous bottom and a flaring rim) etc.
A distinctive feature of Malwa pottery is seen in the series of small goblets on solid
pedestals. Distinctive forms of Jorwe culture are:
 carinated bowls,
 spouted jars with flaring mouths, and
 high-necked globular vases.

Pottery of Malwa Culture. Source: EHI-02, Block-3, Unit-10.

203
History of India 7.7.2 Economy
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E. A greater part of the region in which these Chalcolithic cultures flourished is the zone of
black cotton soil. Climate is semi-arid and rainfall varies between 400 to 1000 mm.
Mainstay of the economy of these Chalcolithic cultures was subsistence agriculture and
stock-raising. Dependence on wild game and other food sources, such as fish, is also
attested to at several sites.
i) Cultivated Crops: Carbonized remains of seeds recovered in excavations at
some of the sites indicate that a variety of crops were raised by these farming
communities. Main crops were:
a) barley,
b) wheat,
c) rice,
d) bajra,
e) jowar,
f) lentil,
g) horsegram,
h) haycinth bean,
i) grass pea,
j) pea,
k) black gram, and
l) green gram.
The other plants utilized were:
 Jaamun,
 Behada,
 wild date,
 ber,
 Myrobalan.
Barley was the principal cereal during this period. Evidence from Inamgaon suggests
the practice of crop rotation, harvesting of summer and winter crops, and artificial
irrigation. A massive embankment (240 m. long and 2.40 m. wide) was built at Inamgaon
during early Jorwe period (c. 1400-1000 BCE) to divert flood water through a channel
(200 m. long, 4m. wide and 3.5 m. deep).
That the black cotton soil was ploughed for farming operations is suggested by the find
of an ard (prototype of ploughshare) made from the shoulder bone of cattle at Walki
(not very far from Inamgaon).

204
 Chalcolithic and
Early Iron Age

Bone Ard from Walki. Source: EHI-02, Block-3, Unit-10.

ii) Animals: Excavations have revealed evidences of both domesticated as well as

wild animals.
a) Domesticated animals during the chalcolithic period were:
 cattle,
 sheep,
 goat,
 dog,
 pig,
 horse.
Bones of cattle and sheep/goat predominate at most of the sites. Cut and chop
marks on bones of these animals indicate that they were slaughtered for food. Age
determination of these bones has indicated that most of the animals were slaughtered
when they were young (ranging from three months to three years in age).
b) The wild species found are:
 black buck,
 four-horned antilope,
 Nilgai,
 Barasingha,
 Sambar,
 Chital,
 wild buffalo, and
 one-horned rhinoceros.
Bones of fish, waterfowl, turtle and rodents have also been found at some of the sites.
Bones of marine fish species have been found at Inamgaon and the source of these fish
could be either Kalyan or Mahad, the nearest creek ports, 200 km. west of Inamgaon.

205
History of India Charred bones of both domestic and wild species indicate that they were cooked in
from the Earliest open fire.
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
7.7.3 Houses and Habitations
Let us briefly examine the housing patterns of these cultures. Rectangular and circular
houses with mud walls and thatched roofs are the most common types, though there
are variations in house sizes from site to site.
i) Most of the houses of Savalda culture were single roomed rectangular houses, but
there are some with two or three rooms. Ahar people built houses on plinths made
of schist. Walls were built on these plinths with mud or mud brick and walls were
decorated with quartz cobbles, and floors were made of burnt clay or clay mixed
with river gravels.
ii) Sizes of the Ahar houses ranged between 7m × 5m and 3m × 3m, and the longest
house measured more than 10m in length. Bigger houses had partition walls, and
chulahs (hearths) and quartzite saddle querns in kitchen.
iii) Malwa settlements, such as those found at Navadatoli, Parkash, Daimabad and
Inamgaon, were quite large. Evidence at Inamgaon suggests that some kind of
planning was adopted in laying out of the settlement. Of the 20 odd houses exposed
at Inamgaon, majority were aligned in a roughly east-west orientation. Though
these houses were built close to each other, they had an intervening space of about
1-2m in between, which might have served as a lane. These houses at Inamgaon
were large (7m × 5m) rectangular structures with a partition wall. Houses had a
low mud wall and gabled roof. Inside the house was a large oval fire-pit with
raised sides for keeping fire under control. Houses at Navadatoli were provided
with one or two mouthed chullahs in the kitchen. Grain was stored in deep pit
silos (1m in diameter and 1m deep). Circular mud platforms (1.5m in diameter)
inside the houses suggest that they probably served as bases to keep bins of
wicker work for grain storage.

Plan of Houses at Inamgaon during Malwa period. Source: EHI-02, Block-3, Unit-10.

iv) A significant feature of Jorwe culture (of which more than 200 sites are known so
far, though majority of them can be classified as villages ranging from one to four
hectares) is the presence of a large centre in each region. These centres are Prakash,
Daimabad and Inamgaon respectively in the valleys of the Tapi, the Godavari and
Bhima. Jorwe settlement at Daimabad was the largest, covering an area from
more than 30 hectares. Prakash and Inamgaon cover about five hectares each.
206
v) A noteworthy feature of Jorwe (both Early and Late) settlement at Inamgaon is Chalcolithic and
that the houses of the artisans such as potter, goldsmith, lapidary, ivory-carver etc. Early Iron Age
were located on the western periphery of the principal habitation area, whereas
those of well-to-do farmers were in the central part. The size of artisans’ houses is
smaller than those of the well-to-do. Both these aspects, i.e. position and size of
the houses, demonstrate social differentiation in terms of a lower position for the
artisans in the society.
Interestingly enough, some of these Chalcolithic sites have fortification walls around the
settlement. For example, Eran and Nagda (Madhya Pradesh) of Malwa culture, and
Inamgaon (during Jorwe period) have a fortified mud wall with stone rubble bastions
and ditch around the habitation.
At Inamgaon the following change has been noticed in house types from Early Jorwe
(c. 1400-1000 BCE) to Late Jorwe period (c. 1000-700 BCE):
The Early Jorwe houses were large rectangular structures with low mud walls (about
30 cm. high) surrounded by wattle-and-daub constructions. These houses were laid
out in rows with their longer axis in a roughly east-west orientation. They have an open
space in between (approximately 1.5m wide) which might have served as a road or
lane. Late Jorwe houses, on the other hand, depict a picture of poverty. Large rectangular
huts were no more built, and instead there were small round huts (with a low mud wall)
in clusters of three or four. The pit silos were replaced by a four-legged storage jar
supported on four flat stones.
The overall evidence indicates that this shift from Early Jorwe to Late Jorwe was due to
decline in agriculture as a result of drop in rainfall. Investigations in western and central
India have disclosed that at the close of 2nd millennium BCE, there was a drastic climatic
change in this region that led to increasing aridity, forcing people to resort to a semi-
nomadic existence. This conclusion is based on calculations of percentages of animal
bones found from different phases. It seems that increasing aridity during Late Jorwe
period led to the decline of agriculture, and economy based on farming changed over to
sheep/goat pastoralism.

7.7.4 Other Characteristics

All these cultures are characterized by a stone blade/flake industry based on siliceous
stones such as:
 chalcedony,
 chert,
 jasper, and
 agate.
Tools include:
 long parallel sided blades,
 blunted black blades,
 serrated blades,
 pen knives,
 lunates,
207
History of India  triangles, and
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.  trapezes.
Some of these blade-tools have a shine on the sharp edge, suggesting that they were
used for harvesting. Polished stone-axes, which are typical of the Neolithic-Chalcolithic
cultures of Karnataka-Andhra, have also been found at some of these sites, though
they are not plentiful.
The copper objects consist of:
 flat axes or celts with convex cutting edges,
 arrowheads,
 spearheads,
 chisels,
 fish-hooks,
 mid-ribbed swords,
 blades,
 bangles,
 rings, and
 beads.
Among the finds at Kayatha, one pot contained 28 copper bangles. Some of these
objects, like axe, were cast in mould, while others were hammered to shape. Most
prolific items among the ornaments are beads made of carnelian, jasper, chalcedony,
agate, shell etc. A necklace made of 40,000 microbeads of steatite has been found in a
pot belonging to Kayatha culture. At Inamgaon were found beads of gold and ivory, a
spiral ear-ring of gold and anklets of copper.
Terracotta objects are found frequently at majority of these sites. These are in the form
of human and animal figurines. Stylized terracotta bulls (which are mostly miniature-
sized) found in the Chalcolithic levels at Kayatha, some with a prominent hump, some
with horns twisted backward, and some with horns projecting forward horizontally, are
of special interest. Considering the occurrence of numerous terracotta bull figurines at
several of these Chalcolithic sites, it can be suggested that bull was a sacred animal,
though the possibility that some of them could have been toys cannot be ruled out.
Daimabad Hoard: By a chance discovery, four objects on the top of a mound (below
which is a 1.2m thick deposit belonging to Jorwe period) came to light at Daimabad.
These are massive, all solid cast, and weigh over 60 kg:
i) Elephant: This is the heaviest (25 cm in height × 27 cm in length), and stands on
a cast copper platform with four brackets beneath, pierced, to take axles.
ii) Rhinoceros: This is slightly smaller, and also stands on a cast platform. The
brackets contain two solid copper axles with cast wheels attached. This rhinoceros
recalls the one inscribed on Indus seals.
iii) Two Wheeled Chariot with a Rider: The chariot is attached by a long pole to
yoked oxen which stand on two cast copper strips, but there are no brackets for
wheels. The chariot has two uprights supporting a cross-bar behind which the
rider stands. This piece has no parallels.
208
iv) Buffalo: This also has wheels and axle in position. This has some parallels in the Chalcolithic and
figures of buffalos in both terracotta and case copper or bronze found from Early Iron Age
Mohenjodaro. Copper of the Daimabad hoard compared with that of other copper
objects found in excavations, and spectrometric analysis of this metal has revealed
that it is unalloyed by tin or other metals. According to one view, the Daimabad
hoard is datable to Late Harappan period (c.1600-1300 BCE). Another suggestion
is that they could probably belong to same technological group as the Kallur hoard.

LEFT: Copper Elephant, Daimabad Hoard. Source: EHI-02, Block-3, Unit-10.

RIGHT: Copper Rhinoceros, Daimabad Hoard. Source: EHI-02, Block-3, Unit-10.

LEFT: Copper Buffalo, Daimabad Hoard. Source: EHI-02, Block-3, Unit-10.

RIGHT: Copper Chariot, Daimabad Hoard. Source: EHI-02, Block-3, Unit-10.

7.7.5 Religion/Belief Systems

Finds in the excavations also shed light on religious practices and beliefs of people,
which can be elucidated as follows:
i) Mother Goddess: That these Chalcolithc communities had a belief in the Mother
Goddess and worshipped her, is attested by finding of female figures of clay (both
baked and unbaked). These female figures are both with heads and without heads.
From lower levels of occupation (dated to the middle of 2nd millennium BCE) at
Nevasa comes a large headless female figure which is made without clearly showing 209
History of India physical features. Inamgaon has also yielded similar terracotta female figurines
from the Earliest which show no physical features except breasts.
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
Evidence for the worship of Mother Goddess has been recorded in excavations
of an early Jorwe house (c.1300 BCE) at Inamgaon. Here, buried under the floor
in a comer was found an oval shaped clay receptacle with a clay lid. Inside this
receptacle was found a headless female figurine having large pendant breasts and
also a bull figurine. These female figurines, including the one from Inamgaon, point
to the worship of the goddess of fertility. These figurines (especially the headless
ones), according to one opinion, may represent goddess Sakambhari (of early
historic period), the goddess of vegetative fertility who was worshipped for warding
off draughts.
ii) Gods: Male figurines are rare in Chalcolithic settlements. It has been suggested
that figurines of clay (two of them being unbaked, and one baked) found in the late
Jorwe levels (c.1000-700 BCE) at Inamgaon may possibly be identified as gods.
In this context, a painted jar of Malwa period (c.1600 BCE) is considered to be
of some religious significance. This pot has two panels. In the upper panel is painted
a scene depicting a human figure wearing a garment of twigs covering the loin, and
is surrounded by stylized animals such as stag, deer, peacocks etc. The lower
panel shows springing tigers or panthers, which are also stylized. This vessel,
richly decorated with elaborate paintings, was probably meant for some ritualistic
use. Likewise, finds of solid cast copper elephant, buffalo, rhinoceros etc. at
Daimabad could have religious functions.
iii) Burial Practices: Disposal of the dead by burial was a common custom. Adults
as well as children were usually buried in a north-south orientation; the head towards
north and the legs towards south. Adults were, in a majority of cases, buried in an
extended position, whereas children were buried in urn-burials – either in single
pots or, more often, in two pots – placed horizontally mouth-to-mouth in a pit.
Adults, and also children, were buried in a pit which was dug into the house floor, and
rarely in courtyard of the house. It is interesting to note that during the Jorwe period, in
the case of adults, portion below the ankle was purposely chopped off. These practices,
like burying the dead within precincts of the house, and chopping off the feet, could
possibly suggest a belief in which the dead were restrained from turning into ghosts who
could become malevolent.
Adult burials, in several cases, contain offerings (grave goods) which are usually two
pots, or sometimes more in number. One adult burial of Late Jorwe period contained
15 pots. It was also common to bury the dead with personal ornaments. In an adult
burial of Late Jorwe period, a large copper ornament was found near the neck of the
skeleton. A child in a twin urn-burial of the same period had a necklace consisting of
twelve beads of copper and red jasper alternately.
The Jorwe period has also disclosed some unusual burials at Inamgaon. Here has been
found a four legged urn-burial made of unbaked clay, and its southern face resembles a
human body. This urn (80 cm. in height and 50 cm. in width), having a wide mouth with
a featureless rim, contained the skeleton of a male of about 30-40 years in a sitting
posture. In this case, portion below the ankle is not chopped off. The burial offerings
were a spouted pot with painting of a boat design having long oars. What this boat
design reminds one is the present day Hindu belief that the departed soul has to cross
waters in a ferry to reach the heavenly abode. This person who was given such an
elaborate burial could be:
210
 of high status, or Chalcolithic and
Early Iron Age
 ruling chief of the settlement, or
 belonging to a social group that practiced a different kind of burial.

7.7.6 Social Organization

In the Chalcolithic culture regions, a study of the distribution pattern of the sites seems
to suggest that these sites were of two types, one type representing regional centres
and the other type representing village settlements. This difference, or hierarchy, has
been taken to suggest that some form of administrative organization was present in
Chalcolithic cultures. This also suggests that Chalcolithic social organization was
characterized by ranking. Presence of an administrative authority is further supported
by existence of public structures such as fortifications, rampart and moat, granaries,
embankment and canals (well documented at Inamgaon) etc. found at different sites.
Seen in the larger context of post-Harappan developments, these Chalcolithic cultures
betray discernible influences of Harappan culture, though in a residual form. All the
same, they are marked by strong regional elements, and also display trade links and
cultural contacts between each other.
These metal-using farming communities which flourished in 2nd millennium BCE
disappeared around 1st millennium BCE (excepting Late Jorwe which continued till
c.700 BCE). One possible reason attributed for such decay (on the basis of analyses of
soil sample overlying these Chalcolithic horizons) was increasing aridity and unfavourable
climatic conditions. Many of these settlements in Godavari, Tapi and other valleys were
deserted, and were reoccupied after a gap of five or six centuries in 5th-4th centuries
BCE, heralded by urbanization.
Check Your Progress Exercise 4
1) Which of the following statements are right () or wrong (×)?
a) Chalcolithic cultures of western and central India were city settlements. ( )
b) Carbonized remains of seeds found in excavations indicate the variety of
crops raised by the people. ( )
c) Smaller size of artisan’s house at Inamgaon demonstrates social differentiation.
( )
d) There is no evidence of Mother Goddess worship. ( )
e) At certain sites, urns were used for burials. ( )
2) What are the characteristics of Malwa settlements?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
3) Discuss in about five lines the characteristics of Daimabad Hoard.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
211
.....................................................................................................................
History of India
from the Earliest 7.8 EARLY FARMING SETTLEMENTS IN SOUTH
Times Upto C. 300 C.E. INDIA
By now you must be well familiar with the evolution of human beings from hunter-
gatherers into settled agricultural communities. You have also learnt about Harappan
civilization and the various aspects related to it. Till now in this Unit, you have seen how
different cultures emerged following the decline of Harappan civilization, covering the
time span from 2nd to 1st millennium BCE. Now, we will review the developments in
south India during the same period. The focus of study will be on the nature of changes
that came about in this period in material culture, settlement patterns and social
organization.
Settlements of early farming communities in south India make a rather sudden appearance
in 3rd millennium BCE. There is no evidence to discern a gradual evolution (as in west
Asia) from a hunting-gathering economy to a food-producing economy. Evidence for
this region indicates some sort of colonization of favourable habitats in the Godavari,
Krishna, Tungabhadra, Penneru and Kaveri river systems. These settlements, in majority
of the cases, are scattered in the semi-arid, low rain fall and sandy loamy regions which
are suitable for dry farming and pastoralism (cattle, sheep and goat). Distinguishing
features of these settlements are:
i) Sedentary village settlements with semi-permanent to permanent structures, the
latter consisting of wattle- and- daub.
ii) Stone axes (made of hard rock like dolerite and basalt) manufactured by grinding
and polishing. Because of this technique, the stone-tool industry of these early
farming cultures is referred to as the polished stone-axe industry.

Important Neolithic-Chalcolithic sites in south India. Source: EHI-02, Block-3, Unit-11.

212
iii) Long and thin blades made of fine grained rocks like chert, jasper, chalcedony Chalcolithic and
and agate. These artefacts have a sheen on the cutting edge, indicating that they Early Iron Age
were used for harvesting crops.
iv) Pottery which is hand-made in the early stages and wheel-made in the later stages.
v) An economy based on millet farming, and cattle and sheep/goat pastoralism. The
economy, thus, is basically agro-pastoral.
vi) Dietary needs are supplemented by wild game.

7.8.1 Cultural Phases

On the basis of overall evidence, we can distinguish three broad phases in the growth of
the early farming communities in south India:
Phase I: Earliest settlements of these farming communities represent this phase. These
were made on tops of granitoid hills, or on leveled terraces on hill sides, or in the valleys
between two or more hills. The material culture consists of:
 a polished stone axe industry,
 blade industry, and
 hand-made pottery.
In pottery, grey or buff-brown ware is most common. A ware, which is less common,
has a black or red burnished slip, often with purple painted decorations. These earliest
settlements are associated with ash-mounds, some of which were excavated. These
excavated ash-mound sites like Utnur, Kupgal, Kodekal, Pallavoy, Piklihal, Maski and
Brahmagiri have all revealed the first phase of settlements of these agro-pastoral
communities. This phase can be ascribed between c. 2500-1800 BCE on the basis of
radiocarbon dates.
Phase II: The settlement pattern of phase-I continues without any change:
Settlements were still made on top of granitic hills, or on leveled surfaces on hillsides.
Nonetheless, there are some important developments. The settlements had circular
hutments of wattle- and- daub on wooden frames with mud floors. Some of the larger
pits at Nagarjunakonda (in coastal Andhradesha) which are circular, oval, oblong and
irregular, with post-holes, are interpreted as semi-subterranean pit dwellings. Pit dwellings
were also found at Paiyampalli and Veerapuram. In this phase, new pottery types like
perforated and spouted vessels appeared. The discovery of such pottery types reveals
contacts with regions in the north, as similar pottery types have been found there. The
technique of roughening outer surface of pottery during this phase is reminiscent of
technique employed in the early Harappan period.
Polished stone axe and blade industries proliferated in this phase. Copper and bronze
objects were also discovered for the first time and their numbers increased towards the
end of this phase. Some of the sites where phase-II settlements were discovered are:
 Piklihal,
 Brahmagiri,
 Sanganakallu,
 Tekkalakota,
 Hallur, and
 T. Narsipur. 213
History of India The available radiocarbon dates for this phase suggest a time span covering c.1800-
from the Earliest 1500 BCE.
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
Phase III: Important development in this phase is increase in the number of copper
and bronze tools. Such an increase is seen at:
 Tekkalakota,
 Hallur,
 Piklihal,
 Sanganakallu,
 Brahmagiri, and
 Paiyampalli.
Stone axe and blade industries continue. In pottery, a new grey and buff ware with a
harder surface becomes common. Another ceramic type which is wheel-made,
unburnished and with purple paint also appears. This ware has affinities to the Chalcolithic
Jorwe ware of Maharashtra. On these grounds, this phase can be ascribed to the
period c.1400-1050 BCE.
These three phases reveal how gradually the early farming-cum-pastoral settlements in
south India emerged and expanded. There is continuity of occupation from phase I to
phase III (as revealed at some sites in the excavations) and with no significant change in
the economy. The only important difference is absence of copper/bronze tools in phase
I. As the occupation of phases II and III have yielded these metal tools, they are
designated as Neolithic-Chalcolithic.
From the distribution of these settlements, it can be seen that the preferred landforms
are low hill ranges away from major watersheds but in proximity to streams; the soil
zones are tropical black clays, tropical red and black sandy loams, sandy or sandy
loamy ferruginous tropical soils, and deltaic alluvium. The average annual rainfall in
which these settlements are located, as at present, falls in the range of 600-1200 mm.
These sites are commonly dispersed in castlellated hills and the habitations are usually
on the tops of hills or at the foot of hills.

7.8.2 Subsistence Economy

In view of location of the sites in relation to physiography, it would appear that areas
which were suited largely for gravity flow irrigation were generally colonized. However,
there are some sites like Veerapuram on the bank of the Krishna, Hallur on Tungabhadra,
T. Narsipur at the confluence of Kaveri and Kapila, and those in the alluvial zones of
Krishna where there is scope for water management through canal irrigation. The available
archaeobotanical evidence indicates that millets and pulses were main cultivated crops.
These are various kinds of millet, horse gram, green gram and black gram. Hyacinth
bean and barley have been recently identified at Ramapuram.
Coming to the fauna, almost all the excavated Neolithic-Chalcolithic sites have yielded
remains which belong to both domesticated and wild species.
The Domesticated species consist of:
 cattle,
 buffalo,
 sheep,
214  goat,
 pig, Chalcolithic and
Early Iron Age
 dog, and
 fowl.
Cattle predominate at majority of the sites, indicating its importance in the economy of
these communities. For instance, in the Neolithic levels at Veerapuram, the faunal remains
of which were subjected to meticulous study, cattle represent 48.68% of the domesticated
animals, whereas sheep/goat form only 5.4%. If such was the case at Veerapuram
situated on the right bank of Krishna with potential for irrigation agriculture, then one
should expect cattle-pastoralism to have played a major role in scores of sites located
in the uplands. As the economy of these communities was a combination of agriculture
and animal husbandry (cattle predominantly and sheep/goat to some extent), it can be
termed agro-pastoral.
In addition to these domesticated species, these settlements have also yielded remains
of wild game. These wild species are:
 porcupine,
 black naped hare,
 nilgai,
 chinkara,
 blackbuck,
 sambar, and
 chital.
This would indicate that their meat requirements were supplemented by wild game.

7.8.3 Material Culture

The material remains of this period include:
 pottery,
 stone artefacts, and
 copper/bronze objects.
i) Pottery
Pottery in phase I (c.2500-1800 BCE) was predominantly handmade, grey or buff-
brown. This grey ware is characterized by the use of bands of red ochre, applied after
firing. What is interesting is that some of these pottery forms have applied ring feet and
hollow pedestals which recall the pre-Harrappan types known from Amri and
Kalibangan. The other ceramic type of phase I had a black or red burnished slip, with
a purple painted decoration.
In phase II (c.1800-1500 BCE), the red and black slipped wares disappear and new
types occur, such as perforated vessels, and vessels with spouts. In ceramic manufacture,
the technique of roughening the outer surface of vessels is used, and this recalls the one
employed in the pre-Harappan levels of Baluchistan.
In Phase III (c.1400-1050 BCE), new ceramic types occur:
a) a grey and buff ware with a harder surface, and
215
History of India b) a wheel-thrown unburnished ware with purple paint. This latter type displays
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E. affinities with the Jorwe type of Maharashtra, thus, indicating cultural contacts
between southern Deccan and northern Deccan. The pottery forms are:
 various kinds of bowls (bowls with lips, lugs and spouts),
 handled and hollow footed bowls,
 jars,
 dishes on stand,
 perforated and spouted vessels.
ii) Stone Tools and Bone Artefacts
The stone blade industry consists of long and thin parallel sided blades, some of
which are finished into other forms by retouch. These finished forms are:
 crescents,
 triangles,
 trapezes,
 serrated blades etc.
Some of the parallel sided blades show a gloss on the cutting edge which is due to their
use in harvesting activities.
Many stone tools were also polished. Most common type of the polished or ground
stone axe industry is the triangular axe with a pointed butt and oval cross section. The
other forms are:
 adges,
 scrappers,
 wedges,
 chisels and
 pointed tools (termed as picks).
Besides these, the other stone objects comprise:
 hammer stones,
 sling balls,
 grinding stones,
 rubbing stones, and
 querns (used in food-grain processing).
Among the bone-artefacts, worked bone, horn and occasionally antler and shell have
been found at some of the excavated sites. The most common artefacts are a variety of
points and chisels. One site (Pallavoy) has yielded bone axes made from cattle scapulae,
finished by grinding at the worked edge.

216
 Chalcolithic and
Early Iron Age

Neolithic blade and polished stone axe industry in south India. Source: EHI-02, Block-3, Unit-11.

iii) Metal Objects

As noted earlier, copper and bronze tools appear in phase II and increase in phase III.
Most important of these are flat axes and chisels which are reminiscent of those of
Malwa and Maharashtra. The other interesting find is the antenna sword found at Kallur
(discussed earlier in the context of Copper Hoards).
The other items of copper/bronze, which are known from various excavated sites are:
 bangles
 spiral ear-rings, and
 antimony rods.
A fish-hook has been recovered from Hallur. The site Tekkalakota has yielded a spiral
ear-ring of gold.
iv) Beads and Terracotta Figurines
Beads made of semi-precious stones have occasionally been found at some of the
excavated sites. For example, circular disc beads of paste and steatite were discovered
at Nagarjunakonda.
Terracotta figurines, predominantly of humped cattle, have been recovered from excavated
sites like Piklihal.
These, seen in the context of paintings, of cattle around the settlements at Kupgal,
Maski, Piklihal etc. are suggestive of the significance attached to cattle in their culture.
These paintings show cattle, singly and in groups, and depict humped bulls and long
horned cattle. Some show cattle with decorated horns. 217
History of India 7.8.4 Burial Practices
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E. The dead were commonly buried within the houses. Adult burial practices include
extended inhumation. Infants were buried in urns. Excavations at Tekkalakota revealed
(in phase III) multiple pot burials, which recall the Jorwe burials of Maharashtra. A
Neolithic cemetery is reported at Nagarjunakonda. Offerings for the dead (grave-goods)
usually consisted of pots, including spouted vessels, and in some cases stone-axes and
stone-blades.

7.9 NEOLITHIC SURFACE FINDS IN SOUTH INDIA

Apart from being found in habitation sites, polished stone-axes occur in small isolated
assemblages in forested regions. Such occurrences are common in south India, and
often, there is a habitation site nearby. What do such occurrences indicate? Such find
spots probably represent activity loci. This is to say, considering functional use of the
tools (axes for tree felling), these find spots indicate vegetation clearance in the hilly
forested zones for dry farming operations.
Such isolated Neolithic stone axe clusters are common in wooded hill ranges of Tamil
Nadu: Slevory, Javadi and Tirumalai hilly zones. Such a distribution of Neolithic axe
clusters from wooded uplands of southern extensions of the Western Ghats to lowland
Tamil plains is suggestive of shifting cultivation practices which were prevalent till recently
in southern part of Western Ghats.
South Indian Neolithic phase is also associated with ash-mounds which are distributed
in the semi-arid parts of the Bhima-Krishna-Tungabhadra doab. More than 60 ash
mounds are known and some of them are quite extensive. It was suggested by some
archaeologists that these mounds were produced by burning of cow-dung by Neolithic
communities and that they were the sites of cattle-pens where dung was allowed to
accumulate. Raymond Allchin, in the light of evidence he obtained from his excavations
at Utnur (an ash-mound site), concluded that they were associated with forest cattle
stations of Neolithic people and that the burning probably had ritualistic significance.
As mentioned earlier, there is no evidence to prove the evolution of village farming
communities from the preceding hunting-gathering economy in south India. As we have
seen, a sudden spurt in the emergence of village settlements started from around the
middle of 3rd millennium BCE in these areas. How did these farming settlements come
into existence? According to some archaeologists, the Grey ware exhibits broad similarities
with that found at sites like Hissar, Turang Tepe and Shah Tepe in north-east Iran; and
the Red- and- Black painted pottery has affinities with the pre-Harappan pottery of
Baluchistan and Indus system. On the basis of these similarities, and considering some
other features, they have suggested that the origin of south Indian Neolithic cultures
may have had links with some centres in Indo-Iranian borderlands.
Check Your Progress Exercise 5
1) Read the following statements and mark right () or wrong (×).
i) It is not possible to divide the material culture of settlements in south India
into various phases.
ii) Among the domestic species, cattle played a very important role in the economy
of early farming communities of south India.
iii) The burial practices were same for infants as well as grown-ups.
218 iv) We get no evidence of any bone artefacts from any of the excavated sites.
2) Write five lines on cultural phases of early farming communities in south India. Chalcolithic and
Early Iron Age
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
3) Can the economy of farming communities of south India be characterized as agro-
pastoral? Write in five lines.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
4) What do the ash-mounds discovered at various sites signify? Write in five lines.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

7.10 IRON AGE IN SOUTH INDIA

The use of iron in south India began sometime around c.1100 BCE. This date has been
suggested on the basis of radiocarbon analysis of objects found at Hallur. However, at
some of the other sites discussed earlier, we find that the Neolithic-Chalcolithic cultural
horizons overlap with Iron Age levels. In northern Deccan (Maharashtra) also,
occupations at several Chalcolithic settlements continue into the Iron Age and it is same
case at sites like Brahmagiri, Piklihal, Sanganakallu, Maski, Paiyampalli, etc. in southern
Deccan.
The earliest phase of Iron Age in south India is recovered in excavations at Piklihal and
Hallur and possibly by the burial pits at Brahmagiri. These early burials yielded the first
iron objects, Black-and-Red ware, and a matt painted buff and Red Ware. To some
extent, the latter is similar to Jorwe ware. Similar evidence has been recorded in the
burials at Tekwada (Maharashtra). At some sites, in the habitations, stone-axes and
blades continued to be used. The succeeding phase is characterized by a predominance
of burnished unpainted Black-and-Red ware, and red or black wares.

7.10.1 Megalithic Cultures

Most of the information about Iron Age in south India comes from excavations of
megalithic graves. Megaliths usually refer to the burials amidst stones in graveyards,
away from the habitation area. In south India, this kind of elaborate burial system came
with Iron Age. Megalithic burials have been reported in large numbers from:
219
History of India
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.

Important Iron Age Sites in South India. Source: EHI-02, Block-3, Unit-11.

 Maharashtra (around Nagpur),

 Karnataka (sites like Maski),
 Andhra Pradesh (Nagarjunakonda),
 Tamilnadu (Adichanallur), and
 Kerala.

Megalithic Burial Types in South India. Source: EHI-02, Block-3, Unit-11.

220
Megalithic burials have showed a variety of methods for disposal of dead. In some Chalcolithic and
cases, bones of the dead were collected in large urns and buried in a pit. The pit was Early Iron Age
marked by a stone circle, or a capstone, or both. Pits and urn also contained grave-
goods. In some other cases, pottery sarcophagi have been found. In other cases, pit
circles have been formed with stones for burying the dead. Cist graves made with
granite slabs have also been reported. In Kerala, rock-cut chambers have been made
for burial. Yet another kind of megalithic burial is stone-alignment, comprising rows of
standing stones set in diagonal or square plan.

Iron Implements from South Indian Megalithic Graves: 1. Arrowhead; 2. Daggers; 3. Sword;
4. Spearhead; 5. Trident; 6. Battle axe; 7. Hoes; 8. Plough Share; 9. Sickles; 10. Stirrup;
11. Laddles; 12. Tripod; 13. Lamp.

Source: EHI-02, Block-3, Unit- 11.

7.10.2 Origins of Megalithic Cultures

Megaliths emerged around the end of 2nd and beginning of 1st millennium BCE and this
practice continued for many centuries subsequently. Some scholars are of the opinion
that megaliths cannot be associated with a single cultural group and that the south Indian
graves appear as a developing complex with several streams of influences combining in
them. Firstly, some of the megalithic burials are reminiscent of those of central Asia,
Iran or the Caucasus, and might represent traditions introduced from these areas by
Indo-European speaking immigrants. Secondly, some appear as developments of
indigenous Neolithic-Chalcolithic burial customs of the Deccan.
Scholars have variously identified the megalithic complex with remains of the Aryans or
the Dravidians. However, these claims are not acceptable. What seems certain is that
these burial complexes emerged in a situation of greater interaction among various
communities in south and north India. As pointed out earlier, a large number of agro-
pastoral groups existed in these areas prior to the introduction of iron. Many of the
burial customs of some of these communities continued in the Iron Age. Pottery burial
was already practiced in Chalcolithic Inamgaon. Other features of the megalithic burials
might have developed as local cultural innovations. However, some of the objects found
in graves indicate contacts with areas to the north-west of India. Particular kinds of
pottery, like bowl-on-stand, found in these graves are very similar in shape to those of
some earlier graves found in north-west India and Iran. Similarly, finding of bones of
221
History of India horses and implements used for horses indicates that horse riding people had arrived in
from the Earliest these areas. Horses could have been brought from Central Asia only because wild
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
horses are not found in India. Horse burial has been reported from Junapani near Nagpur.
In place like Maski and Piklihal, rock paintings show groups of horse riders carrying
metal axes. All this is indicative of greater contact with communities to the north-west of
India. So, it could be convincingly stated that the Iron Age burials indicate a combination
of indigenous and foreign influences.

7.10.3 Material Culture

As noted earlier, the material remains of Iron Age are represented by pottery with
certain specificities, besides iron and other metal objects.
i) Pottery
The pottery that we discover from all the excavated graves is Black-and-Red ware.
The characteristic types are:
 shallow tray bowls and deep bowls, both with a rounded base,
 conical lids with knobs or loops on the apex,
 pottery ring stands, and
 larger water pots with rounded bases, etc.
ii) Iron and other metal objects
Iron objects have been found universally in all megalithic sites right from Junapani near
Nagpur in Vidharbha (central India) down to Adichanallur in the south: a distance of
nearly 1500 km. They show use of identical tools. There is an array of iron objects:
 flat iron axes often with crossed iron bands for hafting,
 different types of flanged spade, hoe, and spud or pick axe,
 sickles,
 bill hooks,
 wedges,
 cowbars,
 spears,
 knives,
 chisels or adzes,
 iron tripods,
 pot rests,
 saucers,
 hook lamps,
 many armed lam-pendants,
 daggers,
222
 swords (some with oranamental bronze hilts), Chalcolithic and
Early Iron Age
 arrowheads and spearheads with hollow sockets,
 ceremonial scalloped axes,
 iron tridents etc.
In addition to these, there is a special group of objects which consists of horse furniture
such as snaffle bits and two simple bar-bits with looped ends (which were recovered
from Junapani), a kind of bar-bit with looped nose-and-mouthpiece (known from Sanur),
etc. Among other metal objects, the most numerous are bells of copper or bronze,
which might have served either as horse or cattle bells. Beads of semi-precious stones
and gold objects have also been reported.

7.10.4 Subsistence Economy

Excavated habitation sites of the Iron Age are few. So it is difficult to form a clear
picture of the economy of south Indian megalith builders. Some of the excavated sites
have yielded remains of sheep/goat and cattle, and also millets and pulses.
An important feature of the iron objects which are grave-goods recovered from
excavated burials is the uniformity in types. Such a wide distribution of identical types
of iron objects right from Junapani (near Nagpur) to Adichanallur in the south, testifies
to the movement of a fairly tightly knit group of iron workers. According to one scholar,
the megalithic people of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka were proficient in tracing iron ore
deposits and in the manufacture of a variety of iron objects. They were trading in these
items, and gradually took to settled life. Yet another scholar has put forward the view
that these groups were nomadic pastoralists with a greater reliance on sheep/goat herding.
The settlements found near megalithic complexes have very thin debris of occupation.
This would indicate that these people were living in one area for very short time. May
be, with the knowledge of iron they could colonize new areas. Thus, some of the
population was nomadic and some settlements might indicate colonization of new areas.
Where the settlements continue from the preceding period, people continued to live in
their old ways. Use of iron tools enabled them to use granite stones for their graves. It
is these agro-pastoral groups that enter the historical phase in early centuries of the
Common era. They are mentioned in Sangam literature. Some of the graves have
yielded Roman coins which suggests their entry into history and that their participation
in trade networks spread over a large area.
Check Your Progress Exercise 6
1) Write about the Iron Age in south India.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
2) Write five lines on the economy of south Indian Megalith builders.
.....................................................................................................................
223
History of India .....................................................................................................................
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E. .....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

7.11 SUMMARY
By about c.2000 BCE, agricultural communities came into existence in different parts
of India. These agriculturists used tools and implements made of stone and copper. In
north India, these communities used various kinds of potteries like OCP and BRW. A
variety of copper tools have also been discovered. In central India and Maharashtra,
black soil zone excavations have shown the existence of Kayatha, Malwa and Jorwe
cultures. By about c.750 BCE, many of these agricultural communities adopted iron
technology. The Chalcolithic communities showed distinct variations in their pottery
tradition. The Iron Age potteries called PGW and NBPW were used over a larger
area. During this period, there was greater interaction among various communities and
a transition towards urbanization was taking place. Finds at the sites belonging to different
cultures give detailed information about settlement patterns, trade links, types of tools
and ornaments, religious beliefs etc.
Farming communities emerged in south India around the middle of 3rd millennium BCE.
A large number of pastoral nomadic communities also came into existence in this period.
Agriculturists grew various kinds of millet, grain and barley. Pastoral communities tended
cattle, sheep and goats. Around the beginning of 2nd millennium BCE, these communities
started using copper and bronze tools. Some of these bronze tools show parallels with
the tools found in north-western India. Iron was introduced in this zone towards the
end of 2nd millennium BCE. This period also saw the beginning of Megalithic burials.
This introduced a change in settlement pattern for some of the communities, because
they started burying their dead away from habitation areas. However, farmers continued
to grow same crops and pastoralists continued with their old life style. This phase
merged into early historic south India when the literate tradition began.

7.12 KEY WORDS

Archaeobotany : Study of remains of plants.
Arthashastra : A book traditionally attributed to Kautilya,
minister of Chandragupta Maurya who ruled in
4th-3rd centuries BCE.
Arya : People who composed the Vedas and spoke
Indo-European languages.
Brahmi Script : The earliest known script of historical India.
Ashoka’s inscriptions were written in the same
script. Most of the modem Indian scripts like
Tamil, Devanagri etc. are derived from it.
Burnishing : A form of pottery decoration in which surface of
the pot is polished before firing.
Chalcolithic : Refers to communities which used copper and
stone tools.
224
Dravidian : People who spoke Dravidian languages. Chalcolithic and
Early Iron Age
Dry Farming : A system of tillage in dry countries, surface soil
being kept constantly loose, so as to retain scanty
rains and reduce evaporation.
Jatakas : Stories relating to previous births of the Buddha.
Jorwe Ware : A late 2nd millennium red painted pottery first
identified in Jorwe, Maharashtra.
Mound : Remains left by people of the past which look
like heaped up embankment on the relief.
Pit-Dwelling : A practice of making homes beneath surface of
the earth. Dwelling spaces used to be dug beneath
the floor.
Punch-Marked Coins : Coins made of copper and silver which came to
be used around 6th-5th centuries BCE. They are
the earliest known coins of India.
Mortuary Practice : The practice of disposal of the dead.
Sedentary : Communities living in settled villages.
Thermoluminiscence Dating : A scientific method of dating ceramic material.
Type Site : Site where a particular culture was first identified.

7.13 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) Your answer should include the kind of pottery and its features; structures; crops;
area of this culture etc. See Sec. 7.2
2) a) ×, b) ×, c) ×, d) 
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) Your answer should include colour of the pottery, its making-technique and difference
in BRW of different regions, like the doab BRW is of plain surface while Gilund
and Ahar BRW is painted. See Sec. 7.4
2) Here, take for example, the kind of semi-precious stones found. Since these were
not available locally they were obtained through trade. See Sec. 7.5
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
1) The NBP Ware Culture got its name from the distinctive pottery type which is
associated with this period. See Sec. 7.6
2) a) , b) ×, c) , d) ×
Check Your Progress Exercise 4
1) a) , b) ×, c) , d) ×, e) 
225
History of India 2) There are quite large settlements, with evidence of layout planning. You should
from the Earliest mention their planning and other features like oval fire pits, deep pit sites etc. See
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
Sub-sec. 7.7.3.
3) This was a chance discovery. Mention the objects and their characteristics. See
Sub-sec. 7.7.4.
Check Your Progress Exercise 5
1) i) ×, ii) , iii) ×, iv) ×
2) See Sub-sec. 7.8.1
3) Since the economy depended on a combination of agriculture and grazing of cattle,
it can be characterized as ago-pastoral. See Sub-sec. 7.8.2.
4) Your answer should include the following: these mounds were originally the sites
for cattle pens where dung accumulated; they were created because of the burning
of cow dung; and that this burning was perhaps a part of the rituals performed by
Neolithic communities. Also see Section 7.9.
Check Your Progress Exercise 6
1) See Sub-sec. 7.10.1. Write the characteristics which distinguish one phase from
the other.
2) See Sub-sec. 7.10.3

7.14 SUGGESTED READINGS

Deo, S. B. (1973). Problem of South Indian Megaliths. Dharwar.
Dhavlikar , M . K. (1988). The First Farmers of the Deccan. Pune.
Gururaja Rao, B. K. (1981). The Megalithic Culture in South India. Prasaranga.
Kennedy, K. A. R. and Possehl, G. L. (1984) (Eds.) Studies in the Archaeology and
Paleoanthropology of South Asia. New Delhi.
Moorti, U. S. (1994). Megalithic Culture of South India. Varanasi.
Roy, T. N. (1983). The Ganges Civilization. New Delhi.
Sundara , A. (1975). The Early Chamber Tombs of South India. Delhi.
Tripathi, V. (1976). The Painted Grey Ware: An Iron Age Culture of Northern
India. Delhi.

226
UNIT 8 THE EARLY VEDIC SOCIETY*
Structure
8.0 Objectives
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Sources
8.2.1 Literary Sources
8.2.2 Archaeological Sources

8.3 The Aryan Invasion – A Myth or Reality?

8.4 Economy
8.5 Society
8.6 Polity
8.7 Religion
8.8 Summary
8.9 Key Words
8.10 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
8.11 Suggested Readings

8.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this Unit, you will be able to:
 learn about the various sources through which we can attempt to know about the
Early Vedic period;
 examine the theory of a large scale migration by the Indo-Aryans through these
sources; and
 know about the nature of economy, society, polity and religion of the Early Vedic
people.

8.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous Unit you saw that in the different regions of India communities of different
stages of cultural development were present during c. 2000-1000 BCE. Their cultures
were essentially agro-pastoral and our understanding of these cultures is based entirely
on archaeological remains because, with the exception of Harappa culture, none of
these cultures have left behind any written records. In this Unit and in the one following
it, however, we will be focusing on the evidence provided by a voluminous body of
what are considered to be the earliest literary records of India: the Vedic corpus, a vast
sacerdotal literature. The Vedas were looked upon as not being created by humans
(apaurusheya) but as divine revelations that were heard (shruti) by sages and seers
(rishis). Not being written at the time of their being revealed they were handed down to
posterity by a near perfect memorization almost syllable by syllable. This process is
beautifully and strikingly analogized in the frog-hymn (bhekastuti) of the Rigveda. It
* This Unit has been adopted from EHI-02, Block 3. 227
History of India says that the students were supposed to memorize the hymns following the lead given
from the Earliest by one, just like many frogs croak during the monsoons by imitating the first croaking
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
frog. They were remembered meticulously and transmitted orally over multiple centuries,
which depended on the correct pronunciation and articulation of the sound without any
modification, addition or subtraction, till they were written down.

Early Indo-Aryan Sites. Adapted from R. S. Sharma, India’s Ancient Past, Oxford University
Press, New Delhi, 2005, p. 95.
We shall also try to supplement this literary evidence with, wherever relevant, the
archaeological evidence. The Rigveda is regarded as the earliest collection of hymns
available and so, we will start by examining this text for an understanding of the Early
Vedic period and then go on to the other Vedas and allied texts which are dated later.
This exercise is necessary for two reasons:
 Firstly, the Vedas are thought to have been composed by the Aryans and it was
long believed that the Aryans played a major role in civilizing the Indian subcontinent.
The contents of the Rigveda, if they are analyzed carefully, do not give the impression
of a very advanced material culture. On the other hand, many of the material traits
which are the characteristics of Indian civilization are already present in the non-
Vedic archaeological cultures in different parts of India.
 Secondly, when the contents of the Rigveda are compared with those of the Later
Vedas and allied texts it becomes clear that significant changes took place in the
Vedic society itself. This means that there was no fixed cultural pattern which can
be called Vedic culture or Aryan culture.
The Rigveda belongs to and is the only literary source for the Early Vedic period. The
rest three Vedas are all dated later and, thus, labelled as the Later Vedic texts. Hence,
what we understand by the expression the ‘Vedic period’ or the ‘Vedic age’ has two
228 broad chronological divisions:
 Early Vedic/Rigvedic The Early
Vedic Society
 Later Vedic.
The core geographical area to which the evidence of the Rigveda relates was Sapta
Sindhava/Sapta Sindhu (land of seven rivers) which corresponds to the whole of
Punjab and its neighbouring regions, Haryana, the Gomal plains, southern Afghanistan
and southern Jammu and Kashmir.
Earlier interpretations regarding the Early Vedic society are based on the theory of
Indo-Aryan migration from west Asia into the Indian subcontinent. These migrants,
who are regarded as the authors of the Vedas, are called the Vedic people. According
to this historical interpretation the Aryans came to India in several stages or waves. The
urban centers of Indus civilization perished by mid-2nd millennium BCE and the politico-
administrative and economic system slowly withered away; the focus now shifting to
rural settlements. It was perhaps around this time that the Indo-Aryan speakers entered
north-western India from Indo-Iranian borderlands, migrating in small numbers through
the passes in the north-western mountains and bringing with them their language, rituals
and social customs; later merging with the local populace. They are considered to
represent a linguistic group speaking Indo-European languages.1 They are distinguished
by traditional historians and archaeologists from non-Aryan Harappans of the preceding
period.
However, in making certain observations on Early Vedic society it may be fruitful to see
if literary texts and archaeological evidence can supplement each other. If both types of
sources belong to the same region and to the same period they can collectively give us
more detailed ideas on the economic, social, political and religious life.
Let us begin by referring to these sources.

8.2 SOURCES
8.2.1 Literary Sources
We must begin by referring to the following four Vedas:
 Rigveda,
 Samaveda,
 Yajurveda, and
 Atharvaveda
The word Veda is derived from the Sanskrit word Vid which means ‘to know’. The
Vedas are essentially compilation of prayers and hymns offered to various gods. Though
they are primarily about religious life, rites, rituals and philosophical questions and issues,
the invocations dedicated to various deities often throw light on many aspects such as
victory in wars, long life, freedom from diseases, availability of cattle, horses, food etc.
desire for male offspring and so on. However, it must not be forgotten that the Vedic
corpus evolved over many centuries, almost a millennium. As such, it cannot be taken
as a mirror image of a static society and culture. There were identifiable changes in the
polity, economy, society and cultural life of the Vedic populace from the Rigvedic to the
Later Vedic times.

1
The term ‘Indo-European’ signifies the common, original family of languages of hoary antiquity
from which Sanskrit, Iranian, Latin, Greek, German and other European languages spoken in
south Asia, south-west Asia, Eurasia and Europe have descended. These languages, thus,
share affinity and commonalty. 229
History of India The four Vedas are also Samhitas in the sense that they represent the oral tradition of
from the Earliest the time. Since the hymns were meant to be recited, learnt and transmitted orally they
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
were not written when they were composed. Due to this reason none of the Samhitas
can be dated with absolute certainty. In fact, each Samhita represents a period of
many centuries. As such, an absolute dating of the Vedic literature is out of question.
Relative dating in terms of the context of these four Samhitas has led scholars to believe
that the period represented in the Rigveda – the earliest of the Vedas – can be placed
between c. 1500-1000 BCE (2nd half of the 2nd millennium BCE).
Rigvedic Samhita contains 1028 hymns (suktas) divided into 10 books (Mandalas)
of unequal sizes of which books II to VII are considered to be the earliest and belong
specifically to the Early Vedic phase. They are referred to as the “Family Books” after
the name of the family or clan of poets who composed the hymns in them. Books I,
VIII, IX and X are considered to be later additions. Among the commentaries on the
text the best known is that of Sayana of the 14th century CE who lived in the Vijayanagara
dominion. Without Sayanacharya’s commentary it would have been impossible for Max
Mueller to prepare the edited version of Rigveda in the 19th century.
The scholars found similarities in the language used in the Rigveda and Avesta – the
oldest Iranian text – which is older to the Rigveda. The linguistic and cultural parallels
between the Avesta and Rigveda occur not only in words but also in concepts. For
example, the interchangeability of ‘h’ and ‘s’ – haoma, daha, hepta hindu, ahura in
the former and soma, dasa, sapta sindhu, asura in the later. In the context of deities
the attributes of gods are often reversed. The asuras are projected in the Rigveda as
demons and enemies of the Gods (devas). In the Avesta the daevas/devas such as
Indra are demonic whereas ahura/asura is the supreme deity. Based on these similarities
and taking into account the chronological precedence of the Avesta over the Rigveda
they suggested that:
i) The people represented in both these books belonged to a common linguistic
group and they migrated from West Asia and Iran to the Indian subcontinent.
These people were called the ‘Aryans’. This has led to the assumption that the old
Iranian and the Indo-Aryan speakers were, originally, a single group whose
dissensions resulted in their branching up. Considering the geographical proximity
of Iran with north-western borderland of the Indian subcontinent it could be
suggested that the Indo-Aryan speakers, following a dissention, migrated to the
Indian soil. They created the Rigveda upon coming to India.
ii) The Aryans had a common original home from where different groups migrated to
Europe and the East. According to Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Georg Biedenkapp,
the Arctic zone was the original home of the Aryans. However, this theory is not
accepted at large.
However, the debate regarding their original home is no longer valid since the concept
of a common racial identity for the Aryans has now been proved false. But a common
linguistic identity is still believed by the historians and on this basis some of them still
insist upon the theory of Aryan migration.

8.2.2 Archaeological Sources

Excavations in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, northern Rajasthan along the Indus and Ghaggar
rivers over the last 40 years have unearthed many post­Harappan Chalcolithic settlements
which have been dated from c. 1700 to 600 BCE. You have read about these centuries
in Unit 7. You have seen that these Chalcolithic cultures are also called late Harappan,
230
OCP (Ochre Coloured Pottery), BRW (Black- &- Red Ware) and PGW (Painted The Early
Grey Ware) cultures. Vedic Society

However, we must remember that the pottery types do not reflect an entire culture.
Different pottery types do not necessarily mean that the people who used these pots
also differed. Pottery analysis only helps in defining a specific trait of the cultural
assemblage, nothing more. Some scholars have made attempts to examine whether the
evidence provided by some of these cultures of north-western and northern India can
be compared with what we know from a study of Vedic texts.

8.3 THE ARYAN INVASION – A MYTH OR

REALITY?
Was the Aryan invasion a myth or a reality? Let us see to what extent does archaeological
evidence help us in answering this question.
The archaeologists have attempted to relate the various post-Harappan cultures with
the Aryans. The Painted Grey Ware Pottery, which has been dated between c. 900-
500 BCE, has been repeatedly connected with Aryan craftsmanship. Their argument is
based on inferences which the historians make from their analysis of literary texts. Hence,
the archaeologists, following linguistic similarities found between the Rigveda and Avesta,
tried to find similarities in pottery forms, paintings on ceramics and forms of copper
objects etc. between post-Harappan and West Asian/Iranian Chalcolithic assemblages.
Such similarities were magnified to support the view that the Aryans were a group of
people who migrated from West Asia to the Indian subcontinent. Thus, the literary and
archaeological sources were made to support one another in order to validate the
notion of migration.
Linguistic similarities between the Rigveda and Avesta are well established as we have
seen. But, such similarities do not really suggest large-scale migration of people into the
Indian subcontinent. Secondly, the similarities which have been found between the
Chalcolithic artefacts of India and those of Western Asia are only occasional. They also
do not suggest large-scale migration of people. The concept of an “Aryan”, as stated
before, cannot be equated with any particular type of pottery. It also does not have any
ethnic or racial significance. The ‘Aryan’ is, therefore, at best, a vague concept related
to linguistic similarities between people.
In this context you should take into account the following points suggested by
archaeological excavations at various sites:
i) Earlier scholars believed that Indo-Aryans caused the downfall of Harappan
civilization by destroying the Harappan towns and cities. They quoted Rigvedic
hymns which invoke Indra to destroy the dwellers of forts. But, archaeological
evidence has shown that the decline of Harappan civilization was not caused by
any large-scale destruction brought about by an alien invading group (See Unit 5
– Harappan Civilization: Chronology, Geographical Spread, Diffusion and Decline).
ii) Attempts to identify the makers of Painted Grey Ware with the Aryans also do not
receive strong support from archaeological evidence. If the PGW cultures were
related to the Aryans then keeping the theory of invasion in mind we should have
found this pottery type in areas of Bahawalpur and Punjab i.e. along the route
taken by the so-called Aryan migrants. However, we find these pottery types
confined to a particular geographical region comprising Haryana, upper Ganga
basin and eastern Rajasthan.
231
History of India iii) It was earlier thought that there exists a time gap and hence, a cultural discontinuity
from the Earliest between the late Harappan and the post-Harappan Chalcolithic period.
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
However, the recent excavations at Bhagwanpura and Dadheri (Haryana) and Manda
(Jammu) have shown that late Harappan and Painted Grey Wares could be found
together without any breaks. Hence, “invasion” cannot be proved on the basis of
excavated sites.
What disappeared after c. 1750 BCE were the urban centres of Harappan civilization
and such artefacts as seals, weights, measures etc. – i.e. articles connected with trade
and urbanizm. The rural structure of the earlier period continued into the 2nd and the 1st
millennium BCE. The variation found in the archaeological remains of the post-Harappan
period – in pottery, metal implements and other objects – may also represent “regional”
variations in the Indian Chalcolithic cultures.
Archaeological evidence relating to the period between 2nd millennium and 1st millennium
BCE has, thus, helped us modify existing views regarding the Vedic ‘Aryans’ in several
ways:
 Firstly, there is no substantial proof in archaeology that there was large-scale
migration of people from central or western Asia into the Indian subcontinent
around 1500 BCE.
 Secondly, archaeologically there is no proof that the Aryans destroyed the Harappan
civilization and laid the foundation of a new Indian civilization. In fact, although the
Rigveda repeatedly refers to hostilities, skirmishes and wars between different
groups; some between those who called themselves aryas and some among the
aryas and dasas. But, the so-called clashes between Aryan and non-Aryan
communities and cultures are not documented in archaeology. However, since the
Rigveda is the earliest collection of religious hymns available to us its importance
as a document of history is immense. The hymns provide such insights into various
aspects of Early Indian society as would not be available in archaeological evidence.
From them we get insights regarding the nature of economy, social organization,
kingship and political organization, religious and cosmological beliefs and so on.
Much of this information is relevant and useful also for understanding the nature of
Indian society at later stages. We, therefore, now turn to what we learn from
Rigveda about the Early Vedic society.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) What are the four Vedas? Which Veda belongs to the Early Vedic period?
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2) Is the theory of Aryan invasion acceptable in the light of archaeological excavations?
Give arguments of the archaeologists in about 100 words.
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232 .....................................................................................................................
 ..................................................................................................................... The Early
Vedic Society
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3) Write ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ against each sentence.
i) Our knowledge of the Early Vedic period is based on only the literary sources.
ii) The Vedas are essentially compilations of prayers and hymns offered to various
gods.
iii) The Avesta is the oldest Iranian text.
iv) The linguistic similarities between the Rigveda and Avesta are enough grounds
to validate the notion of ‘Aryan’ migration into the Indian subcontinent.

8.4 ECONOMY
The Early Vedic society was pastoral; cattle-rearing being the dominant occupational
activity. A pastoral society relies more on its animal wealth than agricultural produce.
Pastoralism is a subsistence strategy adopted by people who live in areas where large-
scale agriculture is not feasible due to some environmental and, to a certain extent,
cultural constraints.
The hymns of Rigveda yield extensive evidence of the importance of cattle. Many
linguistic expressions in it are associated with cow (gau). It was a measure of wealth
and value. A wealthy man who owned many cattle was called gomat. The terms used
for conflicts and battles are:
 gavishti,
 gavesana,
 gavyat etc.
The former literally means “to search for cows”. These terms themselves suggest that
possession of cattle was the bone of contention between groups and led to occasional
inter-tribal fights and disputes. The Panis – enemies of the Vedic people – are stated in
the Rigveda to have hidden their wealth – mostly cows – in mountains and forests. The
Vedic god Indra was invoked to release these cattle. This reference suggests that cattle
raids and armed conflics for cattle were common. The raja or the chief is called gopati,
one who protects the cows. In the text Godhuli is used as a term for a measure of time.
Distance is called gavyuti. A daughter is called duhitr: one who milks the cows. Kinship
units are labeled as gotra. A person rich in cattle (gomaan) was considered wealthy
(maghavan) and eligible for membership of the sabha (sabhasad). All these terms are
derived from gau and suggest that social, religious and all other important areas of
Rigvedic life centered round the rearing of cows. Literary references to pasture lands,
cow-pen, dairy products and domesticated animals are also found in most of the hymns
and prayers. It appears that cow was looked upon as a totem animal and also an object
of veneration.
Besides cow, horse was also immensely important as this animal was crucial to
movement in search of pastures and in war. In mythology it is projected as drawing not
only the chariots of men but also those of gods. And where the grazing grounds were
extensive it was easier to herd cattle from horseback.
233
History of India Compared to the very substantial linguistic evidence for cattle rearing in Rigveda,
from the Earliest agricultural activities find very few references. Most of the references to agriculture are
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
of a later date. Apart from Yava (barley) no other grains are mentioned. The Early
Vedic people were not familiar with iron technology. Copper, with which they were
familiar, did not have as much value in agricultural operations as iron implements. Stone
tools like axes were used and these are mentioned in the Rigveda. Shifting agriculture
was practiced. Further, the region under discussion receives low rainfall and all the
rivers mentioned in the Rigveda i.e. the Sutlej, the Indus, the Ghaggar, the Ravi etc. are
known to change their courses frequently. Without the facilities of large-scale irrigation
which were not developed in this period the alluvial lands near the rivers could not be
cultivated on a permanent basis. Thus, hoes, sickles and axes mentioned in the text
were probably used for slashing purposes or shifting cultivation. The evidence of
pastoralism as well as shifting cultivation suggests that people were either nomadic or
semi-nomadic. They moved out of their villages with their herds for a certain period in
order to feed their cattle. The literary and the archaeological sources do show that they
did not lead a fully sedentary life. The mobile character of the population is seen in the
term vish which implied a settlement. The suffixes Punar (vish), Upa (vish) and Pra
(vish) are constantly used and the settlements were qualified by them to mean settling
near (a settlement), re-entering (a settlement) or coming back (to the settlement).
Gift exchange and redistribution had an important economic role in society. Tribal conflicts
led to the payment of tributes and prestations – bali – to the victorious chief by the
defeated or subordinated groups. The term later came to mean an offering to the gods.
There was no regular tax that he could claim, nor did he have any rights on the land. He
was entitled to a part of the booty from successful cattle-raids after bhaga (shares) had
been distributed and he, obviously, claimed a larger one. There is also the mention of
shulka meaning the value or worth of an item. The rest of the clansmen of the victorious
tribe had a share in the spoils and booty won in war. The chief also fed and gave gifts to
his clansmen during ceremonial occasions to acquire prestige. Evidence of trade and
commerce in the Early Vedic society is meager. There was no concept of private property
based on land-ownership.

8.5 SOCIETY
The Early Vedic society was a tribal society in which the social relations based on
kinship ties were predominant. The society was not divided according to caste lines
and even rajas (kings), purohits (priests), artisans etc. were part of clan networks.
The tribe was referred to as jana and many references to different tribes are found in
the Rigveda. Inter-tribal conflicts, chiefly related to cattle raids and thefts, were frequent;
an example being the Battle of 10 Kings mentioned in the Rigveda. Some of the tribes
who fought in this battle were:
i) The Bharatas,
ii) The Purus,
iii) The Yadus,
iv) The Druhyus,
v) The Anus, and
vi) The Turvasus.

234
The chief of tribe was the raja2 or gopati. He was the military leader in battle and The Early
protector of the tribe. His office was not based on heredity but he was selected from Vedic Society
amongst the clansmen. His skills lay in safeguarding the settlement and winning booty:
both crucial to his status. The warrior category was the rajanya. Many clans (vish)
formed a tribe. The clans settled in villages (grama). The basic social unit was Kula
(family) and Kulapa (one who protects the family) denoted the eldest male member or
the head of the family. A number of kulas made a grama, suggesting the settlements
based on kinship ties. The Family Books suggest that the family, as a social unit, extended
over three generations, with the sons often living collectively in parental home.
Tribe (Jana), Tribal Unit (Vis), Village (Grama), Family (Kula), Head of the
family (Kulapa).
The society was patriarchal. The birth of a son was the common desire of people and
was especially welcome, as a son’s presence became increasingly significant in various
ceremonies. The importance given to male members is reflected in hymns where the
desire for a son is a constant prayer. However, the women had also important position
in society. They were educated and had access to assemblies. There are also instances
of women who composed hymns. They had a right to choose their partners and could
marry late. But, they were always thought to be dependent on their fathers, brothers or
husbands. Education was imparted orally but the tradition of education was not very
well developed in this period.
The authors of Rigveda distinguished themselves from other groups whom they called
the Dasas and Dasyus. The term dasa is deployed in Rigveda to denote the other
person of different culture. The Dasas are described as dark, full-lipped, snub-nosed,
worshippers of phallus and of hostile speech. They are admonished in the Rigveda for
not observing the rituals but rather practicing a fertility cult. They were rich in cattle and
lived in fortified strongholds. We learn about another people called the Panis who
were wealthy in cattle treasures. The term Pani came to be associated with merchants
and wealth in subsequent ages. These groups fought and befriended each other from
time to time and one cannot define them as separate racial or linguistic groups. The
most famous chief mentioned in the Rigveda is Sudas who led the Bharata tribe in the
Battle of 10 Kings. The Dasa ending in his name might suggest some links with the
Dasas. However, the presence of different groups in the same area might have contributed
to the emergence of Varna system.
Various occupational groups such as weavers, smiths, carpenters, leather workers,
chariot-makers, priests etc. are also mentioned. The chariot-makers occupied a special
social status. There are no references to beggars, wage-earners or wages in Rigveda.
However, the society was economically stratified and we do find references to rich
people possessing chariots, cattle etc. and making generous gifts of them.
There were no legal institutions. Custom was law and discretion of the tribal chief and
priest was final. However, the elders of the community seem to have had a say too.
Theft, particularly cattle-stealing, were the commonest crimes. The retribution for killing
a man was 100 cows.

2
The word raja is derived from the root which means ‘to shine’ or ‘to lead’. However, its etymology
in the Epics is associated with another root –‘to please’ – implying that the raja gratifies the
people. 235
History of India Check Your Progress Exercise 2
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E. 1) What do you understand by ‘pastoral society’? Why was it the dominant
occupational activity of the Early Vedic people?
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2) What was the importance of cattle in the Early Vedic Society? Answer in 50
words.
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3) Discuss five important characteristics of the Early Vedic society.
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4) Fill in the blanks with appropriate word.
i) In the Early Vedic society the raja or chief was called (gomat/gopati).
ii) The chief cause of occasional inter-tribal fights and conflicts of this period
was possession of (cattle/land).
iii) Except (yava/rice) no other grains are mentioned in the Rigveda.
iv) The basic social unit was (kula/clan).
v) The Early Vedic society was based on (polygamy/monogamy).

8.6 POLITY
The tribal polity was not completely egalitarian. A division is found in the Rigveda itself,
which is seen in the references to two groups – the Rajanyas or those who fought the
wars and are credited to be the senior lineage, and the rest of the clansmen or the vish
who formed the junior lineage. Though none of the groups occupied a distinct social
hierarchy, constant conflicts and inter-tribal wars helped to create a division in society.
The growing needs for more pasture lands and cattle, for protection of people and their
236 settlement, all probably contributed to an increase in inter and intra-tribal conflicts and
warfare. The clans held large yajnas (sacrifices) to ensure the victory of warrior groups The Early
in skirmishes. In these yajnas the officiating priest (purohita) acted as the mediator Vedic Society
between his clansmen and the gods. He invoked the gods’ blessings for the tribal chief,
for his success in wars. Initially the whole clan participated in these yajnas on an equal
footing. Large scale distribution of wealth, food etc. was made during these sacrifices
and the members got an equal share. But, with the growing incidence of conflicts and
fights the yajnas also became important and the purohita assumed a special status in
society. In the later part of our period they received a major share of the gifts from the
rajas and assumed a superior position vis-à-vis the other clan members.
The office of the raja assumed importance on account of wars. The division between
senior and junior lineages became sharper. At what point of time these political distinctions
became apparent is difficult to state but we must remember that the 10th book of Rigveda
contains the Purusha-Sukta hymn on the origin of the four varnas, and in the Later
Vedic texts we find evidence of the superior rajanya groups assuming the status of
Kshatriya – a separate varna by itself. These developments took place after c. 1000
BCE. This does not mean that the society was stagnant during our period of study. In
fact, it was changing slowly but surely leading to the development, in the Later Vedic
phase, of a complex socio-political structure (see Unit 9).
Tribal assemblies e.g. the gana, vidatha, sabha and samiti are mentioned in the
Rigveda. The sabha may have been the council of select clan members. As such, it
was exclusive. The samiti comprised the whole clan. The vidatha was the gathering at
which, among other things, the booty acquired in a raid was distributed. These assemblies
performed the functions of the government and administration and were also involved
in the selection of raja from amongst the clansmen. They, thus, kept the power of the
warriors in check. However, as stated before, though we do not find well-defined
political hierarchy in the Early Vedic set-up the changes during the period gave rise to a
socio-political hierarchy which manifested itself in the origin of the varna system during
the Later Vedic phase. The Early Vedic society was governed by tribal values and
norms and was largely egalitarian.

8.7 RELIGION
The religious ideas of the Vedic people are reflected in the hymns of the Rigveda. They
venerated the natural forces around them like wind, water, rain, thunder, fire etc. which
they could not control and invested nature with divinity conceived in human forms which
were mostly masculine. Very few female deities were venerated. The religion, thus,
reflected the patriarchal society and was that of primitive animism.
Indra was the god of strength who was frequently invoked to destroy the enemies. He
was venerated as the ideal hero, foremost in war, always ready to strike down the
demons, to destroy the settlements of the dasas and to aid those who propitiated and
worshipped him. He was the god of storms and thunder and was the rainmaker who
was requested periodically to release the rains. He could not be vanquished. Therefore,
thunder and rain (natural phenomena) were related with strength which was personified
in a masculine form, represented in the god Indra. The concept of a tribal chief, who
was a war-lord, is also found represented in the character of Indra.
Agni, next in importance to Indra, was the god of fire. Some beautifully evocative
hymns in the Rigveda are dedicated to him. He was the epicenter of many domestic
rituals such as marriage. Deemed as the purest of the five elements, he was considered
to be an intermediary between heaven and earth i.e. between gods and men. He
237
History of India dominated the domestic hearth and marriages were solemnized in his presence. The
from the Earliest worship of Agni ascribed symbolic significance to the hearth as the most venerated part
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
of the homestead and the nucleus of the household. Fire destroyed dirt and germs and
hence, Agni was considered to be pure. The importance of Agni can be related to that
of the yajna in the Early Vedic society. It was believed that the oblations offered to
Agni were carried to the gods in the form of smoke.
Varuna personified water and he was the upholder of the natural order of the universe.
Yama was the god of death and had an important place in the Early Vedic religious
belief.
There were many other gods e.g. Surya (Sun), Soma (a drink), Savitri (a solar deity to
whom the most popular Gayatri Mantra is dedicated), Rudra etc. and hosts of celestial
beings like Gandharvas, Apsaras, Maruts, Vishvadevas to whom prayers are
addressed in the Rigveda. The soma sacrifice was a key ritual which has been believed
to be specific only to Iran and India. The soma plant was stated to grow in the north-
western mountains. The juice of soma plant was drunk on solemn occasions and it
served as a hallucinogen. An entire book of the Rigveda is dedicated to soma and
entails a complicated symbolism.
The Vedic religion was sacrificial. Sacrifices (yajnas) were performed to:
 invoke the gods, and
 ask for boons like victory in battles; acquisition of cattle, sons etc.
Small oblations were confined to the domestic sacrifice but from time to time large
sacrifices were conducted for which the clan brought substantial prestations. Public
sacrifice was regarded a solemn occasion. The wealth procured and collected by the
raja by means of voluntary tribute and prestations from the vish was invested and
consumed in the yajna. Gifts were also given on such occasions to other rajas and to
the purohita. Fire altars varied from small domestic structures to impressively large
structures especially constructed for more elaborate sacrifices. Yajnas took place on
specific days and at specific times believed to be auspicious. The patron (yajamana)
was consecrated for the period of the sacrifice. The sacrificial ground was also first
consecrated and then de-sanctified at the close of the sacrifice, leaving no permanent
location for conducing rituals. There is no mention of the worship of images at this time.
We find some hymns dedicated to the power residing in the sacrificial implements,
especially to the sacrificial altar, to the stones used for pressing the soma plant, to the
plough, weapons of war, drums, mortars and pestles. Hymns were recited in these
sacrifices and generally the priests performed these yajnas. The growing importance of
sacrifices in the Vedic society resulted in the growing importance of priests as well. The
ritual of sacrifice also led to the growth and development in the knowledge of mathematics.
Elementary mathematics was necessary to make the calculations which were required
to establish the positions of various objects in the sacrificial area. Basic geometry was
needed to sort out the number and size of mud bricks required for building the sacrificial
altars. It has been suggested that the use of bricks and mathematical calculations may
have been derived from a Harappan tradition harking back to the construction of
platforms. However, the rituals described in the Rigveda did not need large-scale brick
made altars and these find mention in the later corpus of the Vedic literature.
Also, the frequent sacrifices of animals led to a knowledge of their anatomy. For the
Vedic people the world grew out of a vast cosmic sacrifice and was maintained by the
proper performance of sacrifices. Religion was not based on magico-ritual formulae,
238
rather it stressed direct communication with gods through sacrifices, hymns etc. Gods The Early
were worshipped neither for the spiritual upliftment of the people nor for any other Vedic Society
abstract philosophical concept, but were invoked to grant material gains.
Sacrificial religion is a religion of the pastoral people. Animal sacrifice is rampant in
pastoral society where older animals who can no longer produce milk or meat, or used
for breeding purposes, i.e. those who are no longer economically viable, are killed in
order to lessen the burden on their owner. Hence, animal sacrifice was one way of
getting rid of old animals and, thus, had an important role in society. In agrarian society,
however, older animals are employed in fields, used for traction purposes and, hence,
the destruction of animals is frowned upon by a society which primarily depends on
agricultural activities. Thus, the Vedic religion reflected the patriarchal pastoral society
and was materialistic in perspective.
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
1) What was the position of the Rajan in the Early Vedic polity? Answer in five
sentences.
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2) Discuss the nature of religion of the Early Vedic people.
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3) Read the following statements and mark right () or (×).
a) The purohita (priest) had no special place in society. ( )
b) The sabha and samiti had no power in the selection of the raja. ( )
c) Indra – the god of strength – was the most important god of the Early Vedic
people. ( )
d) Gods were worshipped for the spiritual upliftment of people. ( )
e) Religion was not based on magico-ritual formulae. ( )

8.8 SUMMARY
In this Unit you have learnt about literary and, to some extent, the archaeological sources
which help us in reconstruction of the Early Vedic society. In the light of archaeological
evidence it is difficult to accept the notion of a large-scale Aryan migration. Also, we
cannot look at the early 1st millennium BCE as a period of Aryan conquest that led to
239
History of India the spread of a homogeneous Aryan culture over northern India. The archaeological
from the Earliest excavations do not support the theory of a conquest.
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
The Early Vedic economy was mainly pastoral and cow was the most important form
of wealth. Agriculture had secondary importance in the life of the Early Vedic people.
The Early Vedic society was tribal and basically egalitarian. Clan and kinship relations
formed the basis of society and family was the basic social unit. Social divisions based
on occupations had started but there was no caste division.
In the Early Vedic polity the tribal chief or rajan and priest or purohita had important
positions. Among several tribal assemblies the sabha and samiti played very important
roles. Though there was no well-defined political hierarchy in the Early Vedic set up the
tribal polity was not completely egalitarian.
The Early Vedic people personified the natural forces e.g. wind, water, rain etc. and
worshipped them as god. They worshipped god not through any abstract philosophical
concept but for material gains. There was growing importance of sacrifices (yajnas) in
the Vedic religion.
What you must remember is that this society was not static but dynamic. Between
about 1500-1000 BCE the society was constantly evolving and newer elements in
economic, social, political and religious sphere were operating to transform its structure.

8.9 KEY WORDS

Artefact : Something made by human being, e.g. a simple
tool or weapon, of archaeological interest.
Bali : Tributes and prestations paid to the victorious
chiefs by the defeated groups.
Clan : Large family group found in tribal communities.
Kinship : Relationship by blood.
Nomad : Member of a tribe that wanders from place to
place and who has no fixed home.
Patriarchy : Male-dominated family or tribe.
Animism : The attribution of a soul to natural objects and
phenomenon.
Semi-Sedentism : Settlers who do not settle in a place permanently
and move to a new settlement.
Shifting Agriculture : After the use of a land for cultivation for a short
period it is left and fresh land is used.
Stratigraphy : Layers detected in excavation. The basis for
detecting these layers could lie in the different
soil types or different artefacts found in the
excavated profile.

240
 The Early
8.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Vedic Society
EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) Rig, Sama, Yajur, Atharva. Rigveda
2) The archaeological sources do not support the theory of Aryan invasion or large
scale migration. Your answer should include the arguments of the archaeologists
against the notion of large-scale destruction of the Harappan civilization by the
Aryans, cultural discontinuity between the late Harappan and the post-Harappan
Chalcolithic period etc. See Section 8.3
3) i) No, ii) Yes, iii) Yes, iv) No
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) A society which is basically dependent on cattle wealth. Because large-scale
agriculture was not possible due to some environmental and cultural constraints.
See Sec. 8.4
2) Cattle was the basic source of wealth in the Early Vedic society. You have to write
about the importance of cattle in different spheres of life. See Sec. 8.4
3) Your answer should include that it was a tribal society, the society was patriarchal,
family was the basic social unit, caste division was not there etc. See Sec. 8.5
4) i) gopati, ii) cattle, iii) yava, iv) kula, v) monogamy
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
1) Your answer should include that Raja was the chief of the tribe, frequent wars
made him important, he was the protector of the tribe, his position was not always
hereditary etc. See Sec. 8.6
2) The Vedic people worshipped various forces of nature as god, stress was on
sacrifice but not on magico-ritual formulae, the religion was driven towards material
gains etc. See Sec. 8.7
3) i) ×, ii) ×, iii) , iv) ×, v) 

8.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

Bryant, E. (2000). The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture. Delhi.
Deshpande, M. M. and Hook, P. (1979). (Eds.) Aryan and Non-Aryan in India. Ann
Arbor.
Kuiper, F. B. J. (1991). Aryans in the Rigveda. Amsterdam.
Lincoln, B. (1981). Priests, Warriors and Cattle. Los Angeles.
Mallory, J. P. (1989). In Search of the Indo-Europeans: Language, Archaeology
and Myth. London.
Masica, C. P. (1976). Defining a Linguistic Area: South Asia. Chicago.
Pargiter, F. E. (1922). The Ancient Indian Historical Tradition. London.
Rau, W. (1976). The Meaning of ‘Pur’ in Vedic Literature. Munich.
241
 UNIT 9 CHANGES IN THE LATER VEDIC
PHASE*
Structure
9.0 Objectives
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Sources
9.2.1 Literary Sources
9.2.2 Archaeological Sources

9.3 Iron Technology and its Impact

9.4 The Nature of Economy
9.4.1 Importance of Pastoralism Declines
9.4.2 Changes in the Functions of Rituals
9.4.3 Emerging Importance of Land

9.5 Polity and Society

9.5.1 Polity
9.5.2 Society

9.6 Religion
9.6.1 Priestcraft
9.6.2 The Changing Gods
9.6.3 Folk Tradition

9.7 Summary
9.8 Key Words
9.9 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
9.10 Suggested Readings

9.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you will be able to know about:
 the sources which enable us to study the Later Vedic society;
 changes in the social, political, economic and religious structure during the Later
Vedic period; and
 the socio-economic implications of change in technology with the introduction of a
new metal, i.e. iron.

9.1 INTRODUCTION
The period which you are going to study now extends roughly from c. 1000 BCE to c.
600 BCE. By this period some of the Vedic tribes had moved from the Sapta Sindhava/
Sapta Sindhu region to the upper Ganga valley and other adjacent regions. During the
period of this shift a number of changes in their social, political, economic and religious
structure took place. In this Unit we will discuss the major aspects of these changes.
242 * This Unit has been adopted from EHI-02, Block 3.
 Changes in the Later
Vedic Phase

Later Vedic Period Map showing the Boundaries of Aryavarta with Janapadas in Northern
India, Beginning of Iron Age Kingdoms in India – Kuru, Panchala, Koshala, Videha. Credit:
Avantiputra7. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedic_period#/media/
File:Late_Vedic_Culture_(1100-500_BCE).png).

9.2 SOURCES
We have both literary as well as archaeological sources to investigate and study this
period.

9.2.1 Literary Sources

Later additions, especially the 10th mandala of the Rigveda and Sama, Yajur and
Atharva Veda are the other Vedic texts which are ascribed to the Later Vedic phase.
 Sama Veda is a book of prayers and chants which are from the Rigveda, modified
and set to tune for the explicit purpose of singing them during the rituals.
 Yajur Veda elaborates the rituals which accompany the recitation of hymns.
The rituals and the hymns in this Samhita document the social and political milieu of this
period.
 Artharva Veda contains the folk tradition of this period and represents the popular
243
History of India religion. It is a good source for understanding the socio-religious conditions of the
from the Earliest common people.
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
These Samhitas are followed by a series of texts called the Brahmanas which are
commentaries on the Vedas. They explain the social and religious aspects of the rituals
and throw light on the Vedic society. Although it would be wrong to take any period of
early Indian history as the “Epic” period as such, the two Sanskrit Epics – the
Mahabharata and Ramayana – are rich in information on different aspects of the
early Indian society. Historians believe that the core of what is reflected in these epics
can be traced to the Later Vedic phase. The geographical focus of this phase was on
the territories of the upper and middle Ganga basin, although other regions are also
mentioned. In the Epics also the major events took place in this region. We must,
however, remember that there is nothing to prove that the stories narrated in the Epics
were actual historical events. Secondly, both the Epics took many centuries to reach
their present shape. So, there are many types of societies which we may find
simultaneously reflected in the Epics.

9.2.2 Archaeological Sources

Literary sources repeatedly refer to the areas of present western UP, Haryana and
Rajasthan. The period assigned to the Later Vedic phase is circa 1000 BCE to 600
BCE. Many communities and cultural groups are mentioned in the texts. Thus, particular
pottery forms cannot be identified with some tribe or group. However, in the same
geographical region some agricultural communities flourished in roughly the same time
bracket. These communities used a particular kind of pottery called the Painted Grey
Ware (PGW). Thus, these archaeological finds would reflect the material conditions of
the Later Vedic society.
More than 700 PGW sites have been found along the upper Ganga basin. Their
distribution extends from the dry beds of the river Ghaggar in Bahawalpur and northern
Rajasthan, to the watershed of the Indus and Ganges and the Ganga-Yamuna doab.
The eastern limits of this Ware are restricted to the northern plains of the Ganges, as the
site of Sravasti indicates. Some important PGW sites are:
i) Atranjikhera,
ii) Ahichhatra,
iii) Noh,
iv) Hastinapura,
v) Kurukshetra,
vi) Bhagwanpura, and
vii) Jakhera.
The Banas culture of southern Rajasthan, which has been dated at c. 2000-1400 BCE
may have possibly extended to the Ganges valley around 800 BCE. Thus, these Black-
and- Red Ware users can also be related to the present period. Archaeology does not
document the eastward shift of the “Vedic Aryans” – a shift which is suggested in the
literary texts. Archaeology does not document any single culture shifting eastwards.
Thus, there remains a large gap between the nature of literary and archaeological sources.
There is, however, the general point that the Later Vedic society as well the society
reflected in archaeology was a society which had used iron.
Iron objects are common to most of the PGW sites. The Carbon-14 dates from
244 Atranjikhera, Jodhpura and Noh suggest that in the context of Gangetic plains this
metal was introduced around 1000-800 BCE. The exploitation of iron ore in UP, Changes in the Later
Himachal and Punjab, and later in south Bihar, was an indigenous phenomenon. The Vedic Phase
Rigveda mentions “ayas” which may refer to iron, though the archaeological evidence
relates iron to the Later Vedic period. The literary sources provide ample corroboration
of this. The Yajurveda qualifies “ayas” as Shyam ayas and the Brahmanas speak of
Krishna ayas. Both words refer to a black metal which means iron. Recent excavations
suggest that the Megalithic people of south India, too, were familiar with iron technology.
Hence, we can no longer talk in terms of the introduction of iron technology into the
Indian subcontinent by the migrant Aryans.

9.3 IRON TECHNOLOGY AND ITS IMPACT

An important question to be asked here is: does the knowledge of iron lead to any
advancement in the metal technology of the period? Similarly, one would also like to
know the extent to which the introduction of a new technology changes the material
milieu of society.
The evidence of the Later Vedic period suggests a transition from a pastoral society to
a sedentary agrarian society. It was earlier suggested that the socketed axes made of
iron were extensively used to clear the forests and the Gangetic doab for permanent
cultivation. It was also believed that iron-tipped ploughshares and hoes increased the
efficiency of agricultural implements which furthered agricultural activities. Thus, scholars
believed that the knowledge of iron technology was an important factor for the
development of agrarian economy. However, we now know that the Later Vedic period
was neither purely agrarian nor was it well advanced in iron technology. The rich iron
ore mines of Bihar were still not exploited and the technology of smelting iron was
primitive.
The objects which are found in excavations are iron-tipped arrowheads, spearheads
etc. i.e. weapons of which the largest number comes from the Ahichhatra excavations.
Sickles, hoes, axes are rarely found in the excavations. One ploughshare has been
reported from Jakhera which probably belongs to the end of this period. Thus, from
excavations it appears that the use of iron was restricted to making weapons. Iron did
not influence the agricultural technology until the 2nd half of the 1st millennium BCE
when the marshlands and monsoon forests in the middle Gangetic valley were gradually
cleared.
In the Later Vedic period the clearing of forests by burning was carried out in the upper
doab. We have the description of the burning of Khandavavana in Mahabharata to
establish the city of Indraprastha. Iron-tipped weapons and horse chariots helped military
activities which were rampant in this period and have been extensively documented in
the Mahabharata. However, in subsistence- related activities iron technology had
practically no role.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) Tick () the right sentence.
i) We can definitely say that the Vedic society shifted eastwards.
ii) It is impossible to say that the Vedic society shifted eastwards.
iii) We can guess that the Vedic society shifted eastwards.
iv) None of the above.
245
History of India 2) Through Atharvaveda: tick () the right sentence.
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E. i) We can understand the folk traditions of the Later Vedic period.
ii) We can understand only the elite tradition of the Later Vedic society.
iii) We can understand the socio-religious conditions of the common people.
iv) Both (i) and (ii).
3) In the Later Vedic period: tick () the right sentence.
i) Iron technology was mostly used for agriculture.
ii) Iron technology was mostly used for weapons of war.
iii) Iron techonology was not there at all.
iv) Steel was being used.
4) Write in 50 words the impact of iron technology on Later Vedic society.
.....................................................................................................................
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.....................................................................................................................

9.4 THE NATURE OF ECONOMY

The growth of agriculture in the Later Vedic period was made possible by the availability
of vast tracts of fertile alluvial lands of the Ganga-Yamuna doab and the middle Ganga
valley – an area which was slowly settled throughout the 1st millennium BCE. However,
the Later Vedic texts reflect the continued importance of pastoralism.
Both archaeological and literary sources document the introduction of rice as the staple
diet of people. The PGW and Banas culture yield charred grains of rice from excavated
sites. The Vedic texts mention Vrihi, Tandula and Shali – all denoting rice. It appears
that cropping was practised now and the fields grew both barley and rice. The elaborate
sacrifices of this period, e.g. the Rajasuya, include offerings of grain along with milk,
ghee and animals. The 12 sacrifices prescribed in the Atharvaveda for acquiring material
benefits recommend the gifts of cows, calves, oxen, gold, cooked rice, thatched houses
and well-cultivated fields to the Brahmanas. The items of the offerings are a clear
indication of the growing importance of sedentary settlements and agriculture. Later
Vedic texts also refer to eight, twelve and even twenty-four oxen yoked to the plough.
Though the number of oxen mentioned is, possibly, symbolic, the reference suggests
that plough cultivation was familiar in this period.

9.4.1 The Importance of Pastoralism Declines

Pastoralism was no longer the main subsistence activity of the people as it was in the
Early Vedic period. Mixed farming, which included cultivation and herding, was the
occupational norm of this period. The agricultural activities in this phase were not labour-
intensive. The sites from where rice remains are found in excavations are located on the
elevated areas of the doab. This suggests that wet rice cultivation, which is labour-
intensive, was not practised as yet.
246
Mixed farming led to the rise of sedentary settlements. The PGW deposits are generally Changes in the Later
two to three m. deep and indicate that the people were living in the same spot for a long Vedic Phase
time. At Bhagwanpura and Jakhera the excavations show that the earlier phase of
circular huts made of wattle- and- daub or wood were replaced in this period by more
substantial houses with earth walls. Thus, durable materials were being used for house
construction owing to the adoption of a sedentary life style.

9.4.2 Changes in the Functions of Rituals

In the Early Vedic society, rituals were performed to bring about the welfare of the
entire tribe. Gods were worshipped for ensuring victory over other tribes, granting
cattle and sons. It was also an occasion for the chiefs to distribute wealth. In the Later
Vedic society the function of rituals underwent a subtle change. The rituals became
much more complicated which could continue for years. Thus, only the rich could perform
them. The spirit of collectivity was reduced. Sacrifices were performed to ensure control
over rest of the tribe. Gifts were no longer given to the entire tribe. Rather, the chief
gave gifts to the Brahmanas who performed sacrifices for him. The rituals were so
complicated that it needed expert Brahmanas to perform them, since it was believed
that a wrong incantation could bring disaster to the performer. The performer of the
sacrifices was supposed to grant “super-human” status to the chiefs, meaning that they
were superior to the rest of the tribe. For this service the chief passed on a large part of
his wealth to the Brahman priest. Thus, the rituals became a mechanism for ensuring
the material and spiritual superiority of chiefs and Brahmanas.

9.4.3 Emerging Importance of Land

The land was cultivated through family labour and the help of domestic servants and
slaves. In this period initially the land was owned by the clan (vish). When clan ownership
gradually changed to family ownership the grihapati (householder) became a man of
wealth. The vaishyas (those who originally belonged to the vish) were the producing
class in society and they became the source of wealth and subsistence for the Kshatriyas
and Brahmanas who did not actively participate in food production. The vaishyas had
to give prestations to the Kshatriyas in lieu of the latter protecting their lands, and dana
and dakshina to the priests for their moral upliftment. The vish/vaishya, characterizing
the house-holding economy, became the mainstay of the economy. Prestations and
dana to the non-producing classes helped in the distribution of subsistence goods.
There are no references to sale of land. Vishvakarma Bhauvana, a ruler, was rebuked
by Prithvi (earth) when he tried to make a grant of land. This textual reference suggests
communal ownership of land over which the vish had major participatory rights.

9.5 POLITY AND SOCIETY

The transition from a predominantly pastoral to a mixed farming economy had great
impact on the character of the Later Vedic society and polity. The main trends of changes
were:
i) Tribal identity of the Early Vedic society gradually gave way to territorial identity
and consequently, the nature of chiefship changed.
ii) The social structure, which was based on relations within a clan and was largely
egalitarian in the Early Vedic period, became much more complex. This type of
society was marked by inequality. Even the same clan was divided into groups,
some of which could have high status in society while some had low status.

247
History of India 9.5.1 Polity
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E. Jana was used in the sense of people or tribe in the Rigvedic period, but now the
concept of Janapada emerged. Janapada meant the area where the tribe settled. The
word Rashtra was also used for the first time in the Later Vedic texts. However, it was
still not used in the sense of a state with well defined territories.
The Kurus, who were formed from the union between two major Vedic tribes – the
Bharatas and the Purus, are mentioned in the texts as occupying the area in the upper
portion of the Ganga-Yamuna doab. Similarly, the Panchalas are mentioned as people
who occupied the middle portion of the doab called the Panchala desh. This indicates
that tribal identities were merging with territorial identities. It is also stated that when the
Kurus and Panchalas came together their authority over the upper and middle reaches
of the Ganga-Yamuna doab was complete. These changes in the relationship between
the Jana and the area over which it wielded control helped towards the formation of
Mahajanapadas and Janapadas by c. 6th century BCE.
Tribal Chiefs and Warriors: When tribal groups came to be associated and identified
with particular territories it also brought about a change in the status and functions of
tribal chiefs. The rajan (tribal chief) was no longer involved only in cattle raids but
emerged as the protector of the territory where his tribesmen settled. The rajanya,
which already was a superior lineage during the Rigvedic period, now became the
Kshatriya i.e. those who held power over dominions, which is the literal meaning of the
word Kshatriya. The Kshatriya class based their power on their role as the protector
of their tribes and the land over which their tribes settled. The vish had to pay prestations
to the Kshatriya in lieu of the latter’s protection and thus, the status of the vish was
progressively subordinated to the Kshatriya lineage. Bali and Bhaga no longer meant
prestations given at will, but gradually assumed the forms of regular tributes and taxes.
Tribal Assemblies: The change in the status of Kshatriya (warrior class) is also reflected
in the changing nature of tribal assemblies. The sabha became more important than
samiti during this period. References to rajas in the assembly (sabha) suggest that
they helped the king in his duties. The office of the raja (the chief) was not based solely
on birth but the choice of raja was restricted to Kshatriyas.
Raja’s Legitimacy: In the absence of firmly established principles of heredity and
primogeniture, consecratory rituals became very important for the ruler in order to
assert this authority. Hence, ceremonial sacrifices like rajasuya, ashvamedha and
vajapeya were performed on lavish scale. In the Rigvedic period the ashvamedha
yajna was a small affair. But, in this period this was performed to subjugate other areas
and legitimize the ruler’s hold over alien lands. The other yajnas included prayers for
rulers’ health and all three were, in essence, legitimizing methods employed by the raja
to proclaim his superiority and power. For instance, the sacrificer was proclaimed as a
raja in the course of the rajasuya. These sacrifices were found to be of relevance in
the later periods also when new kingdoms and monarchs emerged. They used sacrifices
to give religions legitimacy to their power.
The raja was also required to integrate his territory with resources, economic production
and distribution which enhanced his status considerably from a mere raider or a leader
of battles. However, he was not yet the sovereign. The fact that he was elected and
could be removed put severe constraints on him, since he was answerable to the clan.
Also, he did not appoint the other rajas who helped him with his duties. They were
chiefs in their own right. What is important is that the Kshatriya lineage gained a distinctly
superior status during this period, the reason being that the concept of territorial identity
248
was established now. Thus, territory became the physical manifestation of the ruler’s Changes in the Later
power to rule. Vedic Phase

Tribal Conflicts: The nature of intra-tribal conflicts and conflicts within tribes also
changed. The fights were no longer mere skirmishes over cattle, now the acquisition of
land was an important element in these disputes. The necessity of increasing territory
can be connected with the growth of population within tribes. Iron weapons and light
wheeled chariots driven by horses raised the efficiency of fighters. The Mahabharata
depicts an intra-clan warfare between the Kauravas and Pandavas of the Kuru clan.
The Priest: With the rising importance of the rajanya Kshatriya, the Brahmanas,
too, became important since they legitimized the office of the ruler through consecratory
rituals. The redistribution of wealth through dana and dakshina on such occasions was
primarily from the Kshatriya yajamana to the Brahman priests. The elaborate
consecratory rituals suggest that initially, the power of the raja was not so secure and
hence, he had to provide proof of his ability to rule. The status of the officiating priests
became at par with the gods in the later period. It was felt that the gods had to be
propitiated with yajnas and the officiating Brahman had to be satiated with dana.
Thus, the channel of redistribution was between these two higher status groups and
political supremacy was slowly becoming the domain of Kshatriyas.

9.5.2 Society
We have already read about the declining status of vish and the ascendancy of
Kshatriyas and Brahmanas. The society was, thus, composed of unequal groups.
The following hymn describes the origin of four varnas, i.e. Brahmana, Kshatriya,
Vaishya and Shudra, from the body of the universal creator, Prajapati. This “Hymn of
the Primeval Man” comes from the later portion of the Rigveda. It says,
“When they divided the Man, into how many parts did they divide him? What was his
mouth, what were his arms, what were his thighs and his feet called?”
“The Brahmana was his mouth, of his arms made the Kshatriya, his thighs became the
Vaishya, of his feet the Shudra was born”.
The symbolism which is projected in this hymn is that Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya
and Shudra are limbs of the society. However, these limbs did not have equal status.
The Brahmana was compared to the head whereas the Shudra was compared to the
feet. In social life the Brahmanas were considered the highest varna because it was
believed that the society could communicate with the gods with the help of the Brahmanas
only. The Shudras, on the other hand, performed menial tasks and included slaves
captured in wars.
Concept of Varna: The system of varna had the following features:
a) status by birth,
b) hierarchical ordering of the varnas (Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra)
with Brahmana at the top and Shudra at the base),
c) rules of endogamy and ritual purity.
The Varna system is further tied with the concept of Dharma i.e. universal law, and the
varna dharma was an attempt to establish a social law for a systematic functioning of
the society. However, the varnadharma system was not properly developed in the
Later Vedic society. The division of social groups was based on occupation alone and
the society was still flexible where one’s occupation did not depend on birth. 249
History of India Even in the later times i.e., post-Vedic, the varnadharma described the ritual status of
from the Earliest each group. The varna system did not prevent the non-kshatriyas from claiming
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
kshatriya status and becoming rulers (examples being the Nandas and the Mauryas),
nor the Brahmanas from claiming political suzerainty (e.g. the Shunga kings). (You will
read about these in one of the subsequent Units.)
Thus, the theoretical model of the varna system could never be rigidly enforced in the
post-Vedic period.
It is likely that during the Later Vedic period, with the shift in the geographical focus, the
Vedic people encountered many non-Vedic tribes and considerable interaction must
have helped in the formation of a composite society. At least the Atharvaveda depicts
a host of non-Vedic religious practices which were sanctioned by the priests. However,
tribal endogamy through strict marriage rules was the aim in order to maintain the purity
of the tribe. Also, the growing importance of the Kshatriyas and the Brahmanas in the
society made it imperative to maintain their exclusive superior status as compared to
the rest. During the Later Vedic period, however, the concept of varna was rudimentary
in nature. The notion of untouchability, for instance, is absent.
Gotra: The institution of gotra (literally meaning cow-pen) appeared during this period.
As against tribal endogamy (marriage within the tribe) the people practiced gotra
exogamy (marrying outside the gotra). Gotra signified descent from a common ancestor
and marriages could not take place between couples belonging to the same gotra.
Family: The patriarchal family was well established and the grihapati acquired a special
status. Since house-holding economy was gaining predominance the position of the
householder, too, acquired economic importance. The rights on land were based on
usage and communal ownership of land prevailed. The grihapatis were wealthy and
their ritual role was that of a yajamana (i.e. he who orders sacrifice). Their wealth did
not come from gifts but was produced by their own efforts. Through yajnas, which
they were bound to perform to gain merit, a part of their wealth got channelled to the
Brahmanas. Despite the presence of some women philosophers and the references to
a few queens participating in coronation rituals, the women were considered subordinate
to men and were not involved in any major decision making.
Three Stages of Life: The three ashramas, i.e. stages of life, were prescribed,
represented by the Brahmacharya (studentship), Grihastha (householder),
Vanaprastha (partial retirement from house-holding life by living in the forest). It seems
that the fourth i.e. the Sanyasa (complete retirement from active participation in the
world) stage was not known till the time the Upanishads were written. The Sanyasis
(the ascetics) in the later periods were individuals who protested either passively or
actively against the Vedic social structure.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) In the Later Vedic period: tick () the right statement.
i) Pastoralism can be said to be the main subsistence activity.
ii) Mixed farming, which included cultivation and herding, was the main
subsistence activity.
iii) Only labour-intensive agriculture was practised.
iv) Industry was the main activity.

250
2) In the Later Vedic period: tick () the right statement. Changes in the Later
Vedic Phase
i) Tribe was the only basis for organizing the society.
ii) Land became more important and the tribe ownership of land gradually
changed to family ownership.
iii) The ownership of land was outside the tribe.
iv) None of these.
3) During the Later Vedic period: tick () the right statement.
i) Sabha became more important than samiti.
ii) Samiti became more important than sabha.
iii) The importance of both sabha and samiti declined.
iv) None of the above.
4) The Later Vedic period people: tick () the right statement.
i) Began to marry within their own gotra.
ii) Married outside their gotra.
iii) Did not care whether they married within their own gotra or outside.
iv) None of the above.
5) What was the family in the Later Vedic phase? Answer in about 50 words.
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9.6 RELIGION
The texts of this period indicate two different religious traditions:
i) the Vedic, which is documented in the Samaveda, Yajurveda and Brahmanas,
and
ii) the non-Vedic or perhaps, the folk tradition extensively documented in the
Atharvaveda.
The fact that the Atharvan religious tradition was considered to be part of the Vedic
discourse suggests assimilation of different cultures and beliefs into the Vedic religious
system. The Yajurveda and Brahmanas document the sacrificial religion of the period.
Sacrifices became very important during this period and they assumed both a public
and private character. The public sacrifices e.g. the Rajasuya, Vajapeya, Asvamedha
were conducted on a massive scale, wherein the whole community participated. Some
of the rituals performed in these sacrifices show elements of a fertility cult. For instance,
the Asvamedha yajna required the chief queen to lie next to the sacrificial horse,
where the queen represented the earth and this ritual was thought to ensure the prosperity 251
History of India for the king. A number of agricultural rituals were performed in the Rajasuya and
from the Earliest Vajapeya. The periodical rejuvenation of the earth and its fertility are some of the
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
themes which were included in the ceremonial yajnas.

9.6.1 Priestcraft
The Later Vedic texts reveal the elaboration of rituals which were complicated and
needed professional men trained in the art of performing them. Vidhis (rules for
performing the sacrifices) were formulated and Vedic sacrifices no longer meant simple
offering of food/oblations into the fire. The types of offering, types of sacrifices etc.
differed according to the needs of the patron (yajamana). The sacrifices were now
endowed with mystical symbolism and every ritual act was endowed by mysterious
power. A new science of priestcraft emerged because of the complexities involved in
the performance of these yajnas whether private or public. Thus, a class of priests
became specializts in the performances of yajnas. There were even different sets of
priests for performing different stages of the same sacrificial ritual.

9.6.2 The Changing Gods

The two prominent Early Vedic gods, Indra and Agni, lost their importance. Prajapati,
the creator became important. This phenomenon also represents the importance of
sedentism now, since creation myths are important in agrarian groups. Rudra, a minor
deity in the Rigveda, became important now and Vishnu was conceived as the creator
and protector of the universe. Pushan, who protected cattle in the former period, now
became the god of the Shudras. The changing status of the deities is an indication of the
change in the character of the tribes: from pastoral groups to sedentary agriculturist
groups. The Early Vedic gods who represented natural phenomena were slowly
discarded and the personification of natural elements as divine beings became very
complex. It was no longer easy to find the natural element which represented a particular
god from the hymns of the Later Vedic period.

9.6.3 Folk Tradition

The Atharvaveda is a mine of information regarding folk tradition. Its contents are
radically different from the Vedic sacrificial religion and it is concerned more with magic.
The contents of this Veda cover different aspects of human life. The hymns deal with:
i) the cure for diseases,
ii) prayers for health,
iii) charms for the prosperity of home and children,
iv) cattle and fields,
v) charms to produce harmony,
vi) charms concerned with love and marriage or conversely, rivalry and jealousy etc.
Atharvaveda, thus, documents the kinds of superstitions and beliefs which were
prevalent. The term Atharvan indicates a magical formula and the Atharvan priests
officiated in this religion. Gods of the Vedic tradition were invoked but the reasons for
which they were invoked were trivial and individualistic. Many godlings and spirits such
as pishachas, rakshasas and so on (some malevolent and some benevolent) were
invoked either to bring good fortune or to cause havoc and destruction to one’s friends
and foes respectively. The invocations and chants related to the domestic and the
252 household and were close to the daily cycles of existence of the common man. For
example, Indra was asked to kill the house-robber, the worm in the body and the wolf Changes in the Later
devil. The Ashvins were entrusted with the protection of agriculture and the killing of Vedic Phase
rats. Savitri was summoned to fix a place where a new home could be built. Pushan
was invoked to bring harmony and safe delivery of babies while Surya was invoked to
remove demons.
Towards the end of this period a strong reaction against priestly domination and against
complexities involved in the yajnas resulted in the formulation of a philosophical doctrine
which is enunciated in the Upanishads. These texts emphasized the knowledge of the
atman (soul) as against the ritualistic practices and wasteful expenditure which
accompanied sacrifices. Thus, the materialistic aspect of religion was discarded and it
was raised to the realm of philosophy. The Upanishads emphasized the changelessness
and indestructability of soul which, in a way, seemed to emphasize the need for stability
and integration in a period when the janapadas and the mahajanapadas, i.e. republics
and monarchies, were emerging.
Thus, we find that a great change in the religious beliefs and practices had taken place
between the Early and Later Vedic period. This change was partly related to shift from
pastoralism to agriculture. The religious changes of this period parallel and reflect the
socio-political and economic changes that had taken place from the Early to the Later
Vedic phase.
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
1) In the Later Vedic period: tick () the right statement.
i) Public and private sacrifices became very important.
ii) Sacrifices had no role.
iii) Sacrifices became important because priests came to play an important role.
iv) Both (i) and (iii).
2) It can be said that: tick () the right statement.
i) The important Later and Early Vedic gods were the same.
ii) The important Later and Early Vedic gods were different.
iii) The gods in the Later Vedic period reflected the change in the character of
society from nomadic to a settled one.
iv) Both (ii) and (iii).
3) What does the changing status of gods in the Later Vedic phase indicate?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

253
History of India
from the Earliest 9.7 SUMMARY
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
In this Unit you got to know:
i) that the Vedic society was changing from pastoral nomadic lifestyle to a settled
agricultural society, but iron was yet to play an important role in agriculture;
ii) that in the process well-defined political units were established, laws were codified
and a distinct social stratification emerged;
iii) that the Vedic and the folk religious tradition of this period were increasingly coming
together while maintaining their identity;
iv) that in this process of change some minor gods of the Early Vedic period, e.g.
Rudra, became more important while the earlier important gods, e.g. Indra, became
less important;
v) that both the literary and archaeological sources of this period have to be interpreted
together to get an overall picture of the period.

9.8 KEY WORDS

Consecration : The process of giving importance or legitimacy.
Double Cropping : To grow two crops on one piece of land
simultaneously.
Endogamy : Marrying within e.g. within a tribe, caste or gotra
etc.
Exogamy : Marriage outside e.g. a caste, gotra etc.
Fertility Cult : A ritual/religious practice where human birth or
the process of birth is emphasized.
Folk Tradition : Traditions of the common people.
Gift Economy : An economy in which gifts play an important role
in maintaining its institutions.
Labour Intensive : An activity where labour or manpower is used
relatively more than technology.
Prestation : Service or offering required by custom or
promise.
Sedentary : Stationary or remaining at one place.
Stratification : Division into levels; e.g. social stratification means
division of society into different kinds according
to some criteria e.g. caste, wealth etc.
Subsistence Activity : Activity relating to economic survival.

9.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
254 1) ii, 2) iv, 3) ii,
4) See Section 9.3. Your answer should comment on whether iron had become Changes in the Later
important for war or daily use and why? Vedic Phase

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1) ii, 2) ii, 3) i, 4) ii
5) See Sub-sec. 9.5.2.Your answer should comment on the importance of family,
importance of householder, position of women in family.
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
1) iv, 2) iv
2) See Sub-sec. 9.6.2.Your answer could comment on whether the new gods indicated
a new kind of society.

9.10 SUGGESTED READINGS

Agrawal, D.P. and Chakravarti, D. K. (eds.) (1979). Essays in Indian Protohistory.
New Delhi.
Allchin, Bridget and Raymond (1988). The Rise of Civilizations in India and Pakistan.
New Delhi.
Basham, A. L. (1986). The Wonder that was India. New Delhi.
Jha, D. N. (1986). Ancient India: An Introductory Outline. New Delhi.
Kosambi, D. D. (1987). The Culture and Civilization of Ancient India in Historical
Outline. New Delhi.
Sankalia, H. D. (1962). Prehistory and Protohistory of India and Pakistan. Poona.
Thapar, Romila (1983). History of India. Vol. I, New Delhi.

255
 UNIT 10 JANAPADAS AND
MAHAJANAPADAS: RISE OF URBAN
CENTRES, SOCIETY AND
ECONOMY*
Structure
10.0 Objectives
10.1 Introduction
10.2 The Vedic Age and the Sixth Century BCE
10.3 What is an Urban Centre?
10.4 The Background to the Sixth Century BCE
10.5 Our Sources of Information
10.6 Cities of the Sixth Century BCE
10.6.1 Types of Cities and Towns in Literature
10.6.2 The Image of the City in Ancient India
10.6.3 A Walk through the City
10.6.4 Items of Exchange

10.7 The City in Archaeology

10.8 Units of Settlement-I: The Janapada
10.9 Emergence of New Groups
10.9.1 Gahapati
10.9.1 Merchants
10.9.2 Ruler and the Ruled

10.10 Units of Settlement-II: The Mahajanapada

10.10.1 The Story of Jivaka
10.10.2 Villages
10.10.3 Towns and Cities

10.11 The Sixteen Mahajanapadas

10.12 Society
10.12.1 Kshatriyas
10.12.2 Brahmanas
10.12.3 Vaishyas and the Gahapati
10.12.4 Shudras
10.12.5 Wandering Ascetics
10.12.6 Condition of Women

10.13 Economy
10.13.1 Factors in the Growth of Food-Producing Economy
10.13.2 Rural Economy
10.13.3 Urban Economy
10.13.4 Urban Occupations
10.13.5 Trade and Trade Routes
256 * This Unit has been adopted from EHI-02, Block 4.
10.14 Summary Janapadas and
Mahajanapadas: Rise
10.15 Key Words of Urban Centres,
Society and Economy
10.16 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
10.17 Suggested Readings

10.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you will be able to:
 distinguish between society of c. 6th century BCE and that of the earlier period;
 discover real meaning of an urban settlement and distinguish it from the rural centres;
 learn main factors which led to the urbanization during c. 6th century BCE;
 know what kind of cities existed at that time;
 list various features of city life in c. 6th century BCE;
 get a detailed information about various Janapadas and Mahajanapadas which
came into prominence; and
 learn about the emergence of new groups in the society during c. 6th century BCE.
You will also get to know in general about main social and economic changes which
crystallized by the period of second urbanization and especially about :
 main segments of the society, social order and the disabilities imposed on the
shudras;
 evidences and the causative factors for the growth of food-producing economy;
 main features of rural and urban economy; and
 main crafts and occupations along with the nature of trade and trade routes during
the period.

10.1 INTRODUCTION
You must have observed that people around you speak same language. The entire
surrounding region celebrates same festivals. People of the entire region have similarities
in their marriage customs too. The food they cook is similar. How did areas having
cultural homogeneity come into existence? Beginnings of this process go back to the
emergence of Janapadas. It signified the birth of geography in Indian history. Remember
when we discussed the Vedic society we did not talk about specific geographical regions.
That was because the Vedic people were not attached to any area. With the settlements
of agriculturists coming up, the settlers formed enduring ties with their surrounding
landscape. They observed the hills and rivers, birds, animals and fruits that were found
in that area. Not only this, this was the time when they learnt to call a particular
geographical space as their own. This geographical space was separated from those of
the other communities (Janapadas) who might be friendly or hostile to them. These
Janapadas, characterized by cohesion inside and separation from the outside world,
proved to be a seminal development in ancient India. They became the centres of the
development of uniform language, customs and beliefs.

257
History of India
from the Earliest 10.2 THE VEDIC AGE AND THE SIXTH CENTURY
Times Upto C. 300 C.E. B.C.E.
When we talk about the Janapadas we have to refer to a number of things associated
with their emergence. Since they are known from about 6th century BCE we can say
that in regions in which the Janapadas of this period are found, many changes took a
concrete shape. Villages, towns and cities were the units where the people lived in a
Janapada. You may have noticed that when we discussed various aspects of Early
Vedic and Later Vedic society we did not refer to people living in such varieties of
settlements as villages, towns and cities, although they did live in modest settlements.
Further, this was the time when kings and monarchs emerged on the stage of history.
This was also the age of intense philosophical speculation. Buddhism, Jainism and many
other heterodox sects emerged during this period. Monks, monarchs and merchants
crowd the canvas of history. Thus, in various respects the period that we will be studying
now (approximately 6th century to 4th century BCE) will reveal to us the changes that
continued to take place in Indian society after what we have discussed in previous
Units.

10.3 WHAT IS AN URBAN CENTRE?

The period starting with c. 6th century BCE saw the emergence of cities in ancient India
for the second time. This urbanization was more significant, in the sense that it endured
for a longer time and saw the beginnings of a literate tradition. This tradition, embodied
in Buddhism, Jainism and many important strands of Hinduism, looks back on this
period as its formative epoch. The contemporary literature is full of references to cities
like Rajagriha, Shravasti, Kashi, etc. The Buddha and Mahavira were preaching to
urban audiences most of the time.
After the end of Indus cities, settled agricultural villagers and wandering people inhabited
the plains of India. Small village settlements with humble dwellings dotted the landscape
of the country. All this was undisturbed by the din and bustle of market places and the
domination of kings and merchants. You must have heard the story of king Harishchandra
famous for his truthfulness and keeping his vows. Here is the earliest version of his story
from a text called the Aitareya Brahmana which can roughly be dated to 8th-7th century
BCE.
Thus goes the story: King Harishchandra did not have a son. He went up to god Varuna
and prayed, “Let a son be born to me, with him let me sacrifice to thee.” To him a son
was born Rohit by name. Varun demanded his sacrifice. The king made various kinds
of excuses and kept postponing the sacrifice. However, when Rohit grew up
Harishchandra told him, “O my dear one, this one (Varuna) gave thee to me. Come let
me sacrifice to him with thee.” “No”, he said and taking his bow went to the wild and
for a year he wandered in the wild. Varuna was angry and as such Harishchandra was
inflicted with dropsy. Rohit heard of this and decided to go back from the wild to his
village. Six times he started for the village and six times he was persuaded by Indra to
go back to the wild. In the seventh year he bought a Brahmana boy called Sunahsepa
from his father for 100 coins. As such, he came back to the village of Harishchandra
where Sunahsepa was to be sacrificed to Varuna. When Sunahsepa was about to be
sacrificed he chanted some incantation which pleased Varuna and he was saved. The
king’s dropsy also disappeared.
What is significant for a historian of urbanizm is that king Harishchandra was not living
258
in a city, not even in a small town but in a village adjacent to the wilds. All this changed
in c. 6th century BCE. You will further read in this Unit that kings of the monarchical Janapadas and
Mahajanapadas and the Kshatriya chiefs of Gana-Samghas used to live in cities like Mahajanapadas: Rise
of Urban Centres,
Kausambi, Champa, Shravasti, Rajagriha and Vaishali. It is not only the big cities which Society and Economy
emerged at this time. Along with agriculture-based villages, there existed market centres,
small towns, big towns and other types of settlements.
Many scholars have tried to define an urban centre. On the face of it, it seems fairly
easy to define it. But, when we get down to details the problem becomes complicated.
For example, some writers believe that it is characterized by a large population. However,
it has been pointed out that some modern Indian villages have populations larger than
those of some Australian towns. Similarly, some scholars argue that urban centres are
larger in size than the villages. However, it is difficult to determine a standard size for the
towns. We know that some of the villages today are larger in size than, say, a Harappan
town like Kalibangan. Thus, number of people or size of the settlement cannot be
reliable criteria for defining an urban or rural centre. Hence, it is important to identify the
kinds of activities the people in a settlement are performing. In a village most of the
people are engaged in food-production. So, the social landscape of villages is dominated
by fields and farmers. In towns, on the other hand, the dominant people are either
rulers, merchants or priests. It is possible that many people in the town might engage in
agricultural activities but it is essentially the non-agricultural activities that define a town.
Let us take the example of Benaras (Kashi) which is among the oldest surviving cities of
India. Its fame rests not on the very good quality rice produced there but on its being a
very important pilgrimage centre. It attracts pilgrims from all over India who offer various
kinds of gifts to deities in the temples. In this way keepers of the temples are able to
draw upon resources of the people coming from all over the country. Thus, the other
characteristic of an urban centre is that it functions in relationship to a large hinterland.
Residents of the city might provide administrative, economic or religious services to a
population residing in an area much larger than physical space of the city. This relationship
with population of the hinterland is advantageous to the urban centre. This means that
residents of the city are able to harness resources of the people living in the hinterland.
This might be done in the form of taxation in kind or tribute. Merchant living in the city
is also able to appropriate a share of the resources of rural areas by controlling the
supply of metals, minerals or some luxury items. This means that the classes of kings,
priests and merchants living in cities have more wealth than a common man. These
classes use their wealth for acquiring more wealth, prestige and power. Now, the rich
and powerful in every society have their own way of showing off. The rich in some
societies build large palaces, others build beautiful temples, still others perform grand
sacrifices. Some others are content with the possession of precious metals and stones.
Apart from kings, priests, merchants and farmers various groups of craft specializts
also stay in the city who produce luxury items for the city and other objects needed by
people outside the city. These craft specializts need not enjoy same privileges as the
rich. For example, the administrator or the merchant might be very rich but blacksmiths
or masons or carpenters might be quite poor. Thus, the city is characterized by the
presence of rich and poor people.
We can say that an urban centre refers to a place where most powerful and visible
sections of the population are engaged in activities other than food production.
Such diverse socio-economic activities create the problem of proper coordination among
those engaged in them. For example, the blacksmith would need food from the cultivator
or the merchant will need protection from robbers while transporting his goods to and
from distant areas. In a situation where each of the groups cannot survive without the 259
History of India other there is a need for a centralized agency coordinating their activities. The need to
from the Earliest keep in check hostilities between rich and poor and the need for mobilizing agricultural
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
produce for urban consumption also creates the possibilities for emergence of a
centralized political/administrative power. The emergence of centralized decision-making
groups coincides with the emergence of groups exercising monopoly over the use of
force. This kind of social structure also implies the coming into being of a state society.
Thus, urban society is characterized by the presence of craft specializts, rich and poor
people and a state administration.

10.4 THE BACKGROUND TO THE SIXTH

CENTURY B.C.E.
We will soon discuss the emergence of Mahajanapadas and centralized polities in
ancient India. We will see how over a period of time the Brahmanas emerged as a
caste category that specialized in ritual activities. Then came the class of Kshatriya
warriors and landowners who gradually started levying taxes over cultivators and
merchants. Later Vedic chieftains seem to have burnt up or distributed their wealth
during sacrifices. Competition among the chiefs to perform more and more sacrifices
on a larger and larger scale meant that they had to look for more and more booty, taxes
and tribute. In this settled agricultural society agricultural produce and cattle were the
most important forms of wealth. Especially, agricultural produce was one form of wealth
which could be augmented from year to year by either extending the cultivable land or
adopting more intensive agricultural practices. The rulers’ desire for more and more
wealth probably led to the cultivation of more land and settling down of many more
pastoralists and foragers. Archaeological records indicate that many agricultural
settlements came into existence between c. 8th to 6th centuries BCE. Two factors which
proved to be of great help in increasing agricultural production were:
 increasing use of iron tools, and
 practice of wet rice cultivation in middle Gangetic valley.
Use of Iron and Wet Rice Cultivation
By about 1000 BCE Indians had learnt the art of smelting iron. Over next three-four
centuries, iron came into increasing use. That is why a large number of iron tools and
implements have been found from Ujjain, Shravasti and Hastinapura. Iron weapons, in
particular, have been found in large numbers. These would have increased the power of
warrior classes vis-a-vis peasants. With more powerful weapons the former could extract
more wealth from the latter. Iron weapons also increased their desire for war, conquest
and booty.
Iron had a direct impact on economy too. Iron axes could be used to clear forests and
iron plough shares could facilitate agricultural operations. This was especially useful in
middle Gangetic valley (areas between Prayaga [Prayagaraj] and Bhagalpur) where
wet rice cultivation was practiced. Paddy transplantation had been learnt by this period.
It is a well known fact that yields per acre in wet rice cultivation is substantially higher
than those of wheat or millet in traditional agriculture. As such, there was much larger
output of food grains in the rice producing middle Gangetic valley than the wheat producing
upper Gangetic valley. It has been observed that varieties of rice and paddy fields are
repeatedly mentioned in the early Buddhist texts. This indicates a decisive shift to wet
rice cultivation. Larger food production made it possible to sustain increased population,
which is reflected in an increase in number of settlements in the archaeological records
260
of this period. All this created the possibility of the emergence of social groups not Janapadas and
engaged in food production. Mahajanapadas: Rise
of Urban Centres,
The Vedic sacrifices meant that most of the surplus accumulated by the chiefs was Society and Economy
gifted away at the time of performing sacrifices. In the areas of middle Gangetic valley
the Vedic rituals and sacrifices did not have the kind of hold as in the upper Gangetic
valley. This meant that surpluses which were collected by the chiefs were not spent
away during sacrifices. The groups that grew up controlling this surplus wealth became
the ruling class of newly emergent kingdoms. And, on the foundation of this wealth
were born the cities of c. 6th century BCE.

10.5 OUR SOURCES OF INFORMATION

We find information about Janapadas and Mahajanapadas from some Vedic and
Buddhist texts. The Brahmanas refer to a category of Vedic texts which deal with the
methods of performing Vedic rituals. Similarly, the Upanishads dealing with philosophical
problems are also considered a part of Vedic literature. These texts were composed
from c. 800 BCE onwards. They refer to many Janapadas and Mahajanapadas and
provide us insights into the settlement of agricultural communities. Another category of
sources providing us information about this period are texts composed by the Buddhists.
The Vinaya Pitaka dealing with rules of the Buddhist order (sangha), the Sutta Pitaka
a collection of Buddha’s sermons and the Abhidhamma Pitaka discussing problems
of metaphysics tell us about preachers, princes, rich, poor, towns and villages of that
period. The Jatakas dealing with stories of previous births of the Buddha are part of
the Sutta Pitaka. They give us graphic descriptions of contemporary society. These
texts have clear references to various regions and geographical divisions. Archaeologists
also contribute to our understanding of this period. They have dug up various places
like Ahichchhatra, Hastinapura, Kaushambi, Ujjaini, Shravasti, Vaishali and many more
which are mentioned in the texts of this period. They have discovered remains of houses,
buildings, towns and objects used by people. For example, archaeological finds from
this period indicate the use of a deluxe pottery called Northern Black Polished Ware
(NBPW) to which reference has already been made in Unit 7. In settlements of the
previous period the people either did not know the use of iron or used it sparingly. In c.
6th century BCE people were using iron tools on a large scale. Prosperous agricultural
settlements and towns have also been reported in excavations. Thus, archaeological
and literary sources, put together, provide us with a more complete picture of Indian
society between c. 6th and 4th centuries BCE.

Remains of Ancient City Ahichchhatra (or Ahi-Kshetra), capital of Northern Panchala, a Northern
Indian Kingdom mentioned in the Mahabharata, Bareilly District, Uttar Pradesh. Credit:
Suneet87. Source: Wikipedia Commons (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janapada#/media/
File:Ahichchhatra_Fort_Temple_Bareilly.jpg).
261
History of India
from the Earliest 10.6 CITIES OF THE SIXTH CENTURY B.C.E.
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
As we have just seen, our information about the cities of c. 6th century BCE comes
from many sources. This is because it was the period which saw the beginnings of the
written tradition in ancient Indian history. Brahmanical, Buddhist and Jain texts refer to
the conditions of this period. Excavation reports of many urban and rural centres of this
period also enrich our understanding.

Main Cities during c. 600 BCE. Source: EHI-02, Block-4, Unit-15.

10.6.1 Types of Cities and Towns in Literature

The terms that are frequently used to denote cities in ancient Indian literature are:
 Pura,
 Durga,
 Nigama,
 Nagara, etc.
Let us see how ancient Indians defined them.
Pura: this term is mentioned even in Early Vedic literature where it referred to fortified
settlements or temporary places of refuge or cattle pens. Later on, it is often used for
the residence of the king and his retinue or for families of the ruling group in Gana-
Samghas. Gradually, the connotation of fortification became less important and it came
to mean a city.

262
Durga: this is the other term used for denoting fortified capital of a king. Fortifications Janapadas and
protected urban centres and separated them from surrounding rural areas. Also, they Mahajanapadas: Rise
of Urban Centres,
made it easier for ruling classes to control activities of the population residing in the city. Society and Economy
Nigama: it is frequently used in Pali literature to denote a town. It probably meant a
merchant town where the sale and purchase of goods used to take place. In fact, some
scholars believe that some of the Nigamas evolved out of villages specializing in pottery,
carpentry or salt making. That they were market towns is also proved by the fact that
certain coins of a later period carrying the legend Nigama have been found which
indicate that they were minted by the Nigama. Sometimes, literary texts would refer to
a particular section of a city as Nigama where craft specializts would live and work.
Nagara: it is the most commonly used word for a town or city in literature of the period
we are talking about. This word is used for the first time in the Taittiriya Aranyaka
roughly dated to 7th-6th century BCE. Another word Mahanagara also referred to
cities. These centres combined political functions of Pura and commercial functions of
Nigama. Kings, merchants and preachers resided in these cities.

City of Kushinagara in c. 5th Century BCE according to a 1st Century BCE Frieze in Sanchi
Stupa’s Southern Gate. Credit: AsitJain. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://
commons. wikimedia. org/wiki/File:City_of_Kushinagar_i n_the _5th_century_
BCE_according_to_a_1st_century_BCE_ frieze_in_Sanchi_Stupa_1_Southern_Gate.jpg).

Buddhist literature refers to the following six Mahanagaras, all of them located in
middle Gangetic valley:
 Champa,
 Rajagriha,
 Kashi,
 Sravasti,
 Saket, and
 Kausambi.
Other terms like Pattana, Sthaniya, etc. are also used to refer to towns and cities. It
appears that the terms Pura and Durga are amongst the earliest terms used in Indian
literature for denoting a town. Others came in use in subsequent phases. What is significant
for us is that both these terms referred to fortified settlements. This might indicate that
263
History of India kings and their followers lived in fortified settlements. They extracted taxes from
from the Earliest surrounding population. Their ability to store wealth and collect luxury items might have
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
stimulated trade. Thus, these fortified settlements led to the development of a network
of relationships which led to the emergence of urban centres. This idea is supported by
the fact that the Brahmanical tradition ascribes the foundation of almost all the cities to
certain kings. For example, a king called Kushamb is said to have founded Kaushambi.
Similarly, Hastin founded Hastinapura and Shravasta founded Shravasti. In Buddhist
literature cities are associated with sages, plants and animals. For example, Kapilavastu
is said to have been named after sage Kapila, and Kaushambi was named after
Kushamba trees growing in that region. However, the tradition of cities being founded
by kings is quite strong. The Pandavas are said to have founded Indraprastha. In the
Ramayana also princes of the ruling family are supposed to have founded various
cities.
Some of the political centres also became great commercial centres in subsequent period.
Soon, the centres which were important for both political and commercial reasons
overshadowed those which were only political centres. For example, capital cities like
Hastinapura never experienced the kind of prosperity that we associate with Kashi or
Kaushambi. Once long-distance trade prospered, political leaders tried to enrich their
treasuries by taxing traders. At least in two cases political capitals were relocated in
areas connected with important trade routes. The capital of Koshala was shifted from
Ayodhya to Shravasti and the capital of Magadha was shifted from Rajagriha to
Pataliputra. This indicates importance of emerging trading networks with an important
section of the ancient Uttarapatha stretching along the Himalayan foothills and finally
connecting Taxila with Rajagriha. Similarly, Pataliputra was located at a point where it
could exploit the trade route passing through the Ganges. It was the patronage of kings
and merchants that led to the development of cities in ancient India. The literature of this
period is full of descriptions of caravans of merchants going to distant areas to conduct
trade. Rich merchants, along with princes, are described as main supporters of the
Buddha.

10.6.2 The Image of the City in Ancient India

The following reconstruction is based on references in the Buddhist and Brahmanical
literature of slightly later period. Texts like the Divyavadana and Apastamba
Dharmasutra provide us with an idea of the city in those times. Ancient Indian literature
gives an idealized view of cities. Ayodhya described in the Ramayana or Vaishali
described in Buddhist texts would be almost identical if one goes by their description.
Ideally, the cities were to be laid out on a chess-board pattern and surrounded by
defensive walls and moats. Streets were to be earmarked for various craftsmen. Wide
streets, high mansions with colourful banners, busy markets, flowering gardens, ponds
filled with lotus and geese are parts of their description in texts. Well dressed men,
beautiful women dancing and singing complete the picture of the city. This timeless
description of an idealized city gives us an unsatisfactory idea of what ancient Indian
cities actually looked like. Other incidental references may help us get a better view.

10.6.3 A Walk through the City

Towns seem to have grown around the intersection of two highways or along river
banks. When you entered the city streets, what would you see? Well, the contemporary
literary sources give a vivid description in this regard: The haze of dust raised by horses
hoofs and caravans of merchants which the pious Brahmanas disliked so much. The
crowds of people clamouring around shops selling various kinds of eatables such as
264 fruits like mangoes, jack fruits and bananas, sugar candy, cooked rice etc. The din and
bustle created by women selling trinkets and bangles of conch shell and by flower Janapadas and
sellers filled the air. If one had taste for liquor, shops selling various kinds of them would Mahajanapadas: Rise
of Urban Centres,
be found. Houses were generally made of earth or timber with tiled roofing – the kind Society and Economy
of houses still visible in the countryside of Gangetic plains. In some cases the houses
might be made of stone or burnt brick. One could see women looking down from their
balconies. Sometimes, one might come across a prostitute. If you were fond of gambling,
there were arrangements for that too. On the roads you could also come across
processions of the king and his retinue seated on their elephants and chariots. In some
parts of the city you could see king’s armymen practicing archery, training elephants
and improving their skills of warfare. The other kind of procession you were likely to
encounter was that of wandering mendicants clad in brown or white robes, sometimes
not wearing anything at all. These wandering ascetics, belonging to various sects that
emerged in this period, could be seen lecturing on various religious problems in groves
and gardens given to them. The audiences could be varied. Sometimes, it was the
exclusive assembly of rich merchants or powerful princes, at other times it could be
groups of people who came from the poorest sections of society. The rich lavished their
wealth upon these monks. Gardens and monasteries meant for the exclusive use of
monks were also a part of urban landscape.

10.6.4 Items of Exchange

Markets involved buying and selling of commodities. People could be seen buying
utensils and tools made of metals like iron, copper, tin and silver. Groups of merchants
specializing in procurement and selling of salt could be seen in the streets earmarked for
them. The cotton cloth of Kashi attracted quite a large numbers of buyers. Woolen
blankets brought from the distant north-western province of Gandhara could attract
only the rich. Horses brought from Sindh and Kamboja would also be on sale. Here,
the buyers were only the super-rich of those days. Bangles of conch shell, beautiful
ornaments of gold and combs and ornaments made of ivory and various kinds of precious
stones were also in high demand among the aristocracy.
Literary sources also point out that each item was sold in a separate street. Those who
manufactured or brought them also sold them. There were no shops selling a variety of
items. There were various kinds of traders:
 shopkeepers (apanika),
 retailers (kraya-vikrayika), and
 money investors (setthi-gahapati).
At least the richer people were using coins. Coin of highest value was the silver
satamana. This was followed by the karshapana. The copper masas and kakani
were coins of smaller denomination. Amidst this glitter of the cities was hidden a whole
category of poor people who went unnoticed. In a Buddhist story it is said that the
daughter of a merchant on seeing a chandala (i.e. of the outcaste category) washed
her eyes for fear of pollution. With the emergence of cities a class of washermen,
scavengers, beggars and sweepers also came into existence. Services of sweepers and
people involved in cremating corpses were essential for the cities. They were the most
impoverished and deprived sections of society. These outcastes had to stay on fringes
of the city with no hopes of economic or social improvement in their condition. The
group of beggars also emerged as a result of the breakdown of kin-based society and
increasing demands on the produce by the rulers. There is a story which says that king’s
men looted the village in day time and the robbers at night.
265
History of India
from the Earliest 10.7 THE CITY IN ARCHAEOLOGY
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
Literary sources of c. 6th century BCE have undergone several alterations and additions
in subsequent periods. Written manuscripts of these texts which are available to us are
less than a thousand years old. Thus, it is difficult to sift out the material of the later
phases of history from the early phases. As such, the information derived from excavation
reports gives us a more dependable idea regarding cities of the period. This is because
the archaeological data can be dated with greater certainty. Also, literary sources
exaggerate the opulence and splendour of the cities. Excavated material does not have
such a bias. Let us see what kind of information is provided by excavation reports.
By about 700 BCE in places like Ayodhya, Kaushambi and Shravasti small settlements
came into existence. People living in these settlements used various kinds of potteries.
Among them a particular kind of pottery called Painted Grey Ware (PGW) is important
because many people living in upper Gangetic valley were also using this pottery. People
in other settlements of middle Gangetic valley were using a pottery called Black- and-
Red Ware. By about 6th century BCE people of this entire zone started using, along
with other varieties of pottery, a particular kind of pottery having glossy surface. This
pottery is called Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). This deluxe pottery is one of
the indicators of broad cultural uniformity in the Gangetic valley towns of c. 6th century
BCE. Probably, this pottery was made in a few places and exported over large areas
by merchants. Another item which starts appearing at the archaeological sites at this
phase is coins. Coins came into use in this period for the first time in ancient India. They
were made of silver and copper and were commonly those that are now called the
punch-marked coins. They bear various kinds of symbols on one side and were,
probably, initially issued by the merchants. The introduction of coinage promoted
organized commerce. In addition, copper cast irons which, like the punch-marked
coins, did not have any writings on them appear in this phase at some sites.

Punch-Marked Coins. Koshala Karshapana, c. 525-465 BCE. Credit:Classical Numismatic

Group. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karshapana#/media/
File:Kosala_Karshapana.jpg).

Barter system requires two persons willing to exchange their produce. Suppose, a
person has a cow which he wants to exchange for hay. There is a person who has hay
but he wants to exchange it for rice. In that case barter cannot take place. Coins, on the
other hand, carry standard values for buying and selling. Besides, it is easier to carry
coins than to carry cows for buying something. Introduction of money also led to the
emergence of the class of money-lenders.
266
Larger settlements in this period show use of baked bricks for housing. Soaked pits Janapadas and
made from superimposed jars or rings of terracotta used for the disposal of dirty water Mahajanapadas: Rise
of Urban Centres,
have also been reported. They indicate some kind of planning. In the preceding phase Society and Economy
people lived in mud brick hutments. There is also evidence of a large number of
settlements of larger size. This would indicate a higher density of population. In some
sites drains and refuse bins have been reported. However, excavated materials indicate
that many details regarding cities given in literature are either highly exaggerated or that
they belong to a later period. None of the cities of c. 6th century BCE show evidence of
a planned layout, whereas literary works always talk about planned layouts of the
cities. Large scale excavations at the ancient site of Taxila show that this town might
have come into existence by 8th-7th century BCE. However, planned township came
into existence only around c. 2nd century BCE. Similarly, literature repeatedly mentions
that cities like Ayodhya and Vaishali covered anywhere between 30 to 50 square km.
However, excavations indicate that none of these cities would exceed four to five square
km. Likewise, descriptions of large palaces and wide streets seem to be exaggerated.
So far, except at Kaushambi, no palatial structure has been reported of c. 6th century
BCE. Houses were more like humble hutments. No monumental buildings are in evidence.
Many early cities like Ujjaini, Kaushambi, Rajagriha etc. show evidences of fortification.
Fortifications are indicative of increased apprehension of warfare. Also, fortifications
are a way in which the urban community is demarcated from rest of the population
which could be easily controlled by the king. This also supports the literary evidence
that Pura meaning fortified settlement was the earliest form of urban settlement in ancient
India.

Soaked Pits found at Ancient Cities. Source: EHI-02, Block-4, Unit-15.

It is now believed that prosperous cities with large palaces came into existence during
Mauryan period. The literature available to us seems to have used Mauryan cities as
standard description for the cities of the preceding period too.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) Mark the correct answer. 267
History of India For the historian of urbanizm the significance of the story of Harishchandra lies in:
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E. a) disobedience of the son Rohit.
b) buying of Sunahsepa.
c) fact of king Harishchandra living not in a city but in a village.
d) different roles played by the gods Varuna and Indra.
2) Read the following statements and mark right () or wrong (×).
a) An urban centre can be distinguished from a rural centre on the basis of the
number of people and size of the settlement. ( )
b) Increasing use of iron tools helped in increasing agricultural production.
( )
c) The wheat producing upper Gangetic valley produced more food grains than
the rice producing middle Gangetic valley. ( )
d) The making of iron weapons increased the power of ruling classes. ( )
3) Write five lines on the kind of cities referred to in the contemporary literature.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
4) What do the archaeological sources tell about the cities of c. 6th century BCE?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
5) Read the following statements and mark right () or wrong (×).
i) There was a tradition of cities being named after name of the kings as well as
trees. ( )
ii) We do not get an accurate picture of the cities from ancient texts. ( )
iii) With the coming of the cities the groups of beggars, sweepers and other
impoverished sections completely disappeared. ( )
iv) Introduction of coins made the barter system redundant and facilitated
organized commerce. ( )

10.8 UNITS OF SETTLEMENT-I: THE JANAPADA

The contemporary texts indicate that changes in society and economy were taking
268 place in a well-defined geographical space. The literature relating to the period that we
are discussing refers to various kinds of units of settlement. They are referred to as Janapadas and
Janapada, Mahajanapada, Nagara, Nigama, Grama etc. Let us first see what the Mahajanapadas: Rise
of Urban Centres,
Janapadas were. Society and Economy
Janapada, literally meaning place where people place their feet, is often referred to in
the texts of this period. You remember the meaning of Jana? In the Vedic society it
referred to members of a clan. In early Vedic society the members of Jana were pastoral
groups roaming in search of pastures. However, in later Vedic phase the members of
Jana took up agriculture and began to settle down. These agricultural settlements were
called Janapadas. In initial phases they were named after the dominant Kshatriya
lineages settled in that area. For example, the areas around Delhi and upper U.P. were
known as Kuru and Panchala janapadas after the names of dominant Kshatriya
lineages. Once they settled down at one place there was an expansion of agriculture,
especially with the use of iron axes and plough shares that could clear forests and dig
deeper than the stone or copper tools available to agriculturists of the preceding centuries.
The middle Gangetic valley i.e. area east of Prayaga (modern Prayagraj) was suited to
wet rice cultivation. Rice yields are higher than wheat yields per acre. All this would
lead to gradual agricultural expansion as also growth of population. Chiefs of the lineages,
at war with each other, had more to loot and defend. This was because besides cattle,
now agricultural and other products were also available in larger quantities. Through
the process of agricultural expansion, war and conquest, the Vedic tribes had come in
closer contact with each other and with the non-Aryan population. This, in fact, had led
to the formation of larger territorial entities. For example, Panchalas represented the
coming together of five smaller tribes.
Some of the Janapadas were to develop into Mahajanapadas by c. 6th century BCE.
This happened as a result of a series of changes in internal socio-political structure of
the Janapadas. One such important change was the expansion of agricultural communities
which is indicated by the fact that the contemporary texts list agricultural land as a very
important economic asset. These texts discuss varieties of rice in as much detail as did
the Vedic texts about the varieties of cows. Let us see what the changes were.

10.9 EMERGENCE OF NEW GROUPS

One very important change was the emergence of new categories and groups of people
in the society. Let us look at this aspect in some details.

10.9.1 Gahapati
A Gahapati was the master of an individual household which owned land. ABrahmana
Gahapati is said to have owned so much of land that he needed 500 ploughs to get it
cultivated. In Later Vedic society it was the vish which performed agricultural activities.
Land was jointly owned by the lineage. With the emergence of agricultural society land
became an important form of wealth. As such, the ruling clans of Kshatriyas and
Brahmanas brought it under their control. Out of these groups emerged the Gahapati
who signified disintegration of joint ownership and emergence of big individual
landowners. They got their land cultivated by slaves (dasa), hired labourers (karmakara)
and shudras. People captured during war were made slaves. Impoverished members
of the tribe also joined the ranks of labourers. Use of dependent labour was indicative
of the emergence of a deprived class whose labour was being used to produce surplus
food. The product of the land would not go to the shudra or the dasa but to the master
i.e. the Gahapati.

269
History of India 10.9.2 Merchants
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E. It was, possibly, from the ranks of the Gahapatis that an important class of traders
emerged. Through the sale of their produce they built up a certain amount of capital
which was used for trading. The word frequently used for trader in the Buddhist sources
is Setthi, meaning ‘a person having the best’. It shows that the people who dealt with
money matters had acquired considerable prestige and power. The Brahmanical sources
generally looked down on trading and the vaishyas who were generally associated
with trading. However, by c. 6th century BCE trade and merchandise became an
independent sphere of economic activity. The traders lived in cities and their emergence
is related to the emergence of towns and cities in this period. These merchants traded
over very large areas. By trading among different principalities they created a possibility
for kings to try and control larger areas visited by them. Thus, by c. 6th century BCE a
class of free peasants and merchants had emerged. They had freed themselves from
clan obligations of sharing surplus food or wealth with other members of the lineage as
was the case earlier. Private property in farm animals, in land and its produce had
emerged as dominant economic reality of the time.

10.9.3 Ruler and the Ruled

Combined with developments in the socio-economic field were changes in the nature
of polity in the Mahajanapadas. In the preceding period the word Raja referred to the
chief of a lineage. For example, Rama, whose legends are related to this period, is often
referred to as Raghukularaja meaning one who rules over the Raghu clan. Similarly,
Yudhishthira is called Kuru raja. They ruled over their lineage and the notion of a ruler
ruling over a territory had not emerged. The taxes collected from the kinsmen were
largely voluntary tributes. The king was considered a generous father figure ensuring
the prosperity of the lineage. He did not have an independent taxation system or army.
References to the king in c. 6th century BCE, on the other hand, indicate his rule over a
territory with a regular taxation system and army. There are references to Krsaka i.e.
peasants who paid taxes to the king. Now, the peasant and the army were not linked in
any kinship ties with the Raja. The distinction was now between Raja and Praja. The
Praja included people from the non-lineage groups also. A standing army implied control
over local peasantry through force and an attitude of permanent confrontation with the
people and kings of neighbouring territories. Cattle raids of the preceding period were
replaced by organized campaigns in which territory was annexed and agriculturists and
traders were forced to pay taxes. Officials entrusted with the work of tax collection are
repeatedly mentioned. An official called Bhagadugha collected bhaga i.e. a share of
the agricultural produce. Survey of the agricultural land was done by an official called
Rajjugahaka. The Jatakas mention royal officials measuring out grain to send it to
king’s granary. The Mahajanapadas did not bear the name of dominant Kshatriya
lineage in most of the cases. For example, Koshala, Magadha, Avanti and Vatsa were
not named after any Kshatriya lineage.
Thus, we see that a new kind of political system had emerged by 6th century BCE.
Chief of the tribe who used to raid enemy territory and distribute the loot among his
followers was transformed into a king having an army unfettered by tribal loyalties.
Army was paid out of revenues collected from the cultivators. The Vedic chief’s desire
for glory and sacrifices led to his breaking away from the lineage. The tribe would not
be interested in fighting wars in distant areas and would oppose any regular tax for
maintenance of the army. This the king needed for his glory and power. His authority
was not based on distribution of wealth among fellow tribesmen. It was based on
breaking coherent lineage groups and recognizing individuals and groups who would
270
produce wealth. Some of this wealth was taken away from its producers in the form of Janapadas and
taxes. In a lineage society where everyone was regarded as everyone else’s relative Mahajanapadas: Rise
of Urban Centres,
such arbitrary taking away of wealth by the chief would not be allowed. The new king Society and Economy
levied taxes and protected peasants and merchants from internal and external aggression.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) How have the historians combined archaeological and literary evidences regarding
the material culture in 6th century BCE?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
2) Write a note on new groups that emerged in this period.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
3) Read the following statements and mark right () or wrong (×).
i) People in c. 6th century BCE did not know the use of iron. ( )
ii) According to the contemporary texts no important changes were taking place
in the society of that period. ( )
iii) The Janapadas were essentially agricultural settlements and were named
after the main Kshatriya lineages in that area. ( )
iv) Some of the Mahajanapadas soon developed into Janapadas. ( )

10.10 UNITS OF SETTLEMENT-II: THE

MAHAJANAPADA
A new type of society marked by the presence of Gahapati, the merchant and the
relationship between the ruler and the ruled was reflected in new kinds of politico-
geographical units called the Mahajanapadas. The word Mahajanapada means large
Janapadas like those of Magadha, Koshala etc., ruled by powerful kings or oligarchies.
In fact, many of the Mahajanapadas of c. 6th century BCE came up by incorporating
Janapadas which were previously autonomous. For example, Koshala mahajanapada
included the janapada of the Shakyas and of Kashi. Magadha came to include the
Janapadas of Anga, Vajji. etc. even before it grew into an empire. The new society
which is reflected in contemporary Buddhist texts can be seen in the story of Jivaka.
Historians read these stories to understand the hopes, ambitions and struggles of men
of those days and their contemporary social milieu.
271
History of India 10.10.1 The Story of Jivaka
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E. The story of Jivaka, the famous physician, comes to us from the time of the Buddha. In
the city of Rajagriha (Rajgur, near present-day Patna) there was a prince named Abhaya.
He saw an abandoned baby on a street. He brought him home and ordered the maid
servants to take care of the child. The boy was called Jivaka. When Jivaka grew up, he
wondered what he should do for a living. He decided that he would become a physician
(vaidya). In those days Taxila was a famous centre of learning. Jivaka decided to go
there to learn medicine. He stayed there for seven years. He studied hard under the
guidance of a famous medicine man. At the end of his apprenticeship his teacher took a
test. He asked Jivaka to look around the surroundings at Taxila and bring some plants
which could not be used for medicinal purposes. Jivaka went out and looked about as
carefully as he could for some plants which were useless for medicine. When he returned
the teacher asked him, “How many plants did you find?” Jivaka said, “Sir, I could not
find a single plant which did not have any medicinal value”. The teacher was very
pleased and said that his education was complete.
Jivaka set out for Rajagriha. He ran out of money after he had covered half the distance
only. He looked for some work and found out that the wife of a wealthy merchant had
been ill for seven years. He cured her. The merchant gave him lots of money. Thus,
Jivaka came back to Rajagriha. In Rajagriha he became the private physician of king
Bimbisara. Bimbisara was so impressed with his skill that he used to send him to look
after the Buddha. Thus, Jivaka came in contact with the Buddha. He gave lots of gifts to
Buddhist monks.
Just compare the setting of the story with happenings in Early Vedic society. No cattle
raids, no sacrifices and no priests. The story points to the existence of flourishing urban
settlements and important characters of the story are an abandoned child who chooses
to become a physician, a merchant (Sresthin), a king (Bimbisara) and the Buddha, the
exponent of a new doctrine. And look at the geographical range – the Early Vedic
Aryans seem to have been ranging the plains of Punjab in search of pastures. Jivaka
travels all the way from the present-day Bihar to the north-western border of Punjab.
This would mean that he covered a distance of more than 2000 km. to be able to learn
the practice of medicine. These new kinds of settlements, new kinds of occupations
and new networks of roads are symptomatic of a changed historical situation.
Jivaka moved in a world of new kinds of settlement i.e. the city. The city flourished in a
universe of prosperous villages. Village was the basic unit of the socio-political
organization of the Mahajanapadas. And, so, we take a round of the village of c. 6th
century BCE.

10.10.2 Villages
In the Mahajanapadas the basic unit of settlement was the Gama ( which in
Prakrit and Pali languages is the equivalent of Sanskrit Grama, meaning a village).
Remember the Grama of Early Vedic times. It used to be a mobile unit of people and
when two gramas came together it led to Sangrama (literally, coming together of
villages) i.e. battle. This was because they were mobile units and when two hostile
gramas met it led to attempts at snatching away each other’s cattle. Villages of c. 6th
century BCE were settlements where people generally pursued agricultural activities
(this signifies a shift from pastoral to agricultural activities). There were various kinds of
small and large villages inhabited by a single household or many families. Households
seem to have been part of an extended kin group, meaning that everyone was related to
everyone else in the villages. However, with the emergence of families who had large
272
landholdings and who employed the labour of dasas, karmakaras and porisas, villages Janapadas and
inhabited by non-kinship groups also came into existence. There are references to land Mahajanapadas: Rise
of Urban Centres,
ownership and tenancy rights of varied kinds. Kassaka and Ksetrika denoted common Society and Economy
peasants who were generally shudras. Leaders of the villages were called Gamini.
The Gamini are also referred to as soldiers, elephant and horse-trainers and stage
managers. The trend towards increasing craft specialization is evident from references
to villages of cattle-keepers, ironsmiths, wood workers etc. These references to villages
specializing in activities other than agricultural operations are indicative of increasing
trade and prospering economy. This is because the villagers who were not producing
their own food must have got their food from other villages. This suggests that regular
exchange of goods had become an integral part of the economic life of the people.
Also, their specialization in one craft is indicative of the fact that there was a large scale
demand for the goods produced by them.

10.10.3 Towns and Cities

Towns and cities dominated by kings and merchants but at the same time containing a
heterogeneous population were the new kinds of settlements which came into existence
during this period. As we have seen, they are variously referred to as Pura, Nigama
and Nagara. Differences among these settlements are not clear. They probably referred
to size as well as varying features of the settlements. These towns and cities were
substantially larger than villages. Contemporary literature refers to big cities like Ayodhya
and Varanasi covering anywhere between 30 to 50 square km. of area. These accounts
are exaggerated as the excavations conducted in these cities show modest settlements
in this period. In no period did the size exceed five square km. in circuit. However, this
historic phase is associated with settlements using a deluxe pottery called Northern
Black Polished Ware (NBPW). The settlements witnessed an increase in trade and
population. Massive fortifications have been found around the cities of Kaushambi,
Ujjaini, Rajghat (Varanasi) and Rajgir. What is clear from the references in literature is
the fact that the cities had emerged as the focus of power and control over the
Mahajanapada. Kings ruled from their cities. The newly emerging merchant class
controlled trade from these centres, especially after the introduction of coinage.

10.11 THE SIXTEEN MAHAJANAPADAS

In the previous section we discussed the literary and archaeological evidences for the
presence of the basic units of settlement in c. 6th century BCE. Now we will discuss
references to 16 Mahajanapadas in ancient literature. Buddhist sources refer to the
presence of 16 Mahajanapadas in the period when the Buddha lived. The
Mahajanapadas and their major settlements are found mentioned repeatedly when
references to the Buddha are made in the Buddhist texts. Exact dates of his life are still
disputed by historians. It is, however, generally believed that his life spanned parts of
both 6th and 5th centuries BCE and the Buddhist texts referring to his life are, therefore,
taken to reflect the society of this period. The list of Mahajanapadas varies from text
to text. However, we can get a fair idea of the political and economic conditions of
various regions of India by studying these lists. These Mahajanapadas represented a
conglomerate of thousands of villages and a few cities. They extended from north-
western Pakistan to east Bihar and from submontane regions of the Himalayas to the
river Godavari in south.

273
History of India
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.

Mahajanapadas. Source: EHI-02, Block-4, Unit-14.

The Buddhist text Anguttara Nikaya, which is a part of the Sutta-Pitaka, gives the
following list of 16 Mahajanapadas in the time of the Buddha:
1) Kashi 9) Kuru
2) Kosala 10) Panchala
3) Anga 11) Maccha (Matsya)
4) Magadha I 2) Surasena
5) Vajji 13) Assaka
6) Malla 14) Avanti
7) Chedi 15) Gandhara
8) Vatsa 16) Kamboja
Another Buddhist work, the Mahavastu gives a similar list of 16 Mahajanapadas.
However, it omits Gandhara and Kamboja which were located in north-west. These
are substituted by Sibi and Dasarna in Punjab and central India respectively. Similarly,
the Jaina work Bhagavati Sutra gives a widely different list of 16 Mahajanapadas
274 which includes Vanga and Malaya. The number 16 seems to have been conventional
and the lists varied because the regions important to Buddhists and Jainas came to be Janapadas and
included in their lists. The lists indicate a gradual shift of focus to middle Gangetic valley Mahajanapadas: Rise
of Urban Centres,
because most of the Mahajanapadas were located in this area. Let us survey the Society and Economy
history and geography of these Mahajanapadas.
1) Kashi
Of the 16 Mahajanapadas, Kashi seems to have been the most powerful in the
beginning. Located in and around the present-day Varanasi, its capital Varanasi is referred
to as the foremost city of India situated on the confluence of the Ganges and Yamuna
and in the midst of fertile agricultural tracts. Kashi was famous for its cotton textiles and
market for horses. Excavations at the site of Rajghat which has been identified with
ancient Benaras have not yielded any impressive evidence for urbanization in c. 6th
century BCE. It seemed to have emerged as a major town around 450 BCE. However,
we know that the orange brown robes of Buddhist monks were called Kashaya in
Sanskrit which was made in Kashi. This indicates that Kashi had emerged as a cloth
manufacturing centre and market by the time of the Buddha.
Several kings of Kashi are mentioned as having conquered Kosala and many other
kingdoms. Interestingly enough, the earliest available version of the Rama story ‘the
Dasaratha Jataka’ mentions Dasharatha, Rama etc. as kings of Kashi and not of Ayodhya.
The father of Parsva, the 23rd teacher (Tirthankara) of the Jainas, is said to have been
the king of Benaras. The Buddha also delivered his first sermon at Sarnath near Benaras.
All important religious traditions of ancient India associated themselves with Kashi.
However, by the time of the Buddha, Kashi Mahajanapada had been annexed by
Koshala and was a cause of war between Magadha and Koshala.
2) Kosala
The Mahajanapada of Kosala was bounded on the west by river Gomati. To its east
flowed the river Sadanira which separated it from Videha janapada. Towards the
north it skirted the Nepal hills while the river Syandika defined its southern boundary.
Literary references indicate how Kosala emerged out of an assimilation of many smaller
principalities and lineages. For example, we know that the Shakyas of Kapilavastu
were under the control of Kosala. The Buddha calls himself a Kosalan in the Majjhima
Nikaya. But, at the same time, the Kosalan king Vidudhaba is said to have destroyed
the Sakyas. It would only indicate that the Sakya lineage was under the nominal control
of the Kosalas. The newly emergent monarchy established a centralized control and,
thus, destroyed the autonomy of the Sakyas. Names of kings like Hiranyanabha,
Mahakasala, Prasenajita and Suddhodana are mentioned as the rulers of Kosala in c.
6th century BCE. These rulers are said to have ruled from Ayodhya, Saket, Kapilavastu
or Shravasti. Probably, in the early years of 6th century BCE the area of Kosala was
under the control of many smaller chiefships ruling from small towns. Towards the end
of the century kings like Prasenajita and Vidudhabha managed to bring all other chiefships
under their control. They ruled from Shravasti. Thus, Kosala became a prosperous
kingdom having three big cities under its control:
 Ayodhya,
 Saketa, and
 Shravasti.
Kosala also annexed the kingdom of Kashi in its territory. The kings of Kosala favoured
both Brahmanism and Buddhism. King Prasenajita was a contemporary and a friend of
275
History of India the Buddha. In the succeeding phases Kosala proved to be one of the most formidable
from the Earliest adversaries of the emergent Magadhan empire.
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
3) Anga
Anga comprised the districts of Bhagalpur and Monghyr in Bihar. It may have extended
northwards to river Kosi and included some parts of the district of Purnea. It was
located to the east of Magadha and west of Rajamahal hills. Champa was its capital. It
was located on the confluence of rivers Champa and Ganga. Champa has been
considered one of the six great cities in c. 6th century BCE. It was noted for its trade
and commerce, and traders sailed further east through the Ganga from here. In the
middle of 6th century BCE Anga was annexed by Magadha. Excavations at Champa
near Bhagalpur have yielded NBPW in large numbers.
4) Magadha
Magadha consisted of the areas around Patna and Gaya in south Bihar. It was protected
by rivers Son and Ganga on its north and west respectively. Towards the south it reached
up to the Chhota Nagpur plateau. In the east Champa separated it from Anga. Its
capital was called Girivraja or Rajagriha. Rajagriha was an impregnable city protected
by five hills. The walls of Rajagriha represent earliest evidence of fortification in historical
India. The capital was shifted to Pataliputra somewhere in 5th century BCE. They bear
testimony to the power of early Magadhan monarchs. In the Brahmanical texts the
Magadhans were considered people of mixed origin and inferior type. This was probably
because the people in this area did not follow the varna system and the Brahmanical
rituals in early historical times. Buddhist tradition, on the other hand, attaches great
importance to this area. The Buddha achieved enlightenment in this area. Rajagriha was
one of his favourite haunts. The Magadhan monarchs Bimbisara and Ajatshatru were
his friends and disciples. With its fertile agricultural tracts suited to wet rice cultivation,
control over the iron ores of south Bihar and relatively open social system, Magadha
became the most important kingdom in subsequent history. Its control over trade routes
of the Ganges, Gandak and Son rivers could provide it substantial revenues. The
Magadhan king Bimbisara is said to have called an assembly of the Gaminis of 80,
000 villages. The number might be fictitious but it indicates that his administration was
based on the village as a unit of organization. The Gamini were not his kinsmen but
representatives and chiefs of villages. Thus, his power was based not on the goodwill of
his kinsmen. Ajatshatru usurped the throne and starved Bimbisara to death. Magadha
as a kingdom kept prospering, with the extension of its control over the Vajjis of Vaisali.
This was to culminate in Mauryan empire in 4th century BCE.
5) Vajji
Centred on the Vaishali district of Bihar, the Vajjis (literal meaning is ‘pastoral nomads’)
were located north of the Ganga. This Mahajanapada extended up to the hills of
Nepal in the north. It was separated from Kosala by river Gandak. Unlike the
Mahajanapadas previously discussed, the Vajjis had a different kind of political
organization. Contemporary texts refer to them as a Gana-sangha, a term which has
been variously translated as a republic or an oligarchy. The Ganasanghas of this period
represented a rule not by an all-powerful king but a joint rule by a group of Kshatriya
chiefs. This ruling class, members of which were called rajas, were now differentiated
from different non­Kshatriya groups.
The Vajjis represented a confederacy of eight clans of whom Videhas, Licchavis and
Jnatrikas were the most well known. Videhas had their capital at Mithila. It has been
276 identified with Janakpur in Nepal. Although the Ramayana associates it with king Janaka
the Buddhist sources consider it a chiefship. Licchavis, the most well known of the Janapadas and
ancient Indian Ganasanghas, had their headquarters at Vaishali which is said to have Mahajanapadas: Rise
of Urban Centres,
been a large and prosperous city. Society and Economy

Stupa with Relics of Ananda (Buddha’s attendant monk and cousin), with Ashokan Pillar, Built by
the Licchavis at Vaishali, present Bihar. Credit: mself. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Licchavi_(clan)#/media/File:Anandastupa.jpg).

The Jnatrikas were another clan settled somewhere in the suburbs of Vaishali. This was
the clan which produced Mahavira, the Jain teacher. Other members of the confederacy
were the clans of:
 Ugras,
 Bhogas,
 Kauravas, and
 Aiksavakas.
Vaishali seems to have been the metropolis of entire confederacy. They conducted their
affairs in an assembly. Accordingly to a Jataka story the Vajjis were ruled by many clan
chiefs. This Mahajanapada was a major power in c. 6th century BCE. However, they
do not seem to have possessed a standing army or a system of revenue collection from
agriculture. The Magadhan king Ajatshatru is supposed to have destroyed this
confederacy. He sowed discord among the chiefs with the help of his minister Vassakara
and then attacked the Licchavis.
6) Malla
The Mallas were another Kshatriya lineage referred to as a Ganasamgha in ancient
texts. They seem to have had several branches of which two had their headquarters in
the towns of Pava and Kusinagar. Kusinagar has been identified with the site of Kasia
in the Gorakhpur district of U.P. There is no unanimity among scholars about the location
of Pava. The Malla territories are said to have been located to the east and south-east
of the territory of Sakyas. They are supposed to have been ruled by 500 chiefs. The
Buddha died in the vicinity of Kusinagar and his last rites were performed by the Mallas.

277
History of India 7) Chedi
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E. The Chedi territory roughly corresponds to eastern parts of the modern Bundelkhand.
It might have stretched up to Malwa plateau. Sisupala, the famous enemy of Krishna,
was a Chedi ruler. According to the Mahabharata the Chedis seem to have been in
close touch with the chiefs of Matsya beyond Chambal, the Kasis of Benaras and the
Karusas in the valley of river Son. Its capital was Sotthivati (Suktimati) probably located
in the Banda district of M.P. Other important towns in this territory were Sahajati and
Tripuri.
8) Vatsa
Vatsa, with its capital at Kaushambi, was one of the most powerful principalities of c.
6th century BCE. Kaushambi has been identified with modem Kosam on the Yamuna
near Prayaga (modern Prayagraj). This means that the Vatsas were settled around
modern Prayagraj. The Puranas say that the descendant of the Pandavas – Nichaksu
– shifted his capital to Kaushambi after Hastinapura had been washed away by floods.
The dramatist Bhasa has immortalized one of the kings of the Vatsas named Udayana in
his plays. These plays are based on the story of romantic affair between Udayana and
Vasavadatta, the princess of Avanti. They also indicate conflicts among the powerful
kingdoms of Magadha, Vatsa and Avanti. Vatsa, however, seems to have lost the ensuing
struggle as the subsequent texts do not give them much importance.
9) Kuru
The kings of Kuru were supposed to belong to the family of Yudhishthira. They were
centred around the Delhi-Meerut region. The Arthashastra and other texts refer to
them as Rajasabdopajivinah, i.e., carrying the titles of kings. This indicates some kind
of a diffused structure of chiefship. That they did not have absolute monarchy is also
proved by references to many political centres in this area. Hastinapura, Indraprastha,
Isukara are each mentioned as the capital of the Kurus having their own chiefs.
We all know about the Kurus through the Mahabharata. It relates the story of the war
of succession between Pandavas and Kauravas. The epic has enthralled generations of
Indians with its superb interweaving of themes relating to love, war, conspiracy, hatred
and larger philosophical issues relating to human existence. Historians treat it more as
Epic literature than an actual description of events. Large-scale wars started only with
the emergence of Mahajanapadas, the earlier phase being characterized by cattle
raids. The Mahabharata also mentions Greeks who came into contact with India only
around 5th century BCE. Thus, a war involving them could take place only in 1st
millennium BCE. Probably, the Mahabharata story relates to an internecine war
between two Kshatriya lineages which became a part of singing tradition of the bards.
With the emergence of early historic period the social, economic and political interaction
increased among the Mahajanapadas. Singing bards and brahmanas brought in every
region of India in the story of Mahabharata. This pleased the monarchs who could
boast of an ancestor who fought in the Mahabharata war. Thus, the Epic became a
mechanism for the spread of the Brahmanical religious system. This is clear from the
fact that in the prologue of the Epic it is said that an earlier version having 24,000
stanzas was still current. The present Epic has one lakh stanzas.
10) Panchala
The Panchala mahajanapada was located in Rohikhand and parts of central Doab
(roughly Bareilly, Pilibhit, Badaun, Bulandshahr, Aligarh etc.) Ancient texts refer to the
presence of two lineages of the Panchalas i.e. northern Panchalas and southern Panchalas,
278 with river Bhagirathi forming the dividing line. Northern Panchalas had their capital at
Ahichchhatra located in Bareilly district of U.P. Southern Panchalas had Kampilya as Janapadas and
their capital. They seem to have been closely linked to the Kurus. Although one or two Mahajanapadas: Rise
of Urban Centres,
Panchala chiefs are mentioned we have very little information about them. They too are Society and Economy
called a sangha. By c. 6th century BCE they seem to have become an obscure power.
11) Matsya
The Matsyas were located in the Jaipur-Bharatpur-Alwar region of Rajasthan. Their
capital was at Viratnagar famed as the hiding place of the Pandavas. This region was
more suitable for cattle rearing. That is why in the Mahabharata story when the Kauravas
attacked Virat they took away cattle as booty. Obviously, Matsya could not compete
with the powers that emerged on the basis of settled agriculture. It was absorbed in the
Magadhan empire. Some of the most famous edicts of the king Ashoka have been
found in Bairat (Jaipur district), the ancient Virat.
12) Surasena
The Surasenas had their capital at Mathura on the bank of Yamuna. In Mahabharata
and the Puranas the ruling family of Mathura is referred to as the Yadus. The Yadava
clan was divided into many smaller clans like Andhakas, Vrishanis, Mahabhojas, etc.
They too had a sangha form of government. The epic hero Krishna is associated with
these ruling families.
Mathura was located at the junction of two famous ancient Indian trade routes i.e.
Uttarapatha and Dakshinapatha. This was because Mathura represented transitional
zone between Gangetic plains having settled agriculture and the sparsely populated
pasture lands jutting into Malwa plateau. That is why Mathura emerged as an important
city. However, because of the splintered political structure and varied landscape, the
chiefs of this area could not carve out a powerful kingdom.
13) Assaka
The Assakas were inhabiting the banks of Godavari near modern Paithan in Maharashtra.
Paithan has been identified with ancient Pratisthana, the capital of the Assakas. The
Dakshinapatha (southern route) is supposed to have connected Pratisthana with cities
of the north. There are vague references to the kings of the Assakas but our information
regarding this region is very limited.
14) Avanti
Avanti was one of the most powerful mahajanapadas in c. 6th century BCE. Core
area of this kingdom would roughly correspond to the Ujjain district of M.P., extending
up to river Narmada. It had another important city Mahishmati which is sometimes
mentioned as its capital. Several other small and big towns are mentioned as dotting the
Avanti region. The Puranas attribute the foundation of Avanti to one of the clans of
Yadus called the Haihaya. Located in a very fertile agricultural tract and controlling the
trade coming from south, this clan of the Yadus here developed into a centralized
monarchy. In c. 6th century BCE a powerful king named Pradyota was ruling over
Avanti. He seems to have conquered Vatsa and even Ajatshatru was afraid of him.
15) Gandhara
Gandhara was located between Kabul and Rawalpindi in North-Western Province. It
might have included some parts of Kashmir. Although it was an important area in Early
Vedic period it lost its importance in the Brahmanical and Buddhist traditions of later
phases. The capital Taxila was an important city where people from all the janapadas
went for learning and trading. In c. 6th century BCE Gandhara was ruled by a king
279
History of India named Pukkusati. He was friendly with Bimbisara. In the later half of 6th century BCE
from the Earliest Gandhara was conquered by the Persians. Excavations at the modem towns of Taxila
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
show that this site was occupied since 1000 BCE and some kind of township emerged
subsequently. By c. 6th century BCE a city having similarities with the Gangetic valley
cities had emerged.
16) Kamboja
Kamboja was located somewhere close to Gandhara, probably around the present
day Punch area. Already by c. 7th century BCE the Kambojas were regarded as
uncultured by the Brahmanical texts. The Arthashastra calls them varta-shastropajivin
sangha meaning a confederation of agriculturists, herdsmen, traders and warriors.
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
1) If you were a historian, what inferences would you draw from the story of Jivaka?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
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.....................................................................................................................
2) How does archaeology correct the literary evidence about the cities of c. 6th
century BCE?
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.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
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3) Match the name of the rulers with the name of the Mahajanapadas.
i) Ajatshatru A. Kosala
ii) Pradyota B. Magadha
iii) Udayana C. Avanti
iv) Prasenajita D. Vatsa
4) Match the name of the Mahajanapadas with the name of their capital.
i) Kashi A. Vaisali
ii) Anga B. Varanasi
iii) Vajji C. Kaushambi
iv) Vatsa D. Champa

280
 Janapadas and
10.12 SOCIETY Mahajanapadas: Rise
of Urban Centres,
Before we discuss the major aspects of society and economy in the period between 6th Society and Economy
and 4th century BCE, it is necessary, as an introduction, to recapitulate some of the
points already discussed.
 First, the Later Vedic society seems to reflect a shift to a new geographical region
i.e., the upper and middle Ganga valley, as well as the consolidation of agrarian
economy.
 Second, the appearance of rulers and others who enjoyed shares of wealth
produced by society without producing any wealth themselves, and institutionalised
inequality in society. This institutionalisation of inequality meant the emergence of
State and the state apparatus. It also meant further consolidation of the theory of
the division of society into four varnas, because the varna theory elaborated the
ways in which different sections in society should perform their duties.
We have a variety of texts which provide us with information about society and economy
of 6th to 4th century BCE period. There are many Brahmanical texts meant to instruct
people in the performance of day-to-day rites and rituals. They are called the
Grihyasutras, Shrautsutras and Dharmasutras. Among these manuals some texts
like those of Apastamba belong to this period. The grammar of Panini provides brief
references to many communities in those times. However, our primary sources of
information about this period are various Buddhist texts. Written in the Pali language,
the early Buddhist canons date back to the period between c. 6th and 4th centuries
BCE. Our knowledge about the contemporary society is also enriched by the study of
archaeological sites related to Northern Black Polished Ware.
The society of 6th to 4th century BCE is a society undergoing tremendous change.
Preachers, princes and merchants vie for our attention. This was the time when cities
came into existence for the second time in historical India. This was also the time when
a literate tradition began. Towards the end of this period the society had acquired the
knowledge of writing and the earliest script of ancient India is called the Brahmi script.
The invention of writing expanded the horizon of knowledge. Socially acquired knowledge
had been transmitted through memorization from one generation to another. There was
a possibility of lots of things being forgotten or changed over a period of time. The
invention of writing meant that knowledge could be stored without tampering with it.
This fact heightened the consciousness of change. This was because the social structure
and beliefs kept changing in time. Once things were written down those changes became
observable to the people of subsequent period when ideas and beliefs had changed.
Let us discuss about the various sections of society who are caught in the flux of change.

10.12.1 Kshatriyas
The Kshatriyas appear to be the most visible and powerful section of society in the
contemporary literature. The Buddha and Mahavira belonged to this group. In the
Brahmanical texts the Kshatriyas have been equated with warrior caste. This is the
second highest caste in the varna order. They were supposed to be rulers of the society.
However, the Buddhist literature gives a different picture of them. They did not have the
compactness and strict rules of marriage which characterize a caste. They are mentioned
as ruling lineages of the Ganasamghas like those of Vaishali and Kapilavastu, referred
to as the Sakyas, Licchavis, Mallas etc. They were groups who owned land collectively.
Their land was cultivated by slaves and labourers called Dasas and Karmakaras.
They do not seem to have performed the Brahmanical rituals. As such, we find that the
281
History of India Buddhist literature generally talks of only two groups in the Ganasamghas. They are
from the Earliest the high caste and the low caste. In these areas, instead of the four-fold Brahmanical
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
caste structure there is a two-fold division. The Brahmanas and Shudras are missing.
These Kshatriya clans practiced various kinds of marriage customs which included
cross-cousin marriage. In fact, they were so particular about whom to marry and not to
marry that the Sakyas are supposed to have been destroyed because of this. According
to a story their overlord, the king of Kosala called Prasenajit, wanted to marry a Sakya
girl. The Sakyas could not refuse the offer. So, they sent a Sakya slave girl who was
married to the king. The progeny of this marriage succeeded to the throne. Upon
discovering this ruse played by the Sakyas, he destroyed them in anger. Although both,
the Kosalan monarch and the Sakyas were Kshatriyas they did not inter-marry. This
indicates that the Kshatriyas were not a caste in the sense we understand it. They were
very proud of their lineage and status. The Sakyas, Licchavis, Mallas and other such
clans jealously guarded their rights of entry in their assemblies and other people were
not allowed into these places. These assemblies decided most of the socio-political
issues of their society. They did not pay land taxes and did not have a standing army. In
times of war the entire lineage would take to arms.
In the kingdoms of Kosala, Kashi etc. the rulers are referred to as Kshatriyas. However,
unlike the Brahmanical sources the Buddhist sources place them at the top of the four-
fold caste structure. In one of the discourses the Buddha says, “Even when a Kshatriya
has fallen into the lowest depths, he is still the best and the Brahmanas are low in
comparison to him.” Some of the Kshatriyas are shown as learned teachers and thinkers.
Some others are described as taking to trade. As such, one can say that the Brahmanical
notion of Kshatriya as the warrior caste was applicable to only some princely families
in the upper and middle Gangetic plains. They performed a variety of activities like:
 preaching,
 trading, and
 supervising agriculture.
Especially in eastern India the Kshatriyas did not exist as a caste. Rather, there were
many separate groups who called themselves Kshatriyas.

10.12.2 Brahmanas
The Brahmanas mentioned in the contemporary texts seem more like a caste group.
The Brahmana is one who is born a Brahmana. He may change his profession still he
remains a Brahmana. The Brahmanical texts give them the privilege of mediation between
man and god. They had the exclusive rights of performing sacrifices. This group was
imbued with a consciousness of being the highest caste. They also seem to have followed
certain rules of avoiding impure food and habitations. The Shatapatha Brahmana, a
contemporary Brahmanical text, mentions the following four important marks of a
Brahmana:
 brahmanical parentage,
 suitable behaviour,
 attainment of fame, and
 teaching of men.
For doing this they were supposed to enjoy certain privileges. They were to be respected,
282 given presents and were given immunity from death sentence. Many Brahmanas did
follow the life of renouncement and teaching. Buddhist literature is generally critical of Janapadas and
them. However, it is critical of those who had deviated from pious ethical life. They Mahajanapadas: Rise
of Urban Centres,
criticized excessive ritualism and greediness of the Brahmanas. Many Brahmanas Society and Economy
embraced Buddhism. It had been found that among the early followers of the Buddha
the Brahmanas were present in largest number. However, Pali literature also indicates
that they had taken to various kinds of professions. In the Dasabrahmana Jataka we
are told a story which will give us an idea of Buddhist attitude towards the Brahmanas.
In ancient times there reigned in the city of Indpatta in the kingdom of Kuru king Koravya
of the family of Yuddhitthila. He was advised by his minister Vidhura in worldly and
spiritual things. He (the king) gave him a seat and asked his advice. “Seek Brahmanas,
Koravya, who are virtuous and learned, who, eschewing sensual pleasures, would
enjoy my gifts, gifts, O friend, we will make where, what is given will bear rich fruit.”
“Very difficult to find are the Brahmanas, O king, who are virtuous and learned, who,
eschewing sensual pleasures, would enjoy your gifts.” “Verily, there are 10 classes of
Brahmanas, O king. Here when I distinguish and classify them clearly: Provided with
roots, they gather herbs, bathe and mutter aphorisma. Physicians they resemble, O
king, even if they call themselves Brahmanas, they are now known to you, O great
king, to such we will go.” “Strayed have they” replies king Koravya..... “Little bells they
carry before you and ring, messages also they carry and they know how to drive wagons,
servants they resemble”..... “Carrying a water-pot and a bent stick they run behind the
kings into the villages and the country towns, saying ‘If nothing is given, we will not
leave the village or the forests’. Tax collectors they resemble”… “With long nails and
hair on the body, filthy teeth, filthy hair, covered with dust and dirt, they go out as
beggars. Wood-cutters they resemble”…. “Myrobalans, mango and jack fruits, baskets
made of sugar, scents, honey and ointment, the most diverse wares they sell, O lord.
Tradesmen they resemble” … “Agriculture and trade they carry on, they breed goats
and sheep, their daughters they give away (for money), marriages they arrange for their
daughters and sons. The Ambattha and versa they resemble” … “Some Purohits eat
food brought from outside, many people ask them (regarding omens), animals they
castrate and lucky signs they prepare. Sheep are also slaughtered there (in the houses
of the Purohits), as also buffaloes, swine land goats; slaughterer they resemble”…
“Armed with the sword and the shield axe in hand, they stand in the roads of the varsas
(i.e., in the business streets) lead the caravans (through roads exposed to robbers).
Cowherds they resemble and nishadas”... “Building huts in the forest, they make nooses;
hares, cats, lizards, fish and tortoises they kill. Hunters are they”... “Others lie for love
of money under the bed of kings; the latter bathe over them after a Soma offering is
ready. Bathers they resemble”...
(Names of persons and places as given in the original text have been retained.)
This story gives us an idea of the variety of activities performed by the Brahmanas. It
also gives us a glimpse of the range of professions present in contemporary society.
Even with changes in profession they are considered worthy Brahmanas. They do not
lose their caste. References to learned Brahmanas are also given. So are the references
to Brahmana agriculturists who cultivated their own land or got their land cultivated by
slaves and servants. However, their primary identity as a caste concerned with the
divine, had already been formed.

10.12.3 Vaishyas and the Gahapati

In the Brahmanical varna system Vaishya was the third caste in the ritual order. They
were entrusted with:
 cattle herding, 283
History of India  agriculture, and
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.  trade.
Buddhist literature, on the other hand, uses the term Gahapati more frequently. Gahapati
literally means master of the household. This community of land-holders cultivated its
land with family labour or the labour of slaves and servants. They seem to have emerged
out of the rajanya and groups mentioned in the Vedic literature. Their emergence
represents the emergence of family and individual ownership of wealth. Earlier, wealth
was collectively owned by the entire lineage. Apart from the Gahapatis the Buddhist
literature mentions a whole range of professionals and merchants who would fall under
the category of Vaishyas of the Brahmanical texts. Each of them were closed kinship
groups who would not inter-marry. Their identity was defined by the kind of professions
they followed and by their geographical location. As such, there never was a Vaishya
caste in the Brahmanical sense of the term. Rather, there were many groups having
caste-like formations. Let us look at some of these groups.
As already mentioned, the Gahapatis form a prominent category of landowners.
Interestingly enough, they are rarely found in the Ganasamghas where land was owned
by Kshatriya lineages. They are frequently mentioned in monarchies of the middle
Gangetic valley. They were the primary exploiters of agriculture and the source of revenue
for the kings. They included men of wealth who were also associated with carpentry,
medicine etc. Pali texts use another term Kutumbika in a synonymous sense which
would mean head of the household (Kutumba). They are shown as rich landowners,
dealing in corn or money transactions.
It was from the class of rich landowners that a section of rich traders evolved. The
Gahapatis are mentioned in trading towns too. Individual ownership of wealth and
weak Brahmanical influence helped the Gahapatis use their wealth for trade. In western
Gangetic valley this wealth would have been used for sacrifices. Thus, out of this branching
off emerges the class of Setthi. The word Setthi literally means “a person having the
best”. The Setthi-Gahapati referred to very rich merchants and bankers having close
contacts with the king. Anathapindika who donated the Jetavana in Shravasti to the
Buddha was one such rich Setthi. A Setthi in Benaras engages in trade and drives a
caravan of 500 wagons. Their profession as bankers flourished with the invention of
coined money. Coins called Shatamana, Karshapana etc. are mentioned in the
contemporary literature. Excavations have also shown that coins had come in use by
this period. Long distance trade is frequently mentioned.
Apart from big merchants and landlords many small scale traders are also mentioned.
Among them shopkeepers, retailers, traders, pedlars selling pots and pans, carpenters,
ivory-carvers, garland makers and smiths can be mentioned. These groups formed
professional unions. No one else but a family member could take up that profession.
This local division of different kinds of works and the hereditary character of various
professions gave them the character of guilds. They used to have a head who would
look after their interests. The king was supposed to respect internal rules of the guild
and protect it. The presence of guild indicates increased trading and manufacturing
activity. It meant that groups identified specifically on the basis of their economic activity
came into existence. These groups did have the character of caste. Each of these groups
would marry inside the group only and their rules were considered inviolable.

10.12.4 Shudras
The Shudras were lowest caste in the Brahmanical order. Their only duty was service
284 to the other three castes. The non-Brahmanical texts give us a picture of many oppressed
and poor people who are bracketed as Shudras. Pali literature frequently mentions Janapadas and
dasas (slaves) and karmakaras (wage labourers). The term Dalidda is used for denoting Mahajanapadas: Rise
of Urban Centres,
extremely poor people who did not have anything to eat and no covering for their back. Society and Economy
So, for the first time we have references to the rich living in luxury and the poor destitute.
The process of such impoverishment and the formation of Shudra caste may be attributed
to the appropriation of land and other resources by powerful groups. The Shudras,
without any resources, were reduced to servility and forced to work on land of the rich.
The more general reference to them included artisans and craftsmen also. The
Dharmasutras ascribe the origins of various groups of the Shudras by the notion of
Sankirna jati, which means that if there is an inter-caste marriage, their progeny would
be of a very low caste. This was the counterpart in ritual status to the economic and
social deprivation of peasants, slaves and craftsmen. They had the most to lose from
the erosion of kinship ties characterizing Vedic society.
Dasasudda is frequently mentioned in contemporary literature. They were slaves who
did not have any legal status. Prisoners of war and people who could not pay back their
debts seemed to be chief sources of supply of Shudra labour. They were forced to
work on land of the rich. Dasas, karmakaras and kassakas were the sources of
labour supply in rural areas. With the emergence of cities the inequality between rich
and poor further increased.
All the groups mentioned above, by no means exhaust the list of social categories
present in the time of the Buddha. Wandering dancers and musicians moved from village
to village and impressed their audiences with their skills. Tricksters, tramps, elephant
tamers, stage managers, soldiers, writers, archers, hunters and barbers were some of
the groups which come in our view. It is difficult to place them in the caste order.
Probably, they would be considered out castes. Most of them were outside the pale of
the newly emerged agrarian society. As such, they were generally despised. Sometimes
these groups rose in revolt. Jataka stories are full of descriptions of war. Poor Shudras
are mentioned as living outside the city. The logical outcome of this process was the
emergence of untouchability. The chandalas are described in living in separate villages.
Their presence was believed to be so polluting that the daughter of a Setthi washes her
eyes on seeing a chandala. Similarly, a Brahmana is disturbed about the fact that a
breeze blowing past a chandala would touch him. They were supposed to wear
garments of the dead and eat their food out of broken pots. Other such despised
groups were Pukkusas, Nishadas and Venas. One of the justifications of the king’s
rule was that he protected villages from the plundering, pillaging tribes. These were
primitive communities who were gradually evicted from their homes in the forests. They
either became slaves or robbers. There are references to villages of robbers too.

10.12.5 Wandering Ascetics

One very visible group in this period was of the Paribrajakas and Sramanas. These
were people who had renounced their homes. They travelled from place to place and
held discussions on meaning of life, society and spirituality. Among them were people
like the Buddha and Mahavira.

10.12.6 Condition of Women

Changes in the economy and society of c. 6th century BCE also affected the condition
of women. Since property was inherited from father to son, there was obsession with
the need to prevent adultery. The books of this period repeatedly say that two most
important functions of the king are punishing the violation of property and of the family.
The meek slave-like wife was considered ideal wife. However, this was true of wives 285
History of India of the rich. For them the main function of a wife was producing legitimate heirs. However,
from the Earliest there were a larger number of women who spent their lives labouring for their masters
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
and mistresses. Women were looked down in comparison to men. They were described
as incapable of sitting in a public assembly. They were permanently in the charge of men
– father, brother or son. Even if they joined the samgha they were treated as inferior to
men.

10.13 ECONOMY
We have seen that the process of state formation and social stratification gathered
momentum and assumed significance in the middle of 1st millennium BCE. The two
phenomena which were closely interlinked appeared because the new agriculture could
not only sustain agriculturists but also many others who were not engaged directly in
this vital task of primary production. Literary and archaeological sources, which reflect
economic pattern of the country during c. 6th-5th centuries BCE, contain evidence of
the enhanced production of agricultural wealth (sources of these have been noted earlier
in this Unit). Besides:
1) The growth of monastic orders living exclusively on alms and donations, presupposes
enough agricultural produce.
2) The establishment of 16 Mahajanapadas along with their capital cities and standing
armies would not have been possible if agricultural produce could not sustain
non­agriculturists.
3) The location of capital towns of this period having a variety of crafts and trades in
the river-valleys with broad flood plains and on main trade routes also presupposes
some surplus food production.
Let us discuss some of the important aspects of economic life during this period.

10.13.1 Factors in the Growth of Food-Producing Economy

Some of the main causative factors which seem to have influenced the agricultural growth
were as follows:
1) Crucial role of iron implements in clearing thick vegetation cover of Ganga plains
from about 600 BCE onwards. Cereals like rice, barley, wheat and millets were
produced over wider areas of land.
2) The Buddhists insisted on protection of cattle and Suttanipata clearly states that
they should not be slaughtered because they constituted a source of grain and
strength. Thus, preservation of cattle wealth for agricultural purposes was
encouraged.
3) What further distinguishes the force of production in the age of the Buddha from
those in Later Vedic times is the beginning of paddy transplantation.
4) Rice producing economy was supplemented by domestication and hunting of
animals. This was another major means of their economic life and the source of
livelihood. Archaeologists have recovered large number of bones of cattle, sheep,
goat, horses and pigs from a number of archaeological sites. Thus, animals were
not only used for draught and the plough of fields but a section of the society was
also probably non-vegetarian.

10.13.2 Rural Economy

As a rich agricultural hinterland was cultivated, trade too received an impetus. Transition
286 was being made from a subsistence economy to a market economy. Introduction of
coinage facilitated this development. It led to greater mobility, accelerated trade and Janapadas and
commerce and facilitated intercourse over a vast area which resulted in the growth of a Mahajanapadas: Rise
of Urban Centres,
complex rural and urban economic system. Society and Economy
That the village centres had their own economic pattern is revealed from a number of
literary sources belonging to our period of study. It was based on a system of village
communities of peasant proprietorship. Pali texts speak of three types of villages:
1) typical village inhabited by various castes and communities.
2) suburban villages were in the nature of craft villages. These served as markets for
other villages and linked the town with countryside.
3) border villages consisting of hunters, fowlers etc. who were leading a simple life.
Rural economy developed through the establishment of new settlements by shifting
surplus population from overpopulated areas, and also by rehabilitating decaying villages.
In such cases cattle, seed, money and irrigational facilities were given by the rulers.
Remission of taxes and other concessions were allowed. Retired officials and priests
were granted lands in such areas which could not be sold, mortgaged or inherited.
Grassland was owned in common. They had an independent internal economy. Chief
occupation in rural area remained to be agriculture. Village supplied surplus produce to
the towns and the towns supplied other necessities to the villagers.
Whereas agriculture was the main occupation, cattle rearing and certain small crafts
connected with land, forest and animals catering to local requirements, were other
features of rural economy.

10.13.3 Urban Economy

Urban economy was dominated by traders and craftsmen who produced goods for a
wider market on a larger scale. Necessary concomitants for the growth of urban
economy were:
 surplus food production,
 crafts specialization,
 trade,
 centres of exchange,
 use of metallic money,
 political organization ensuring order, and
 a literate society.
Urban economy revolved found two important features:
 Firstly, industry with a larger number of professionals and craftsmen.
 Secondly, trade – both internal and external.
We will discuss each factor one by one.

287
History of India
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.

An Artist’s Impression of a City Market in c. 6th Century BCE. Source: EHI-02, Block-4,
Unit-16.

10.13.4 Urban Occupations

Urban occupations can be broadly categorized into two groups:
 those connected with productive activities, and
 those which had nothing to do with production as such.
The second group, which was mainly composed of administrative officials, had hardly
any direct impact on urban economy. The merchants, however, who belonged to this
category, were an intermediary group playing a vital role in the system of distribution.
Material remains discovered from various archaeological sites of northern India such as
pottery (particularly NBPW); terracotta animal and human figurines; terracotta objects
of games and amusement; objects of bone and ivory; coins; stone and glass objects;
beads; copper and iron objects; etc. attest to the existence of various important crafts
industries which can be classified under following heads:
1) clay working like pottery, terracotta figurines, modeling and to some extent also
brick-making etc.;
2) carpentry and wood-working;
3) metal-working;
4) stone-working;
5) glass industry;
6) bone and ivory-working;
7) other miscellaneous industries like garland-makers, makers of bows and arrows,
comb, baskets, perfume, liquor oil and musical instruments.

10.13.5 Trade and Trade Routes

Linked with the growth of specialization of crafts is the development of trade. In those
days trade, both inland and foreign, was fairly brisk. Merchants made fortunes by
dealing in articles like:
288
 silks, Janapadas and
Mahajanapadas: Rise
 muslin, of Urban Centres,
Society and Economy
 amour,
 perfumes,
 ivory and ivory works,
 jewellery etc.
They travelled long distances up and down great rivers of the country, and even
undertook coastal voyages to Burma and Sri Lanka from Tamluk in the east and from
Broach in the west. Inland, they followed certain well established routes. One of them
ran from Shravasti to Pratisthana; another linked Shravasti with Rajagriha; a third skirted
along the base of Himalayas from Taxila to Shravasti; and a fourth connected Kashi
with the ports of western coast. Long distance trade was, however, centred in towns
rather than at rural sites because the former were centres of production and, consequently,
of distribution besides being better protected.
Age of barter was almost drawing to a close. Now the ordinary medium of exchange
was a coin called Kahapana (Karsapana). It was of copper and silver and marks
were punched on it by merchants’ or ruler’s guilds, guaranteeing its standard. Banks
were unknown, and surplus money was either converted into ornaments, or hoarded in
jars and buried in the ground, or put in the custody of a friend.

Marks on the Punch-Marked Coins of c. 6th Century BCE. Source: EHI-02, Block-4, Unit-16.

Check Your Progress Exercise 4

1) What kinds of conclusion can you draw from the story of the Dasabrahmana
Jataka?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
2) What were the dissimilarities between the Khsatriyas and the Brahmanas?
.....................................................................................................................
289
History of India .....................................................................................................................
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E. .....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
3) Account for the deteriorating condition of Shudras.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
4) What were the main factors which influenced agricultural growth in c. 600 BCE?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
5) How did the rural economy develop?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
6) What were the important trade routes during the period under review?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

10.14 SUMMARY
We have reviewed the political conditions prevailing in India of c. 6th century BCE. The
Mahajanapadas which emerged as regions where new kinds of socio-political
developments were taking place were located in distinct geographical zones. What
seems to be very significant is the fact that seven of them i.e. Anga, Magadha, Vajji,
Malla, Kashi, Kosala and Vatsa were located in middle Gangetic valley. This is a rice
290
growing area whereas the upper Gangetic valley is a wheat growing zone. It has been Janapadas and
observed that in the traditional agricultural system of India, rice output exceeded wheat Mahajanapadas: Rise
of Urban Centres,
output. The rice producing areas had a greater density of population too. Further, the Society and Economy
Mahajanapadas like Magadha had easy access to crucial resources like metal ores.
These factors might be related to the emergence of middle Gangetic valley as the focus
of politico-economic power. The fact that so many Mahajanapadas were contiguous
to each other in this area meant that an ambitious leader could try and conquer
prosperous neighbouring territories. Also, it would be easier to retain control over a
neighbouring territory. Rulers of the Mahajanapadas of Punjab or Malwa would have
to traverse empty geographical zones before they came across some prosperous territory.
Thus, flat terrain and contiguity of settlements provided a better chance for a ruler in the
middle Gangetic valley to consolidate his power. No wonder, Magadha, one of the
powers in this zone, emerged as the most powerful kingdom in subsequent period.
Emergence of the city was a result of two crucial processes. One was in relationship
with the nature i.e. by the use of iron and mastering the technique of paddy transplantation
the people of Gangetic valley achieved greater mastery over the process of agricultural
production. The other process was changes in the internal structure of c. 6th century
BCE society. This meant that the ruling castes like Kshatriyas and Brahmanas along
with the class of the Gahapatis could extract surplus food and other social products.
The place where the rich and powerful lived was called the city. Of course, the presence
of these people meant the presence of a large number of poor people. That is why
some scholars have said that the emergence of Buddhism was a response to urban
misery. Ancient Indian literature describes cities of various kinds like Pura, Pattana
and Nagara. However, it seems to exaggerate the size and opulence of cities. This was
found out by archaeologists who excavated the ancient sites of these cities.
In our study, a good portion of what is said about the social and economic condition of
India is based on early Pali texts and archaeology of NBPW phase. The process of
state formation and social stratification gathered momentum and assumed significance
in the middle of 1st millennium BCE. Renewed emphasis was given to four different
roles that the Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Shudras were called upon to. The
nature of later Vedic society/PGW culture in which only the Brahmanas and Kshatriyas
played important roles got disturbed due to the rise of a trading class – the Vaisyas –
whose strength emerged from the money earned. All kinds of restrictions were imposed
on Shudras. Food-producing economy was immensely strengthened by the use of iron
implements, transplantation of paddy, and by religious sanction for the preservation of
cattle. The transition was from subsistence economy to market economy. Trade and
the system of coinage also played its role in development of urban economy. Whereas
agriculture, cattle rearing and certain small crafts connected with land, forest and animals
were chief features of rural economy, the urban economy was dominated by a large
number of professionals and craftsmen who produced for wider circulation and more
consumption. This led to greater mobility, increased trade and trade routes and resulted
in the growth of a complicated rural and urban economic system.

10.15 KEY WORDS

Heterodox Sects : Religious movements which emerged during c.
6th century BCE. They provided a challenge to
Vedic religion.
Hinterland : Region lying inside the area of influence of a town.
Kinship : Relationship by birth or marriage. 291
History of India Literate tradition : Refers to the traditions in which writing was
from the Earliest known.
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
Mortgage : Give a money-lender a claim on property as a
security for the money borrowed.
NBPW : The abbreviation stands for Northern Black
Polished Ware which was a very glossy, shining
type of pottery found in a variety of colours.
Paddy transplantation : The practice of removing the seedling where it
has grown and planting it at another place.
Pali : Language spoken in the areas of Magadha and
Kosala. Buddhist literature was written in this
language.
PGW : The abbreviation stands for Painted Grey Ware.
This pottery was grey in colour and painted with
black pigment in several designs.
Prakrit : Language spoken at the time of Ashoka in
Magadha. The first written material in historical
India is found in this language.
Progeny : Son/daughter.
State Society : Society characterized by the presence of rulers
and ruled, rich and poor.
Subsistence : Means of supporting life.
Surplus : Refers to the produce which is siphoned off by
the rulers from the producers.
Taxation : Contribution exacted by the rulers from
individuals or groups on a regular basis.
Tribute : An irregular payment in acknowledgment of
subjection.
Urban Settlement : Place where a significant proportion of population
is engaged in activities other than food production.
Wet Rice Cultivation : The practice of cultivation in which paddy
seedlings are transplanted into fields which are
water-logged. This is distinct from dry rice
cultivation in which the seeds are simply
broadcast in fields. Wet rice cultivation is
immensely more productive.

10.16 ANWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) c
2) a) ×, b) , c) ×, d) 
292
3) In your answer you should refer to following points: a dominant non-agricultural Janapadas and
population functioning in an advantageous relationship with a large hinterland; centre Mahajanapadas: Rise
of Urban Centres,
for governing religious, administrative and economic activity; greater differentiation Society and Economy
in wealth and status and the existence of a centralized administrative agency. See
Section 10.3
4) You should refer to the use of a new kind of pottery (NBP Ware), introduction of
coins and the use of baked bricks for housing. Also, point out how an extremely
exaggerated picture given by the literary sources has been corrected by archaeology.
See Section 10.7.
5) i) , ii) , iii) ×, iv) 
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) In your answer you should show how the literary references to specific geographical
locations help archaeologists excavate towns of those times. See Section 10.5
2) See Sec. 10.9
3) i) ×, ii) ×, iii) , iv) ×
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
1) As a historian you should emphasize on: a) emergence of new groups like merchants
and heterodox sects, b) emergence of new kinds of settlements, and c) long journeys
undertaken by the people.
2) See Sub-sec. 10.10.3
3) i) B, ii) C, iii) D, iv) A
4) i) B, ii) D, iii) A, iv) C
Check Your Progress Exercise 4
1) See Sub-sec. 10.12.2. Your answer could indicate that the Jataka tales reflect
flexibility in the choice of professions of the Brahmanas and varieties of professions
they were engaged in.
2) See Sub-sec. 10.12.1. Your answer could include different roles assigned to the
two groups by literature of the period. Also focus on different functions they
performed.
3) See Sub-sec. 10.12.4. Your answer could indicate how the appropriation of land
by more powerful groups, chronic indebtedness, lack of legal status and origin,
notion of purity (of upper caste-groups) and pollution (of Shudras) contributed to
the deteriorating conditions of the Shudras.
4) See Sub-sec. 10.13.1. You answer could indicate the crucial role of iron in food
production, preservation of cattle wealth for agricultural purposes, the technique
of paddy transplantation as factors contributing to enhanced agricultural growth.
5) See Sub-sec. 10.13.2. Your answer could indicate as to how the rural economy
developed through establishment of new settlements.
6) See Sub-sec. 10.13.5. Your answer should indicate foreign trade routes from
Tamluk and Broach to Burma and Sri Lanka. The four inland trade routes from
Shravasti to Pratisthana; Shravasti to Rajagriha; Taxila to Shravasti and Kashi to
293
Western ports should be referred.
History of India
from the Earliest 10.17 SUGGESTED READINGS
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
Gonda, J. (1969). Ancient Indian Kingship from the Religious Point of View. Leiden.
Lal, Makkhan (1984). Settlement History and the Rise of Civilization in the Ganga-
Yamuna Doab from 1500 BC-AD 300. Delhi.
Law, B. C. (1973). Geography of Early Buddhism. Repr,Varanasi.
Roy, Kumkum (1994). The Emergence of Monarchy in North India. Delhi.
Sharma, R. S. (1983). Material Culture and Social Formation in Ancient India.
Delhi.
Sharma, R. S. (1991). Aspects of Political Ideas and Institutions in Ancient India.
3rd edn., Delhi.
Thapar, Romila (1996). From Lineage to State. 2nd edn., Delhi.

294
UNIT 11 BUDDHISM, JAINISM AND OTHER
RELIGIOUS IDEAS*
Structure
11.0 Objectives
11.1 Introduction
11.2 The Rise of New Religious Ideas
11.3 Gautama Buddha and the Origin of Buddhism
11.4 Teachings of the Buddha
11.5 Development of Buddhism
11.5.1 The Spread of Buddhism
11.5.2 The Institution of the Sangha
11.5.3 Buddhist Councils
11.5.4 Buddhist Schools

11.6 Origins of Jainism

11.6.1 Parsvanatha
11.6.2 Mahavira

11.7 Teachings of Mahavira

11.8 Development of Jainism
11.8.1 Spread of Jainism
11.8.2 Jaina Councils
11.8.3 Sects

11.9 Other Heterodox Ideas

11.9.1 The Ajivikas
11.9.2 Other Ideas
11.10 Impact of the New Religious Movements
11.11 Summary
11.12 Key Words
11.13 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
11.14 Suggested Readings

11.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this Unit, you should be able to know about:
 the background to the rise of new religious ideas during c. 6th century BCE;
 the emergence and growth of Buddhism and Jainism;
 the main tenets of these religions;
 the influence these religions came to wield on the contemporary society;
 the other heterodox ideas prevalent in c. 6th century BCE; and
 the significance of these religious movements.
* This Unit has been adopted from EHI-02, Block 4. 295
History of India
from the Earliest 11.1 INTRODUCTION
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
The 6th century BCE was an important stage in Indian history as far as the development
of new religions is concerned. In this period we notice a growing opposition to the
ritualistic orthodox ideas of the Brahmanas. This ultimately led to the emergence of
many heterodox religious movements. Among these, Buddhism and Jainism developed
into well-organized popular religions. This Unit attempts to analyze the emergence and
significance of these new religious ideas.
Firstly, it deals with the factors that were responsible for the emergence and growth of
these heterodox ideas. Then, it goes on to explain how the Buddha and Mahavira tried
to find a solution in their own ways to end human suffering. Since the causes for the
emergence of these two religions are common in nature there is some similarity in the
principles adopted by these religions. However, they differ completely on some of the
basic principles. We will discuss these points in this Unit.
The other heterodox religious ideas which were current during c. 6th century BCE have
also been dealt with. Finally, we examine the impact of these religious movements on
the contemporary economy and society.

11.2 THE RISE OF NEW RELIGIOUS IDEAS

The new religious ideas during this period emerged out of the prevailing social, economic
and religious conditions. Let us examine some of the basic reasons which contributed
to their emergence:
i) The Vedic religious practices had become cumbersome and the society of the
period had become full of meaningless ceremonies. Sacrifices and rituals increased
and became more elaborate and expensive. With the breakup of communities the
participation in these practices also became restricted and as such, irrelevant to
many sections in the society.
ii) The growing importance of sacrifices and rituals established the domination of
Brahmanas in society. They acted both as priests and teachers and through their
monopoly of performing sacred religious rites they claimed the highest position in
society which was now divided into four varnas.
iii) The contemporary economic and political developments, on the other hand, helped
the emergence of new social groups which acquired considerable economic power.
You have seen that the merchants living in cities or even rich agricultural householders
possessed considerable wealth. Similarly, the Kshatriyas, whether in monarchies
or in gana-samghas, came to wield much more political power than before. These
social groups were opposed to the social positions defined for them by Brahmanas
on the basis of their heredity. As Buddhism and Jainism did not give much importance
to the notion of birth for social status they attracted the Vaishyas to their folds.
Similarly, the Kshatriyas, i.e. the ruling class, were also unhappy with Brahmanical
domination. Briefly put, it was basically the discontent generated by the dominant
position of Brahmanas in society which contributed to the social support behind
the new religious ideas. It is worth remembering that both the Buddha and Mahavira
came from the Kshatriya class but in their search for answers to the pressing
problems of society they went beyond the boundaries set by their birth. Further,
when we try to find out how their ideas were received by their contemporaries we
notice that they had a range of people responding to them: kings, big merchants,
rich householders, Brahmanas and even courtesans. They all represented the
new society which was emerging in c. 6th century BCE and the Buddha, Mahavira
296
 and other thinkers of those times, in their own ways, responded to the problems of Buddhism, Jainism and
a new social order. The Vedic ritualistic practices had ceased to be of much other Religious Ideas
relevance to this new social order.
Having said that, the Buddha and Mahavira were, by no means, the first to criticize the
existing religious beliefs. Many religious preachers before them, like Kapila, Makkali
Gosala, Ajita Kesakambalin and Pakuda Kachchayan had already highlighted the evils
of the Vedic religion. They also developed new ideas on life and god. New philosophies
were also being preached. However, it was the Buddha and Mahavira who provided
an alternative religious order.
This was the background which helped the emergence and establishment of new religious
orders in c. 6th century BCE. Among these, Buddhism and Jainism were most popular
and well-organized. We will now discuss the origin and development of Buddhism and
Jainism separately.

11.3 GAUTAM BUDDHA AND THE ORIGIN OF

BUDDHISM
Buddhism was founded by Gautama Buddha who had been given the name Siddhartha
by his parents. His father was Suddhodana, the chief of Shakya clan and his mother
was Maya, the princess of Koliya clan. He was born in the Lumbini grove (modern
Rumindei) in Nepal tarai. We know this through an inscribed pillar of Ashoka. The
date of birth of the Buddha is a matter of dispute but most of the scholars place it at
about 566 BCE. Though his life was spent in royal splendour it failed to attract his
mind. As traditions describe it, he was deeply affected by the sight of an old man, a sick
person, a dead body and an ascetic. The misery of human life cast a deep spell on him.
In order to find a solution to the misery of mankind he left home at the age of 29. He
spent six years as a wandering ascetic. From a sage named Alara Kalama he learned
the technique of meditation and the teachings of the Upanishads. However, since these
teachings did not lead Gautama to the final liberation he left him with five Brahmana
ascetics.

Representation of the Buddha in the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara (Pakistan), 1st-2nd Century
CE. Tokyo National Museum, Japan. Credit: World Imaging (talk), 2004. Source: Wikimedia
Commons (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gandhara_Buddha_(tnm).jpeg).
297
History of India He practiced rigid austerities and resorted to different kinds of self-torture to find the
from the Earliest truth. Ultimately, abandoning this he went to Uruvela (near modern Bodhgaya on the
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
banks of Niranjana river) and sat under a Pipal tree (Bodhi tree). Here, he attained the
Supreme Knowledge (Enlightenment) on the 49th day of his continuous meditation.
Since then he was called the Buddha (the Enlightened One). From here he proceeded
to the deer park at Sarnath near Varanasi and gave his first sermon which is known as
Dharmachakra Pravartana (setting in motion the wheel of Dharma). Ashvajit, Upali,
Mogallan, Sariputra and Ananda were his first five disciples. He laid the foundations of
the Buddhist Sangha. He preached most of his sermons at Shravasti. Anathapindika,
the rich merchant of Shravasti, became his follower and made liberal donations to the
Buddhist order.

LEFT: Buddha Delivering his 1st Sermon in the Deer Park at Sarnath, Prince of Wales Museum,
Mumbai. Credit: AKS.9955. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/File:Gautama_Buddha_first_sermon_in_Sarnath.jpg).

RIGHT: Buddha Preaching in Tushita Heaven. Piece belonging to the Satavahana Period (c. 2nd
Century CE) found at Amaravati, Telengana. Preserved in the Indian Museum, Calcutta. Credit:
G41m8. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Buddha_Preaching_in_Tushita_Heaven._Amaravati,_Satavahana_period,_
2d_century_AD._Indian_Museum,_Calcutta.jpg).

Soon, he started visiting various places to propagate his sermons. He visited Sarnath,
Mathura, Rajgir, Gaya and Pataliputra. Kings like Bimbisara, Ajatshatru (Magadha),
Prasenajit (Kosala) and Udayana (Kausambi) accepted his doctrines and became his
disciples. He also visited Kapilavastu and converted his foster mother and his son
Rahul to his faith. At the age of 80 (486 BCE) he died at Kusinagar (Kasia in Deoria
district in Uttar Pradesh), the capital of the Mallas.

Buddha’s Cremation Stupa, Kushinagar. Author: Prince Roy. Source: Wikimedia Commons
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Buddha%27s_cremation_stupa,_Kushinagar.jpg).
298
Let us now examine his teachings which became popular and gave new direction to the Buddhism, Jainism and
religious ideas of the time. other Religious Ideas

11.4 TEACHINGS OF THE BUDDHA

The basic teachings of the Buddha are contained in:
a) Four Noble Truths, and
b) Eight-Fold Path.
The following are the Four Noble Truths:
i) The world is full of suffering.
ii) All suffering have a cause: desire, ignorance and attachment are the causes of
suffering.
iii) The suffering could be removed by destroying its cause.
iv) In order to end suffering one must know the right path. This path is the Eight-Fold
Path (Ashtangika Marga).
The Eight-Fold Path consists of the following principles:
i) Finding the right view. It is to understand that the world is filled with sorrow generated
by desire. The ending of desire will lead to the liberation of soul.
ii) Right aim. It seeks to avoid enjoyment of the senses and luxury. It aims to love
humanity and increase the happiness of others.
iii) Right speech, which seeks to emphasize the speaking of truth always.
iv) Right action, which is understood to be unselfish action.
v) Right livelihood. It instructs that a man should live by honest means.
vi) Right effort. It is the proper way of controlling one’s senses so as to prevent bad
thoughts. It is through correct mental exercises that one can destroy desire and
attachment.
vii) Right mindfulness. It is the understanding of the idea that the body is impermanent
and meditation is the means for removal of worldly evils.
viii) Right concentration. The observation of it will lead to peace. Meditation will unravel
the real truth.
Buddhism laid great emphasis on the law of karma according to which the present is
determined by past actions. The condition of man in this life and the next depends upon
his own actions. Every individual is the maker of his own destiny. We are born again
and again to reap the fruits of our karma. If an individual has no sins he is not born
again. Thus, the doctrine of karma is an essential part of the Buddha’s teachings. He
preached nirvana: the ultimate goal in the life of man. It means the shedding of all
desires and ending of sufferings, which finally leads to freedom from rebirth. By a process
of elimination of desire one can attain nirvana. Therefore, the Buddha preached that
annihilation of desire is the real problem. Prayers and sacrifices will not end desire. So,
unlike emphasis on rituals and ceremonies in Vedic religion he laid emphasis on moral
life of an individual. He neither accepted nor rejected the existence of god. He was
more concerned about the individual and his actions. Buddhism also did not believe in
the existence of soul.
299
History of India
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.

LEFT: Buddha Seated in Abhaya-Mudra, Kushana Period (c. 1st-3rd Century CE), Mathura
Museum, Uttar Pradesh. Credit: Biswarup Ganguly. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Inscribed_Seated_Buddha_Image_in_Abhaya_Mudra_-
_Kushan_Period_-_Katra_Keshav_Dev_-_ACCN_A-1_-_Government_Museum_-
_Mathura_2013-02-24_5972.JPG).

CENTRE: Buddha, c. 4th Century CE, Amravati Archaeological Museum, Telengana. Credit:
Biswarup Ganguly. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
F i l e : B ud dh a _- _L i me st one _- _ Ci r c a _4 t h_ Ce n t ur y _ AD _- _ Am r a vat i _ -
_Archaeological_Museum_-_Amravati_-_Andhra_Pradesh_-_Indian_Buddhist_Art_-
_Exhibition_-_Indian_Museum_-_Kolkata_2012-12-21_2342.JPG)

RIGHT: Preaching Buddha (Gupta Period). Source: EHI-02, Block-4, Unit-17.

Besides these, the Buddha laid stress on certain other aspects:

i) He emphasized on the spirit of love. Love could be expressed on all living beings
by following ahimsa (non-killing). Though the principle was well understood it
was not emphasized as much as in Jainism.
ii) An individual should pursue the middle path and both severe asceticism as well as
luxurious life are to be avoided.
The teachings of the Buddha put forward a serious challenge to the existing Brahmanical
ideas:
i) The Buddha’s liberal and democratic approach quickly attracted people of all
sections. His attack on caste system and supremacy of Brahmins was welcomed
by the people of lower orders. Irrespective of caste and sex people were taken
into the Buddhist order. In Buddhism salvation lay in one’s good deeds. So, there
was no need of a priest or middle man to achieve nirvana: the ultimate goal of life.
ii) The Buddha rejected the authority of the Vedas and condemned animal sacrifices.
He protested against the complicated and meaningless rituals. He said that neither
sacrifice to gods can wash away sin nor any prayer of any priest do any good to a
sinner.
300
Buddhism, in a very short period, emerged into an organized religion and the Buddha’s Buddhism, Jainism and
teachings were codified. The Buddhist canons (the collection of teachings) are divided other Religious Ideas
into three sections namely:
i) The Sutta Pitaka consists of five sections (Nikayas) of religious discourses and
sayings of the Buddha. The 5th section contains the Jataka tales (the previous
birth stories of the Buddha).
ii) The Vinay Pitaka contains the rules of the monastic discipline.
iii) The Abhidhamma Pitaka contains the philosophical ideas of the teachings of the
Buddha. It is written in the form of questions and answers.

11.5 DEVELOPMENT OF BUDDHISM

Let us examine the factors which contributed to the popularity of Buddhism.

11.5.1 The Spread of Buddhism

Map of Buddhist Missions during the Reign of Ashoka. Credit: Javierfv1212. Soure: Wikimedia
Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Asoka%CC%A0_Buddhist_
Missions.png).

Even during the life time of its founder Buddhism was accepted by a large section of
people. For example, the people of Magadha, Kosala and Kaushambi had embraced
Buddhism. The republics of Shakyas, Vajjis and Mallas also followed the process.
Later on, Ashoka and Kanishka made Buddhism their state religion and it spread into
central Asia, West Asia and Sri Lanka. This appeal of Buddhism to a large section of
population was because of the following factors:
 Emphasis on practical morality, an easily acceptable solution to the problems of
mankind and a simple philosophy attracted the masses towards Buddhism.
 The ideas of social equality laid down in the codes of Buddhism made many lay
followers accept Buddhism.
 The merchants like Anathapindika and courtesans like Amrapali accepted the faith
because they got due respect in this religion.
 The use of popular language (Pali) to explain the doctrines also helped in the 301
History of India spread of this religion. This was because the Brahmanical religion had limited itself
from the Earliest to the use of Sanskrit which was not the language of the masses.
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
 The patronage extended by the kings was another important reason for the rapid
growth of Buddhism. For example, according to tradition Ashoka sent his son
Mahendra and his daughter Sanghamitra to Sri Lanka to preach Buddhism. He
also established many monasteries and contributed liberally to the Sangha.
 The institution of Sangha helped to organize the spread of Buddhism effectively.

Worship of Buddha-Padas (footprints of the Buddha) by People, c. 2nd Century CE, Amravati
Archaeological Museum, Guntur District, Telengana. Credit: Krishna Chaitanya Velaga. Source:
Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Worship_scenes_stone_at_
ASI_Museum,_Amaravathi.jpg).

11.5.2 The Institution of the Sangha

An Early Buddhist Triad. From Left to Right: a Kushana devotee, Bodhisattva Maitreya, the
Buddha, Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara and a Buddhist Monk. 2nd-3rd Century, Gandhara. Credit:
No machine-readable uploader provided. World Imaging assumed (based on copyright claims).
Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:BuddhistTriad.JPG)

The Sangha was the religious order of the Buddhists. It was a well-organized and
powerful institution which popularised Buddhism. Its membership was open to all persons,
irrespective of caste, above 15 years of age. However, criminals, lepers and persons
302
affected by infectious diseases were not given admission. Initially, the Buddha was not
in favour of admitting women. However, he admitted them at the repeated requests of Buddhism, Jainism and
his chief disciple Ananda and his foster mother Mahaprajapati Gautami. other Religious Ideas

On admission the monks had to ceremonially shave their head and wear yellow or
saffron robes. They were expected to go on a daily round in order to preach Buddhism
and seek alms. During four months of the rainy season they took up a fixed abode and
meditated. This was called the retreat or vasa. The Sangha also promoted education
among people. Unlike Brahmanism, people of different orders of the society had entry
to education. Naturally, the non-Brahmins who were deprived of education got access
to education in Buddhism and thus, education reached wider sections of the society.
The Sangha was governed by democratic principles and was empowered to enforce
discipline amongst its members. There was a code of conduct for the monks and nuns
and they were bound to obey it. The Sangha had the power to punish erring members.

11.5.3 Buddhist Councils

According to tradition shortly after the death of the Buddha the 1st Buddhist Council
was held in 483 BCE in the Saptaparni cave near Rajgriha. Mahakassapa presided
over the assembly. All the teachings of the Buddha were divided into two Pitakas
namely:
a) Vinaya Pitaka, and
b) Sutta Pitaka.
The text of Vinaya Pitaka was established under the leadership of Upali and that of
Sutta Pitaka was settled under the leadership of Ananda.

First Buddhist Council. Mural in the Nava Jetavana Temple, Shravasti, Uttar Pradesh. Credit:
Photo Dharma. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Nava_Jetavana_Temple_-_Shravasti_-_013_First_Council_at_Rajagaha_
(9241729223).jpg).

The 2nd Council was held at Vaishali in 383 BCE. The monks of Vaishali and Pataliputra
had accepted certain rules which were declared as contrary to the teaching of the
Buddha by the monks of Kausambi and Avanti. The Council failed to bring about a
compromise between the two opposing groups. Hence, it ended in a permanent split of
the Buddhist order into Sthaviravadins and Mahasanghikas. The former upheld the
orthodox Vinaya Pitaka while the latter favoured the new rules and their further
relaxation.
The 3rd Council was held at Pataliputra during the reign of Ashoka under the chairmanship
of Moggaliputta Tissa. In this Council philosophical interpretations of the doctrines of
303
the Buddha were collected into the 3rd Pitaka called the Abhidhamma Pitaka. An
History of India attempt was made in this Council to free the Buddhist order from dissidents and
from the Earliest innovations. Heretical monks numbering 60,000 were expelled from the order. The
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
true canonical literature was defined and authoritatively settled to eliminate all disruptive
tendencies.
The 4th Council was held during the reign of Kanishka in Kashmir. It was a gathering of
Hinayanists of north India. It compiled three commentaries (Vibhashas) of the three
Pitakas. It decided certain controversial questions of differences that arose between
the Sarvastivada teachers of Kashmir and Gandhara.

11.5.4 Buddhist Schools

In the 2nd Council held at Vaishali the Buddhist order was split into two schools namely:
a) Sthaviravadins, and
b) Mahasanghikas
The Sthaviravadins followed strict monastic life and rigid disciplinary laws as originally
prescribed. The group which followed the modified disciplinary rules was called the
Mahasanghikas.
The Mahayanism developed after the 4th Buddhist Council. In opposition to the group
(the Hinayana sect) who believed in orthodox teachings of the Buddha those who
accepted the new ideas were called the Mahayana sect. They made an image of the
Buddha and worshipped it as god. In c. 1st century CE during the period of Kanishka
some doctrinal changes were made.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) Explain the Buddhist philosophy of Nirvana and Karma.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
2) List the factors responsible for the growth of Buddhism during c. 6th century BCE.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
3) Mark the following statements as right ( ) or wrong (×).
i) The growth of trade and commerce helped in the emergence of heterodox
ideas. ( )
ii) The Buddha delivered his 1st sermon at Bodhgaya. ( )
iii) Severe asceticism was preached by the Buddha. ( )
iv) The Buddha did not believe in rebirth. ( )
v) The Buddha believed in the existence of god. ( )

11.6 ORIGINS OF JAINISM

304 According to Jaina tradition 24 Tirthankaras were responsible for the origin and
development of Jaina religion and philosophy. Of these, the first 22 are of doubtful Buddhism, Jainism and
historicity. In the case of the last two – Parsvanatha and Mahavira – the Buddhist other Religious Ideas
works also confirm their historicity.

11.6.1 Parsvanatha
According to Jaina tradition the 23rd Tirthankara – Parsvanatha – was the son of king
Ashvasena of Varanasi and his Queen Vama. Parsvanath abandoned the throne at the
age of 30 and became an ascetic. He received enlightenment after 84 days of penance.
He died at the age of 100; nearly 250 years before Mahavira. He believed in the
eternity of “matter”. He left behind him a good number of followers. His followers wore
a white garment. Thus, it is clear that even before Mahavira some kind of Jaina faith
existed.

11.6.2 Mahavira
The 24th Tirthankara was Vardhaman Mahavira. He was born in Kundagrama
(Basukunda), a suburb of Vaisali (the present-day Muzzaffarpur district, Bihar) in 540
BCE. His father, Siddhartha was the head of Jnatrikas, a Kshatriya clan. His mother
was Trishala, a Lichchhavi princess. He was given a good education and was married
to Yashoda. He had a daughter by her. At the age of 30 he left his home and became an
ascetic. At first he wore a single garment which he abandoned after 13 months and
began to wander as a ‘naked monk’. For 12 years he lived the life of an ascetic,
following severe austerities. In the 13th year of his asceticism, at the age of 42, he
attained the “supreme knowledge”. He was later known as “Mahavira” (the supreme
hero) or Jina (the conqueror). He was also hailed as “Nirgrantha” (free from fetters).
For the next 30 years he moved from place to place and preached his doctrines in
Kosala, Magadha and further east. He wandered for eight months in a year and spent
four months of the rainy season in some famous town of eastern India. He often visited
the courts of Bimbisara and Ajatshatru. He died at Pawa (near Rajagriha) in present-
day Patna at the age of 72 (468 BCE).

LEFT: Vardhamaan Mahavira Sculpture at Keezhakuyilkudi, Madurai, Tamilnadu. Credit: Francis

Harry Roy S. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Vardhaman_Keezhakuyilkudi.jpg).

RIGHT: Mahavira Attended by Devas (Heavenly Beings) Hovering in the Air and Offering Garlands.
Source: “The Jaina Stupa and Other Antiquities of Mathura” (https://archive.org/details/
cu31924012251140). Credit: V. A. Smith. Photo Courtesy: Wikimedia Commons (https://
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Vardhaman.jpg). 305
History of India
from the Earliest 11.7 TEACHINGS OF MAHAVIRA
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
Mahavira accepted most of the religious doctrines laid down by Parsvanatha. However,
he made some alterations and additions to them. Parsvanatha advocated the following
four principles:
a) Truth,
b) Non-violence,
c) Non-possession, and
d) Not to receive anything which was not voluntarily given.
To these Mahavira added celibacy (brahmacharya). He believed that soul (jiva) and
matter (ajiva) are the two basic existing elements. According to him the soul is in a
state of bondage created by desire accumulated through previous births. By means of
continued efforts the soul can be relieved of bondage. This is the final liberation of the
soul (moksha). The liberated soul, then, becomes “the pure soul”.
According to Jainism man is the creator of his own destiny and he could attain moksha
by pursuing a life of purity, virtue and renunciation. Moksha (nirvana) can be attained
by observing the following three principles (ratnatraya):
i) Right belief,
ii) Right knowledge, and
iii) Right action.
Mahavira advocated a life of severe asceticism and extreme penance for the attainment
of nirvana (the highest spiritual state). He believed that the world was not created by
any supreme creator. It functions according to an eternal law of decay and development.
He thought that all objects – animate and inanimate – had a soul. He believed that they
feel pain or the influence of injury. He rejected the authority of the Vedas and objected
to Vedic rituals and the supremacy of the Brahmanas. A code of conduct was prescribed
both for the householders and monks. For the purpose of avoiding evil karmas a
householder had to observe the following five vows:
i) Non-injury,
ii) Non-stealing,
iii) Non-adultery,
iv) Speaking the truth, and
v) Non-possession.
It was also prescribed that a householder should feed cooked food to the needy every
day. He preached that the lay worshippers should not take to agriculture, since this
involved the destruction of plants and insects. A monk had to observe certain strict
rules. He had to abandon all worldly possessions. He had to root out every hair of his
head by his own hands. He could walk only during the day, taking care that he did not
kill or injure any being. He had to train himself so as not to be affected by objects of the
senses. Jainism believed that the monastic life was essential to attain salvation and a
householder could not attain it.
According to tradition the original doctrines taught by Mahavira were contained in 14
old texts known as the Purvas. In the 1st Council at Pataliputra, Sthulabhadra divided
the Jaina canon into 12 Angas (sections). This was accepted by the Shvetambaras.
However, the Digambaras refused to accept this, claiming that all the old scriptures
306
were lost. At the 2nd Council held at Vallabhi new additions were made in the form of Buddhism, Jainism and
Upangas (minor sections). Among the 12 Angas the Acharanga Sutta and the other Religious Ideas
Bhagavati Sutta are the most important. While the former deals with the code of
conduct which a Jaina monk was required to follow, the later expounds the Jaina doctrines
in a comprehensive manner.

11.8 DEVELOPMENT OF JAINISM

Mahavira’s teachings became very popular among the masses and different sections of
society were attracted to it. Like Buddhism, in Jainism also with the change of time a lot
of changes came in. We will now see what contributed to the spread of this religion and
what were the developments in it?

11.8.1 Spread of Jainism

Mahavira had 11 disciples known as Ganadharas (heads of schools). Arya Sudharma
was the only Ganadhara who survived Mahavira and became the 1st Thera (chief
preceptor) of the Jaina order. He died 20 years after Mahavira’s demise. The Jaina
order in the days of the late Nanda king was administered by two Theras:
a) Sambhutavijaya, and
b) Bhadrabahu.
The 6th Thera was Bhadrabahu, a contemporary of the Mauryan king Chandragupta
Maurya.
Mahavira’s followers slowly spread over the whole country. In many regions royal
patronage was bestowed upon Jainism. According to the Jaina tradition Udayin, the
successor of Ajatsatru was a devoted Jaina. Jaina monks were seen on the banks of the
river Indus when Alexander invaded India. Chandragupta Maurya was a follower of
Jainism and he migrated with Bhadrabahu to south and spread Jainism there. During the
early centuries of the Common era Mathura and Ujjain became great centres of Jainism.
Jainism’s success was more remarkable than that of Buddhism. One of the important
causes for its success was the popular dialect – Prakrit (the Jaina religious literature
was also written in Ardhamagadhi) used in place of Sanskrit by Mahavira and his
followers. The simple and homely morals prescribed to the masses attracted the people.
The patronage extended by the kings helped Jainism to gain a prominent place in the
minds of the people.

11.8.2 Jaina Councils

Towards the close of Chandragupta Maurya’s rule a terrible famine broke out in south
Bihar which lasted for about 12 years. Bhadrabahu and his disciples migrated to
Shravanabelgola in Karnataka. Other Jainas remained in Magadha with Sthulabhadra
as their leader. They summoned a council at Pataliputra around 300 BCE in which
Mahavira’s teachings were divided into 12 angas.
The 2nd Jaina Council was held at Vallabhi (Gujarat) in 512 CE and was presided over
by Devardhi Kshemasarmana. Its purpose was to collect the sacred texts and write
them down systematically. However, this time the 12th anga drawn at the 1st Council
were lost. All the remaining angas were written in Ardhamagadhi.

11.8.3 Sects
The split in the Jaina order is widest from c. 3rd century BCE. The difference over
wearing a garment was apparent even during Mahavira’s times. The followers of
Bhadrabahu, after their return from Shravanabelgola to Magadha, refused to 307
History of India acknowledge the canon, holding that all the 14 purvas were lost. Moreover, a wide
from the Earliest gulf had developed between those who emigrated and those who stayed in Magadha.
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
The latter had become accustomed to wearing white garments and made a departure
from Mahavira’s teachings while the former still continued going naked and strictly
followed his teachings. Hence, the 1st split in the Jaina order was between the
Digambaras (sky clad or naked) and the Shvetambaras (clad in white).
During the later years further splits took place among both the sections; the most
important of them being the one that renounced idol worship altogether and devoted
itself to the worship of the scriptures. They were called the Terapanthis among the
Shvetambaras and the Samaiyas among the Digambaras (this sect came into existence
around 6th century CE).

11.9 OTHER HETERODOX IDEAS

Many other non-Vedic ideas were prevalent in this period which later developed into
small sects. Among them the Ajivika sect had a considerable number of followers with
a recognized organization.

11.9.1 The Ajivikas

The Ajivikas are said to be the shudra sanyasins. This sect is said to be established
by Nanda Vachcha who was followed by Kisa Sankichcha. The 3rd religious chief was
Makkhali Goshala or Manthaliputra Goshalak who popularised this sect. He denied
the theory of karma and argued that man is subject to the laws of nature. The Ajivikas
believed that the thought and deed of an individual were predetermined (decided before
birth). They did not believe that there was any special cause for either the misery of
human beings or for their deliverance. They did not believe in human effort and held that
all creatures were helpless against destiny. Goshala maintained that all creatures had to
face misery and it would end after the completion of fixed cycles. No human effort
would reduce or lengthen the period. His followers were mostly centred around Sravasti,
the capital of Kosala where Goshala preached and died 16 years before Mahavira.

LEFT: Tile Possibly Representing the Ajivika Ascetics, c. 4th Century, Jammu and Kashmir. Los
Angeles County Museum of Art, California, USA. Source: http://collections.lacma.org/sites/
default/files/remote_images/piction/ma-31397564-O3.jpg. Photo Courtesy: Wikimedia
Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tile_with_Ajivaka_(%3F)_Ascetics_
LACMA_M.82.152.jpg).
RIGHT: Ashoka’s 7th Pillar-Edict Mentions the Ajivikas, c. 3rd Century BCE. Source: https://
archive.org/details/inscriptionsaso00hultgoog. Credit: Ashoka, Alexander Cunningham, Eugen
Hultzsch. Photo Courtesy: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
308 File:Ashoka_pillar_delhi2.png).
 Buddhism, Jainism and
other Religious Ideas

The c. 3rd Century BCE Mendicant Caves of the Ajivikas (Barabar near Gaya, Bihar). Source:
British Library, London. Author: Thomas Fraser Peppé. Photo Courtesy: Wikimedia Commons
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sudama_and_Lomas_Rishi_Caves_at_Barabar,_
Bihar,_1870.jpg, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lomas_Rishi_entrance.jpg).

11.9.2 Other Ideas

The Charvakas believed in complete materialism. They held that an individual’s body
is formed of matter and finally would end in matter. Therefore, the aim of human life
should be to enjoy all the material pleasures of life. Purana Kassapa preached the
doctrine of Akriya (non-action). He was a Brahmana teacher whose main doctrine
was that action did not lead to either merit or demerit. According to him even if a man
killed all the creatures on earth he would not incur any sin. Similarly, he would not earn
any merit through a good deed or even by standing on the bank of the Ganges. Similarly,
self-control, gifts and truthfulness would not earn him any credit. Ajita Kesakambalin
preached that everything ended with death and there is no further life after death. He
did not believe in the fruits of good or bad acts or persons possessing higher or
supernatural powers. According to this sect there is nothing wrong in enjoying the
pleasures of the world and there is no sin in killing. Pakudha Kachchayna preached the
doctrine of Ashasvatavada according to which there are seven elements which are
immutable and do not in any way contribute to pleasure or pain. The body is ultimately
dissolved into these seven elements.

11.10 IMPACT OF THE NEW RELIGIOUS

MOVEMENTS
The rise and development of new religious ideas brought in some significant changes in
contemporary social life. They were:
i) The idea of social equality was popularised in this period. The Buddhists and
Jainas did not give any importance to the caste system. They accepted members
of different castes in their religious order. This was a great threat to the age-long
domination of the Brahmanas in the society. Acceptance of women in the Buddhist
order, also, had an important impact on the society because this gave women
equal status with men.
ii) The Brahmanical texts had assigned an inferior position to traders. Sea voyages
were also condemned. But, as Buddhists and Jainas did not give any importance
to caste and did not look down upon sea voyages, so the trading community was
very much encouraged by these new religious ideas. Moreover, the emphasis on
309
History of India karma by these new religious ideas for future life also indirectly favoured the
from the Earliest activities of the trading community.
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
iii) The new religions gave importance to languages like Prakrit, Pali and
Ardhamagadhi. The Buddhist and Jaina philosophies were discussed in these
languages and later, canons were written in the local languages. This paved the
way for the development of vernacular literature. For example, the Jainas, for the
1st time, gave a literary shape to the mixed dialect – Ardhamagadhi – by writing
their canons in this dialect.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) What are the basic principles of Jainism? Answer in 100 words.
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2) Who were the Ajivikas? What were their ideas? Answer in five lines.
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3) Mark the following statements as right () or wrong (×).
i) Mahavira added the idea of celibacy to the four principles of Parsvanatha.
( )
ii) Mahavira did not believe in the supreme creator. ( )
iii) The concept of Nirvana is same in Buddhism and Jainism. ( )
iv) The original texts of the doctrines of Mahavira are known as Purvas. ( )
v) The rise of the heterodox sects in c. 6th century BCE resulted in the
development of vernacular literature. ( )

11.11 SUMMARY
In this Unit you have seen the emergence and establishment of new religious ideas in c.
6th century BCE in north India. The contemporary socio-economic needs largely
contributed to the emergence of these new religions. Among these, Buddhism and Jainism
became very popular. In spite of some differences both of them put emphasis on humanity,
moral life, karma and ahimsa. Both were highly critical of caste system, domination of
the Brahmanas, animal sacrifices and the idea of god. This was a direct challenge to
the existing Vedic religion. Besides this, you have also learnt about other heterodox
sects like the Ajivikas and their philosophy. All these brought about a significant change
310
in attitude of the people and they, as a result, began to question the age-long supremacy Buddhism, Jainism and
of the Brahmanical religion. other Religious Ideas

11.12 KEY WORDS

Ahimsa : Non-killing or non-violence.
Heterodox : Non-orthodox.
Karma : Action of an individual.
Pitakas : Buddhist religious texts.
Purvas : Jaina religious texts.
Schism : Division of an organization into two or more
groups.
Sect : A group of people united by beliefs or opinions.
Tirthankara : Refers to the Jaina preachers who acquired
supreme knowledge.

11.13 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) You have to write here what the Buddha meant by Nirvana and Karma. See
Section 11.4.
2) Your answer should include the practical aspect of Buddhism, its emphasis on
social equality, popular language etc. See Sub-sec. 11.5.1.
3) i) , ii) ×, iii) ×, iv) , v) ×
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) You have to discuss the five principles i.e. truth, non-violence, non-possession,
not to receive anything, celibacy and then how one can attain nirvana by following
the principles of right belief, right knowledge and right action. See Sec. 11.7.
2) The sect founded by Nanda Vachcha and is said to be of Shudra Sanyasins.
They believed that man is subject to the laws of nature. See Sub-Sec. 11.9.1.
3) i) , ii) , iii) ×, iv) , v) 

11.14 SUGGESTED READINGS

Allchin, Bridget and Raymond (1988). The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan.
New Delhi.
Ghosh, A. (1973). The City in Early Historical India. Shimla.
Kosambi, D. D. (1987). The Culture and Civilization of Ancient India in Historical
Outline. New Delhi.
Sarao, K. T. S. and Long, Jeffery D. (Eds.) (2017). Buddhism and Jainism. In
Encyclopaedia of Indian Religions. Springer.
311
History of India Sharma, R. S.(1983). Material Cultures and Social Formations in Ancient India.
from the Earliest New Delhi.
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
Sharma, R. S. (1995). Perspectives in the Social and Economic History of Ancient
India,. New Delhi.
Wagle, N. (1966). Society at the Time of the Buddha. Bombay.

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UNIT12 ALEXANDER’S INVASION*
Structure
12.0 Objectives
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Sources
12.3 Alexander of Macedonia
12.4 Arrian’s Indike
12.5 Alexander’s Successors and Seleucus Nicator
12.6 The Impact of Alexander’s Invasion
12.7 Summary
12.8 Key Words
12.9 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
12.10 Suggested Readings

12.0 OBJECTIVES
In this Unit you will:
 learn about Alexander’s invasion of north-western India;
 understand the different sources about Alexander and their significance;
 know about Alexander’s battle with various principalities of India including that of
Porus;
 learn about Arrian’s Indike;
 learn about the impact of Alexander’s invasion on India;
 get informed about Megasthenes who was a Greek ambassador to Chandragupta
Maurya’s court; and
 learn about the developing contacts between India and the Greek world.

12.1 INTRODUCTION
In one of the previous Units you learnt about the Janapadas and Mahajanapadas
which emerged in northern India in c. 6th century BCE. In this Unit we will focus on
north-western region of the Indian subcontinent and learn how it became a vibrant seat
of activity due to the events related to Alexander’s invasion in 4th century BCE.
In 6th century BCE India’s north-west was a site of conflict between various principalities.
The Kambojas, Gandharas and Madras fought with each other. Since there was an
absence of an overarching powerful kingdom the principalities of north-west could not
be organized into one kingdom. Due to its political disunity the Achaemenian kings of
Persia were attracted to this region. In 516 BCE the Achaemenian ruler Darius invaded

* Dr. Suchi Dayal, Academic Consultant, Faculty of History, School of Social Sciences, IGNOU,
New Delhi. 313
History of India it and annexed Punjab, west to the Indus river and Sindh. At this time Iran had a total of
from the Earliest 28 satrapies of which India’s north-west constituted the 20th province. The Indian
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
satrapy included Sindh, the north-west frontier and part of Punjab that lay to the west
of Indus. It paid a hefty tribute in gold which accounted for one-third of the total revenue
Iran received from its Asian provinces. Indian provinces provided mercenaries for Persian
armies fighting against the Greeks in c. 5th century BCE. This part of Indian territory
continued to be a part of the Iranian empire till Alexander invaded it in 330 BCE.
As a result of invasions by the Iranians there were lot of cultural exchanges between
Iran and the north-west. A new script was introduced by the Iranian scribes called
Kharoshthi script. It was written from right to left like Arabic. It was derived from
Aramaic current in the Achaemenid empire. Trade also existed between the two regions,
as corroborated by the finds of Persian type of coins in the North-West Frontier Province.

12.2 SOURCES
The period of Alexander is well attested by a number of sources. At first instance these
sources seem impressive and remarkable. There are full length histories of his reign by
Arrian and Curtius Rufus, a formal biography by Plutarch, a whole book of Diodorus
Sirculus’ Bibliotheca and substantial passages in the later books of Strabo’s
“Geography”. However, despite giving an impression of being substantial their value as
primary sources is put to question as they are all of a later period. For instance, Diodorus’s
works are dated to the 3rd quarter of 1st century BCE; Plutarch and Arrain in c. 2nd
century CE. Thus, there is a distance of two to three centuries between Alexander’s
death and the first connected narratives of his reign. Some of these works are accused
of being imaginatively fictitious, preoccupied with rhetoric, full of trivial details, grossly
exaggerated and are without checks to test their authenticity. Despite all these handicaps
the scholars have been able to sift significant information that is both credible and useful
in the context of India. Arrian’s account is the most sober rendition of Alexander’s
reign. Arrian was a simple soldier who paid his tribute to the memory of Alexander by
selecting the best possible sources and reproducing them faithfully. His seventh book
‘History of Alexander’ was based on Ptolemy, Aristobulus, Nearchus and Eratosthenes.
Ptolemy, Aristobulus and Nearchus were all eyewitnesses to the campaigns of Alexander
and were, sometimes, active participants. The companion work Indike deals with India
and the voyage of Alexander’s fleet in southern ocean and is based on sources by
writers such as Eratosthenes, Megasthenes and Nearchus.
Quintus Curtius Rufus – (probably 1st century CE). He is the author of the only extant
Latin monograph on Alexander the Great, usually called Historiae Alexandri Magnii, the
liveliest account of Alexander’s exploits in Asia.
Plutarch – Plutarches in Greek (born 46 CE) was a biographer and author whose works
strongly influenced the evolution of history-writing in Europe from 16th-19th centuries.
Strabo – Born 64 BCE. He was a Greek geographer and historian whose ‘Geography’ is the
only extant work covering the whole range of peoples and countries known to both the
Greeks and the Romans during the reign of Augustus (27 BCE-114 CE).
Aristobulus of Cassandreia – He accompanied Alexander on his campaigns. He served
throughout as an architect and military engineer.
Diodorus Siculus – Greek historian (1st century BCE).
Nearchus – Born 312 BCE. He was an officer in the Macedonian army under Alexander, who
on Alexander’s orders, sailed from the Hydaspes river in western India to the Persian Gulf
and up the Euphrates to Babylon.
Erastosthenes – Full name: Erastothenes of Cyrene (born 276 BCE). He was a Greek scientific
writer, astronomer and poet.
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 Alexander’s Invasion
12.3 ALEXANDER OF MACEDONIA
There was a distinction in the ancient Greek world between those who lived south of
the Mount Olympus and those who lived to its north, the Macedonians. The latter were
called ‘Makedones’, a Greek word in origin. As late as by the end of the 4th century
BCE the Greeks referred to them as ‘Barbarians’, indicating that they did not see them
as Greeks.
Macedonia:Macedonia is sometimes called Macedon. It was an ethnically mixed
region in the ancient past, surrounded by Greek states to the south and tribal
kingdoms in other directions. In the north and the west the mountainous terrain of
the Balkans defined the landscape, while the southern region was fertile alluvium.
Both these regions were mired in conflict with each other and it was Philip –
father of Alexander – who united these territories for the first time. In 4th century
BCE the Macedonians and Greeks were engaged in ethnic rivalry. The two people
were distinct and separate. It was Philip II who consolidated his control over the
Greeks in 337 BCE. Though Alexander, mistakenly, is referred to as a Greek, he
was not! He was always wary of the Greeks. The Greeks were more sophisticated
than the Macedonians and did not share same cultural heritage.
Alexander was born in July 356 BCE. He was the son of Philip II, the ruler of Macedonia.
By 337 BCE Philip II had consolidated his control over the Greeks by creating a union
of Greek states called the “League of the Corinth”. The union was bound together
under the hegemony of the Macedonian king and owed allegiance to the League. Philip
announced his intention to invade Persia in order to avenge on behalf of the Arthenians
for having faced sufferings and destruction to their temples during the Persian war and
to liberate the Greek cities of Asia Minor. He was assassinated in 336 BCE. Upon his
death Greek states revolted from the Macedonian rule. They were suppressed by
Alexander after his accession. Alexander invaded Persia in 334 BCE with a mighty
army and defeated king Darius of Persia.
A. K. Narain, citing Tarn’s work, says that since India was part of the Iranian empire
Alexander’s interest in India was inevitable result of the completion of his conquest of
Persian empire. However, Arrian says that Alexander was more ambitious than that
and he harboured zeal to conquer India. Had it not been so he would not have crossed
Indus river which was the boundary between India and Ariana. Ariana was situated to
the west of India and at this time was under the possession of the Persians. Indus was
the eastern-most boundary of Darius I’s empire.
Among his many victories his campaigns in India are most noteworthy. In 327 BCE
Alexander marched from Bactria through the Hindukush mountains and advanced
towards the plains of Indus. One section of his advancing force secured communication
route of the Hindukush and the other section under his own control entered Swat. He
subjugated Swat after fighting fierce battles with the people of these mountain tracts. In
326 the two forces met at the Indus and after crossing the Indus marched to Taxila. The
political condition in north-west was suitable for Alexander as it was divided into small
independent monarchies and tribal republics. Among the more famous was Porus who
ruled a kingdom between Jhelum and Chenab. The confrontation between Porus and
Alexander has become legendary. Coming back to the Indus Alexander crossed it and
was met by Ambhi, the prince of Taxila. Both Ambhi and Porus together could have
defeated Alexander but they could not put up a joint front. Ambhi did not oppose him,
rather welcomed him with lavish gifts. Alexander decided to leave his kingdom in peace
but appointed Phillipus as a Satrap and left a garrison there. He was keen to meet
Porus who had refused to submit to him and proceeded to Jhelum (Hydaspes). The 315
History of India weather conditions were very unfavourable as the entire region was covered under
from the Earliest snow. He, facing great adversity, managed to cross Jhelum and mounted an attack on
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
Porus’ army which was stationed at the opposite bank. Porus was wounded and
retreated. However, Alexander was very impressed by his military prowess and persona
and decided to reinstate Porus who, then, became his ally. Alexander’s victory was
momentous and he celebrated it by the founding of two cities –Nicaea and Bucephala.
The latter was founded after his horse Bucephalus who had died due to exhaustion
following the battle. Alexander also issued a commemorative coinage at a mint in Babylon.

Conquests of Alexander in India. Source: The Loeb Classical Library, Arrian “Anabasis of
Alexander”. Photo Courtesy: Wikimedia Commons (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
File:AlexanderConquestsInIndia.jpg).

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 Alexander’s Invasion

‘Alexander and Porus’: A Painting by Charles Le Brun (1673) Depicting Alexander and Porus
(Puru) during the Battle of Hydaspes. Source:

http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/le-brun/. Photo Courtesy: Wikimedia Commons (https://

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_Brun,_Alexander_and_ Porus.jpg).

Victory Coin of Alexander the Great, Minted in Babylon in c. 322 BCE, Following his Campaigns
in the Indian Subcontinent. Obverse: Alexander being Crowned by Nike. Reverse: Alexander
Attacking King Porus on his Elephant. Silver. British Museum, London. Credit: PHGCOM.
Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Alexander_victory_coin_
Babylon_silver_c_322_BCE.jpg)

Alexander continued his march and crossed Chenab and Ravi (Acesines and Hydraotes).
He defeated many principalities and fought a fierce battle with the Kathas of Punjab.
The Kathas did not submit and fought valiantly. Alexander was able to capture Sagala,
the hill fortress of Kathas and razed it to ground. Thereafter, he was informed by a
nearby king about the might of the Nandas, east of the Beas. His information was
corroborated by Porus too. Alexander wanted to proceed but his troops refused to
advance.

317
History of India Hence, he was forced to return to Jhelum. He handed all the country between Jhelum
from the Earliest and Beas to Porus and sailed down Jhelum for his return journey. Below the confluence
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
of Jhelum and Chenab he fought his last important campaign against the Malavas (Malloi).
The republican states of Malavas and Kshudrakas wished to form a confederacy against
him, but he was successful in preventing Kshudrakas from joining with the Malavas.
The Malavas fought bravely but were defeated. The Kshudrakas, also, could not stand
anywhere before him.
It is believed that during the last days of Alexander in Babylon, Chanakya and
Chandragupta Maurya, along with Porus, attempted to unify the Punjab. Later, the
Mauryas established themselves by bringing a major onslaught upon the Nandas of
Ganga valley.
Three years after his campaigns in India, in 324 BCE, Alexander was back at Susa in
Persia. In the following year he died at Babylon. Upon being asked at his death-bed as
whom his empire should be bequeathed to, he supposedly replied “to the strongest”.
Thereafter ensued a long series of struggles between his generals and governors for
control of his vast empire. The struggle among the Diadochis, his successors, was a
prelude to the establishment of Hellenistic suzerainty in the region. By 317 BCE even
the Greek outposts in India were given up.

Ptolemy Coin with Alexander Wearing an Elephant Scalp: the Symbol of his Conquests in South
Asia. British Museum, London. Credit: PHGCOM. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PtolemyCoinWithAlexanderWearingElephantScalp.jpg).

Arrian
Lucius Flavius Arrianus or Arrian, as he is usually called in English language, was
born in Nicomedia, one of the Greek towns in the Roman empire, between 85
and 90 CE. It is important to remember that all accounts about Alexander date
from three centuries after his death. All these accounts are based on now lost
primary accounts which are flawed and biased to begin with. For the events
between 334-323 BCE the scholars depend on Arrian’s account.He was a
commander of a large army in the service of the Roman empire. He had literary
leanings and authored texts on hunting, cavalry tactics and wrote the biography
of Alexander. He claimed that for his work on Alexander he had relied on most
trustworthy of the primary sources viz. Ptolemy and Aristobulus who were part
of the Alexander’s staff in his campaign to the east. He authored Anabasis
(‘Journey Up Country’) of Alexander which consisted of seven books. Indike
(his book on India) was a shorter companion work of Anabasis.Source:
Alexander the Great. Selections from Arrian, Diodorus, Plutarch and Quintus
Curtius. Edited by James Romm. Hackett Publishing Co. Inc. Indianapolis/
Cambridge.

318
 Alexander’s Invasion
12.4 ARRIAN’S INDIKE
Arrian described himself as a philosopher, statesman, soldier and historian. He is best
known for the Asiatic expedition of Alexander, the narrative of which is remarkable in
accuracy and clarity. His work on India – Indike – is written in the Ionic dialect. It
consists of three parts:
 The first part gives a general description of India, based chiefly on the accounts of
India by Megasthenes and Eratosthenes,
 the second is an account of Nearchus’ journey on Indus, and
 the third contains proofs showing that southern parts of the world were inhabitable
due to excessive heat.
The first part of Indike has been translated by J. W. Mc. Crindle and is richly
supplemented with notes regarding history, geography, archaeology and the identification
of Greek proper names with Sanskrit originals.
Based on the accounts of Megasthenes and Nearchus, Arrian manages to weave succinct
and interesting details about India. He begins by describing the boundaries of ‘India
Proper’ which, he says, lies to the east of Indus. He delineates the boundary of the
lands of India by mentioning Hindukush in the north, river Indus in the west and Pattala
in the south (Alexander Cunningham identifies Pattala with Nirankol or Haidarbad).
The old name was Patasila. He says that Patala is the designation bestowed by the
Brahmanas on all the provinces in the west, in antithesis to Prasiaka [the eastern realm]
in the Ganges land. For Patala is the mythological name in Sanskrit of the underworld
and consequently, of the land of the west.
Mc. Crindle feels that the measurements given by Strabo are more accurate than those
of Arrian. However, Cunningham remarks that Arrian’s measurements are in close
agreement with actual size of the country and this is very remarkable as it shows that
Indians, even at that early date in their history, had a very accurate knowledge of the
form and extent of their native land.
His account of the different tributaries of Indus and Ganges, tribes of India, castes of
India has been borrowed from Megasthenes’ description. Arrian writes much detail on
rivers, mentions barbarous Indians of the old times, their dependence on nomadism;
how Dionysos, the conqueror of India who came even before the mighty Alexander,
taught the Indians agriculture and introduced them to the plough and laws.
Arrian also spends some time in describing Pataliputra which he calls “the greatest city
of Palimbothra” (Cunningham says that Strabo and Pliny agree with Arrian in calling the
people of Palibothra by the name Prasii which modern writers have referred to as the
Sanskrit Prachya or ‘eastern’. But, Cunningham feels that Prasii is the Greek form of
Palasa which is the actual and well-known name of Magadha, of which Palibothra was
the capital).
Arrian writes about absence of slavery in India, modes of hunting elephants, and, of
course, of gold-digging ants which he himself is not sure about, since Megathenes’
account of the gold-digging ants was based on hearsay.

12.5 ALEXANDER’S SUCCESSORS AND

SELEUCUS NICATOR
Alexander, after his retreat from India and Persia, did not organize his conquests in any 319
History of India systematic fashion. As part of his arrangements most of the conquered states were
from the Earliest restored to their rulers who accepted his authority. His territorial possessions were
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
divided into three parts and placed under Greek governors. Soon, destabilization and
anarchy marked the period. Successor kingdoms emerged under various satraps and
Macedonia lost its importance.
At Alexander’s death the number of satrapies was 20. By 308 BCE they terminated
all contacts with the Macedonian kingdom and coalesced into three separate groupings
under Antigonus, Seleucus and Ptolemy. Seleucus Nicator was at the helm at the satrapy
of Babylonia. After being thrown out of Babylon by Antigonus he reclaimed it and was
successful in expanding his dominions right down to the Indus, placing all eastern satraps
under his sway. In the meantime, Chandragupta Maurya was busy capturing the Ganga
plains. He proceeded to north-west to exploit the power vacuum created by Alexander’s
departure. Once he reached Indus he came face-to-face with Seleucus Nicator who
had a stronghold in that region. The battle between the two was won by Chandragupta,
as evident from the terms of the Treaty of 303 BCE. The Seleucid territories of eastern
Afghanistan, Makran and Baluchistan were ceded to Chandragupta. In return, Seleucus
obtained 500 elephants. Seleucus also gave his daughter in marriage to Chandragupta.
With this victory the routes and important regions of north-west region came under
Mauryan control.
Friendly relations seem to have been established between Sandracottos (Chandragupta
was referred to by the Greeks by this name) and the Seleucids. Seleucus’s envoy
Megasthenes spent time at the court of Chandragupta and left an account titled Indica.
The original account is lost and paraphrases of this text are preserved in the writings of
later writers such as Diodorus, Strabo and Arrian. Friendly relations were carefully
cultivated. Several Greek ambassadors visited his court such as Megasthenes,
Daimachos, Hegesandros.

12.6 THE IMPACT OF ALEXANDER’S INVASION

As mentioned earlier, Alexander’s campaigns in India were not as significant as he
would want to believe. In fact, R. K. Mukherjee believes that his campaigns in India
were not an example of brilliant military achievement, as he did not come face-to-face
with any powerful Indian monarchs. The effects of his campaigns were, at best, indirect.
According to A.K. Narain the people of north-west realized that small states and
principalities were no match to the disciplined and organized campaigns of Alexander.
Chandragupta was quick to realize the importance of erecting a huge empire. He went
about to unite the whole of Punjab and, later, the northern India after overthrowing the
Nandas. He not only added the southern states but also integrated the four satrapies
of Aria, Arachosia, Gedrosia and Paropamisadae which were ceded by Seleucus to
Chandragupta after the demise of Alexander.
Friendly contacts were maintained between Greeks and Indians. According to a Greek
writer Athenaeus, an Indian ruler Amitrochates wrote to Antiochus I of Syria to send
him sweet wine, figs and a sophist, to which the Syrian king replied that he would
happily send sweet wine and figs but a sophist cannot be sold in Greece. Stabo refers
to the sending of Deimachus to the court of Allitrochades, son of Sandrokottos; Pliny
mentions another envoy Dionysius from Ptolemy II of Egypt. Besides this, Ashoka also
maintained close relations with the Yavanas of west Asia and Egypt. His 13th Rock
Edict, the version of which has been found in Greek at Kandahar, refers to his
Dhammavijaya in the kingdoms of Antiochus II of Syria, Ptolemy Philadelphus II of
Egypt, Antigonus Gomatas of Macedonia, Magas of Cyrene and Alexander of Corinth.
320
Ashoka is also supposed to have arranged for the medical treatment of cattle and men Alexander’s Invasion
in the kingdom of Antiochus II and his neighbours. Not only does his description of
himself as Devanampriya Piyadassi reflect the practice of deification current among
Greek kings in the Hellenic west, but also the style of his edicts were influenced by the
edicts of Darius. Kautilya and Megasthenes, both, refer to a state department looking
after the welfare of foreigners who were mostly Yavanas and Persians. Taxila, Sarnath,
Basarh and Patna have yielded terracotta motifs with distinct Hellenistic influence.
Alexander’s invasion also allowed for the establishment of Greek paramouncy in Bactria
and in the regions that are called today as Afghanistan and Pakistan. Some 41 rulers of
Yavana descent are known from the coins. Strabo refers to these kings as those who
subdued large number of tribes, more than that by Alexander. Menander and Demetrius
who was the son of Euthydemus and the king of Bactrians, were the most notable. The
Indo-Greek kings were equally influenced by Indian religion and culture. Many of their
coins carried Indian legends. An inhabitant of Taxila, and the son of Dion – Heliodorus
– was an envoy from the court of Antialcidas, an Indo-Greek king, to the court of the
Indian king Bhagabhadra. The details are known from the Heliodorius Besnagar
Inscription (Besnagar near Bhilsa in Madhya Pradesh) which mentions that he was a
follower of the Bhagavat sect of Hinduism. Some of the coins of Menander carry the
image of wheel, which, scholars believe, is the Buddhist emblem of Dharmachakra,
the wheel of righteousness.
Alexander’s campaigns in the north-west India brought this part of the world in direct
contact with the Greek world. Land and routes by sea opened up through which Greek
merchants and craftsmen came to have access to these faraway lands. Greek settlements
were established in this region, for example, Alexandria in the Kabul region, Boukephala
on Jhelum and Alexandria in Sindh. Alexander also initiated geographical explorations
of the harbours and coasts from the mouth of Indus to that of the Euphrates. His historians
have left valuable information of the geographical merit of his campaigns. Besides
providing a corrective to Indian chronology, the Greek accounts tell us about Indian
practices such as sati, sale of girls in the market place by poor parents and good breed
of oxen. In fact some 2, 00,000 oxen were sent from India by Alexander to Macedonia.
The Greeks also found that Indians excelled in the art of carpentry and they built brilliant
chariots, boats and ships.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) Write few lines about Alexander’s invasion of the north-west India.
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2) Write few lines about Arrian’s Indike.
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321
History of India
from the Earliest 12.7 SUMMARY
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
In this Unit we learnt that India’s north-west was a region which attracted the attention
of invaders quite early in Indian history. After the Achaemenid invasions Alexander
conquered principalities and kingdoms of north-western India. He was successful in
subjugating Indian powers despite the valiant struggle that was put against him. He was
able to cross Hydaspes (Jhelum) at night and met Porus who was defeated, but he was
so impressed by his valour that he allowed Porus to retain his kingdom. Alexander was
not able to go beyond Chenab and Ravi (Acesines, Hydraotes) as his troops refused to
march any further. We also leant that Arrian’s accounts are the main source ofAlexander’s
campaigns. Arrian has left in his Indike some factual, some fanciful account of India
which is based on the account of other travellers. Among Alexander’s successors the
most notable was Seleucus Nicator who fought with Chandragupta Maurya but was
defeated. He sent Megasthenes, a Greek ambassador, to the Mauryan king’s court.
Megasthenes has left an interesting account of Chandragupta’s reign in his Indica.

12.8 KEY WORDS

Achaemenids : Members of Achaemenian dynasty who are also
called the Achaemenids(Persian –
Hakhamanishiyas). 559-330 BCE. This was the
ancient Iranian dynasty whose kings founded and
ruled the Achaemenid empire.
Diadochi : According to the English Oxford Dictionary
Diadochi refers to the six generals of Alexander
the Great – Antigonus, Antipater, Cassander,
Lysimachus, Ptolemy and Seleucus among whom
his empire was eventually divided after his death
in 323 BCE. It is derived from the Greek word
diadokhoi meaning ‘successor’.
Hellenistic : Comes from the word ‘Hellazein’ which means
‘to speak Greek or identify with the Greeks’.
The word pertains to ancient Greece.
Satrapy : Governors of the provinces of ancient Persian
empire.
Yavanas : In early Indian literature this term refers to either
a Greek or another foreigner.

12.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
1) See Section 15.3
2) See Section 15.4

12.10 SUGGESTED READINGS

Bosworth A. B. (1996). The Historical Setting of Megasthenes’s Indica. In Classical
Philology. Volume 91(2), April 1996, pp. 113-127.
Bosworth A. B. (2002). The Legacy of Alexander: Politics, Warfare and Propaganda
322 under the Successors. Oxford University Press.
Mc. Crindle, J. W. (1877). Ancient India as Described by Megasthenes and Arrian. Alexander’s Invasion
Being a translation of the fragment of the Indica of Megasthenes collected by Dr.
Schwanback and of the first part of the Indike of Arrian, Thacker Spink and Co.
Narain, A. K. (1965). Alexander and India, Greece and Rome. In Alexander the
Great. Volume 12, no. 2, October 1965, Cambridge University Press, pp.155-165.
Romm James (ed.) (2005). Alexander the Great: Selections from Arrian, Diodorus,
Plutarch and Quintus Curtius. Indianapolis/Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Co. Inc.
Schwarz Franz Ferdinand (1975). Arrian’s Indike on India: Intention and Reality. In
East and West, 25, no ½ (March-June 1975), pp. 181-200
Tarn, W. W. (1948). Alexander the Great. Volume 1 – Narrative, Cambridge University
Press.
Worthington, Ian (ed.) (2003). Alexander the Great: A Reader. Routledge.

323
 UNIT 13 ESTABLISHMENT OF MAURYAN
RULE AND MAGADHAN
TERRITORIAL EXPANSION*
Structure
13.0 Objectives
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Location of Magadha
13.3 Note on Sources
13.4 Political History of Pre-Mauryan Magadha
13.5 Notion of ‘Empire’
13.5.1 Modern Views on Definition of ‘Empire’
13.5.2 Indian Notion of Chakravarti-Kshetra

13.6 Origin of Mauryan Rule

13.7 Ashoka
13.7.1 The Kalinga War
13.7.2 Magadha at Ashoka’s Death

13.8 Summary
13.9 Key Words
13.10 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
13.11 Suggested Readings

13.0 OBJECTIVES
In this Unit we will outline territorial expansion of the kingdom of Magadha. This will
provide an understanding of how and why it was possible for Magadha to become an
‘empire’. After reading this Unit, you should be able to:
 identify the location of Magadha and its environs and note its strategic importance;
 learn about some of the sources that historians use for writing on this period;
 have a brief idea of the political history of Magadha during the two centuries
preceding Mauryan rule;
 understand the notion of ‘empire’ in the context of early periods of Indian history;
 trace chief events leading to the establishment of the Mauryan rule;
 learn about early Mauryan kings – Chandragupta and Bindusara – and their
expansionist activities;
 explain the context of accession and coronation of Ashoka and importance of the
Kalinga war; and
 finally, identify boundaries of the Magadhan ‘empire’at the time of the death of
Ashoka.
324 * This Unit has been adopted from EHI-02, Block 5.
 Establishment of
13.1 INTRODUCTION Mauryan Rule and
Magadhan Territorial
In Unit 10 you were introduced to various Janapadas and Mahajanapadas that are Expansion
known to us from primarily the early Buddhist and Jaina texts. The rise of these
Janapadas and Mahajanapadas, which were situated mostly to the north of the
Vindhyas, is dated around the 2nd half of 1st millennium BCE. In this Unit we will discuss
in detail the growth of one of these Mahajanapadas, namely Magadha. Magadha has
drawn the attention of historians for the last 200 years. This is so because it had become
the nucleus of political power of the well known Mauryan dynasty.

Mauryan Remains of Wooden Palisade at Bulandibagh Site of Pataliputra. Credit: ASIEC, 1912-
13. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Mauryan_remains_of_wooden_palissade_at_Bulandi_Bagh_site_of_Pataliputra_ASIEC_1912-
13.jpg).

However, in this Unit we do not intend to highlight only the achievements of Mauryan
kings in expanding the territorial frontiers of Magadha. We will also discuss the notion
of an ‘empire’ in the pre-modern context at two levels:

i) Various meanings of the term ‘empire’ which does not simply mean a territorially
vast kingdom, and

ii) early Indian notions of state and empire.

By discussing these various definitions it would be possible to understand various views

of scholars on the characterization of Magadhan empire, particularly under the Mauryas.

In this Unit we will also take into account the political events throughout the period from
c. 5th to 3rd century BCE. The Magadhan kingdom began to grow during c. 6th century
BCE itself. However, this process accelerated considerably under the Nandas and the
Mauryas. The location of Ashokan inscriptions indicates that a major part of Indian
subcontinent, excluding the eastern and southern extremities, had come under Magadhan
325
History of India suzerainty. However, after discussing the details of how this expansion took place we
from the Earliest will introduce you to the view that the composition and texture of the Magadhan empire,
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
in its various parts, was so diverse that to be able to hold it together a direct political
control was probably very difficult. This may, perhaps, explain whyAshoka endeavoured
to resolve inherent social tensions in the empire through the introduction of his policy of
Dhamma.

13.2 LOCATION OF MAGADHA

You have been generally introduced to the kingdom of Magadha as one of 16
Mahajanapadas in Unit 10. The Mahajanapadas were located over a major part of
Ganga valley, with a few to the north-west and south-west of it. However, of the four
most powerful kingdoms three – Kosala, the Vajji confederacy and Magadha – lay in
middle Ganga valley and the fourth – Avanti – was in western Malwa. The kingdoms
that surrounded Magadha were:

 Anga in the east,

 Vajji confederacy to the north,

 to its immediate west the kingdom of Kashi, and

 further west, the kingdom of Kosala.

Magadha can be identified with modern districts of Patna, Gaya, Nalanda and parts of
Shahabad in the present-day state of Bihar. Geographically, Magadha’s location is
such that it has in its vicinity large tracts of alluvial soil. Interestingly, the earliest capital
of Magadha – Rajgriha – was situated to the south of the river Ganga and not near it.
This is most plausibly explained from the point of view of its strategic location, and
secondly, due to the fact that it lay in the vicinity of iron-encrusted outcrops. It has also
been suggested that its accessibility to copper as well as the forests of the present-day
southern Bihar region can effectively explain why early Magadhan kings did not choose
to have their capital in the most fertile plains of the Ganges valley but in a comparatively
isolated region. The capital of Magadha did, however, shift to Pataliputra (originally
Pataligrama), situated on the confluence of several rivers like Ganga, Gondak, Son and
Pun Pun. Pataliputra became the capital of Magadha under the Mauryas. This enabled
Magadha to effectively command the uttarapatha (northern route) which lay to the
north of Ganga along the foothills of Himalayas. The river also came to be used as one
of the main arteries connecting Magadha with different regions and making heavy
transport along the river possible. Thus, Magadha had certain natural advantages over
other contemporaneous kingdoms, though some of which like Avanti to its south-west,
Kosala to its north-west and the Vajji confederacy to its north were equally powerful at
the turn of 6th century BCE.

Recent researches have suggested that accessibility to iron mining areas, in particular,
enabled the kingdoms like Magadha and Avanti to not only produce good weapons of
warfare but also in other ways. It facilitated the expansion of agrarian economy and
thereby, the generation of substantial surplus extracted by the state in the form of taxes.
This, in turn, enabled them to expand and develop their territorial base. Avanti, it must
be noted, became a serious competitor of Magadha for quite some time and was also
located not far from the iron mines in eastern Madhya Pradesh.

326
 Establishment of
13.3 NOTE ON SOURCES Mauryan Rule and
Magadhan Territorial
Events and traditions of the middle Ganga plains, where Magadha was prominently Expansion
located, are well preserved in early Buddhist and Jaina literature. Some of the texts of
the Buddhist tradition are compiled as the Tripitikas and the Jatakas. Those pertaining
to early Jaina tradition are the Acharanga Sutra and the Sutrakritanga which are
considered earlier than the others. All these were, however, written or compiled well
after c. 6th century BCE at different times. For particularly the early events of a political
nature the Buddhist and Jain traditions represent them more authentically and directly
than do the later Brahmanical accounts of various Puranas which attempt to provide
histories of royal dynasties to the period of the Guptas. Later Buddhist chronicles like
the Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa compiled in Sri Lanka are significant sources for
events related particularly to Ashoka’s reign. These, along with the Divyavadana (which
is preserved outside India in the Tibetan and Chinese Buddhist sources), not being
contemporary to the period under discussion, have to be used cautiously as they
developed in the context of Buddhism’s spread outside India.

The foreign sources of information, which are considerably more relevant and are near-
contemporary, are accounts gathered from classical writings in Greek and Latin. These
are the impressions of travellers who visited India around that time and the name of
Megasthenes, who visited the court of Chandragupta Maurya, is famous in this respect.
Megasthenes is, however, known to us only through quotations in later Greek writings
of Strabo and Diodorus of c. 1st century BCE and Arrian of c. 2nd century CE. Since
the north-west India from about 6th century BCE till about 4th century BCE was under
the sphere of foreign rule some of the information on the phase of Achaemenian (Persian)
rule and later, on the invasion of Alexander, comes to us from Persian inscriptions and
Greek sources like Herodotus’ account.

Ever since its discovery in 1905 the Arthashastra of Kautilya has been considered an
important source of information for the Mauryan period. Today, several new views on
the date of Arthashastra have emerged, some of which suggest that it should not be
considered in totality a text written in the Mauryan period. Thus, it is suggested on the
basis of a statistical method that some of the chapters of Arthashastra should be dated
to first two centuries of the Common era. However, many other scholars would like to
use a major portion of this text for the Mauryan period. They suggest that the text was
originally written by Kautilya, the minister of Chandragupta, and commented upon and
edited by other writers during a subsequent period.

Both inscriptions and coins as important sources of information for understanding the
early history of India become significant during the Mauryan period. The coins of this
period, however, do not bear names of kings, and they are called punch-marked coins
because different symbols are punched on them separately. Though this type of coinage
is known from roughly about 5th century BCE the Mauryan punch-marked series are
significant in that they were probably issued by a central authority as is indicated by the
uniformity of the symbols used. In contrast to the coins the inscriptional material for
particularly Ashoka’s rule is extremely significant and unique in content. There are 14
major edicts, seven minor rock edicts, seven pillar edicts and other inscriptions of
Ashoka located at prominent places near towns and trade routes in various parts of
Indian subcontinent. They markedly stand out as a physical testimony to the length and
breadth of the Magadhan empire at the close of Ashoka’s reign.

327
History of India
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.

Bilingual (Greek and Aramaic) Inscription of Ashoka at Kandahar (Shar-i-Kuna). Preserved in

Kabul Museum, Afghanistan. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/File:AsokaKandahar.jpg).

Archaeology as a source of information has, in recent years, yielded considerable data

on the material cultures of Ganga valley. The nature of this archaeological material has
already been discussed in Unit 10. We know that the archaeological phase associated
with Northern Black Polished Ware was the period when cities and towns emerged
and during the Mauryan period, as archaeology suggests, there were further changes in
material life of the people. From archaeology we also know that many elements of
material culture started spreading to areas outside Ganga valley and that they came to
be associated with the Mauryan rule.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) Tick the right answer ().
Magadha was surrounded by the following three kingdoms:
a) Avanti, Kosala, Anga
b) Anga, Kosala, Vajji confederacy
c) Anga, Vajji confederacy, Kashi
d) Avanti, Kashi, Kosala
2) Describe the important sources for reconstructing the history of Magadha in about
five lines.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
3) List three important factors which were advantageous for the growth of Magadhan
kingdom.
.....................................................................................................................
328
 ..................................................................................................................... Establishment of
Mauryan Rule and
..................................................................................................................... Magadhan Territorial
Expansion
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
4) Mark which of the following statements is right () or wrong (×).
a) Inscriptions are the most important source of information for pre-Mauryan
period. ( )
b) Mauryan punch-marked coins have uniform symbols. ( )
c) Uttarapatha was a route which followed the course of the river Ganges.
( )
d) Pataliputra was situated south of the river Ganges. ( )
e) Megasthenes’ account of India is known to us through later writers. ( )

13.4 POLITICAL HISTORY OF PRE-MAURYAN

MAGADHA
Under Bimbisara who was a contemporary of the Buddha and who, like the Buddha,
lived in 6th-5th century BCE Magadha, emerged as a controller of middle Ganga plains.
Bimbisara is considered to be the first important ruler of Magadha. With political foresight
he realized the importance of establishing dynastic relations through marriage with the
royal house of Kosala. Through this alliance he acquired a part of the district of Kashi
as dowry. He had cordial relations with the king of Gandhara. These diplomatic relations
can be considered as a sign of the strength of Magadha. To the east of Magadha lay the
kingdom of Anga whose capital Champa was an important commercial centre as a
river-port. Bimbisara is reported to have ruled over 80,000 villages. Tradition tells us
that he was imprisoned by his son Ajatshatru who is said to have starved him to death.
This is reported to have taken place around 492 BCE.

LEFT: King Bimbisara with his Royal Cortege Issuing from the City of Rajagriha to Visit the
Buddha, Artwork from Sanchi, Madhya Pradesh. Credit: Biswarup Ganguly. Source: Wikimedia
Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki File:Bimbisara_with_his_royal_cortege_
issuing_ from_the_city_of_Rajagriha_to_visit_the_Buddha.jpg).

RIGHT: Bimbisara visits the Bamboo Garden (Venuvana) in Rajagriha, Sanchi. Credit: Biswarup
Ganguly. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bamboo_
garden_(Venuvana)_at_Rajagriha,_the_visit_of_Bimbisara.jpg).
329
History of India Internal troubles and succession of Ajatshatru to the throne of Magadha did not change
from the Earliest its fortune. In terms of expansionist policies the new Magadhan king followed a decisively
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
more aggressive policy. He gained complete control over Kashi and broke earlier
amicable relations by attacking his maternal uncle Prasenajit, the king of Kosala. The
Vajji confederation of people whose mahajanapada lay to the north of the Ganga was
Ajatshatru’s next target of attack. This war was a lengthy one and tradition tells us that
after a long period of 16 years he was able to defeat the Vajjis only through deceit by
sowing the seeds of dissension amongst them. His invasion of the kingdom of Avanti,
the strongest rival of Magadha at that time, did not materialize though preparations are
said to have been made for it. However, during his reign Kashi and Vaisali, the capital
of Vajji mahajanapada, had been added to Magadha, making it the most powerful
territorial power in Ganga valley.
Ajatshatru is said to have ruled from 492 to 460 BCE. He was succeeded by Udayin
(460-444 BCE). During Udayin’s reign Magadhan kingdom extended in north to the
Himalayan ranges and in south to the Chota Nagpur hills. He is said to have built a fort
on the confluence of Ganga and Son. Despite the vastness of Magadha’s territories
Udayin and the four kings who succeeded him were unable to effectively rule and the
last of these is said to have been overthrown by people of Magadha. Shisunaga, a
viceroy at Banaras, was placed on the throne in 413 BCE. The rule of Shisunaga
dynasty, too, was of short duration and gave way to the rule of the Nanda dynasty
headed by the usurper Mahapadma Nanda.
It was during the rule of the Nandas in Magadha and the Ganga plains as a whole that
the invasion of Alexander took place in north-west India in 326 BCE which is often
considered the beginning of historic period in India. The Nandas are, therefore, often
described as first empire-builders of India. It must, however, be underlined that they
did inherit a large kingdom of Magadha which they then extended to more distant
frontiers.
In later Purana writings Mahapadma Nanda is described as the exterminator of all
kshatriyas. It is further suggested that he overthrew all contemporary ruling houses.
Greek classical writings describe the might of the Nanda empire when they tell us about
their vast army which is said to have consisted of 20,000 cavalry, 200,000 infantry,
2000 chariots and 3000 elephants. We also have some indications that the Nandas had
contact with Deccan and south India. Their control of some parts of Kalinga (modern
Odisha) is indicated in the Hathigumpha inscription of king Kharavela who ruled in
Odisha from the middle of 1st century BCE. Some very late inscriptions from the south
Karnataka region also suggest that parts of Deccan may have been included in Magadhan
empire under the Nandas. Most historians suggest that by the end of the reign of
Mahapadma Nanda the first phase of expansion and consolidation of the kingdom of
Magadha had taken place. That the north-west was still under various small chiefdoms
is attested by Greek writings describing Alexander’s invasion of Punjab around this
time. It is clear, however, that there was no encounter between the kingdom of Magadha
and the Greek conqueror.
The Nanda rule came to an end by 321 BCE. Nine Nanda kings are said to have ruled
and by the end of their rule they are said to have become very unpopular. Chandragupta
Maurya took advantage of this situation to ascend the throne of Magadha. Despite all
these dynastic changes Magadha continued to remain the foremost kingdom in Ganga
valley. Deeper reasons for the success of Magadha lay in its advantageous geographical
location, its access to iron mines and the control it had come to exercise over important
land and river trade routes. In next part of this Unit we turn to take a look at Magadha
330 as an ‘empire’ and the Mauryan control of it.
 Establishment of
13.5 NOTION OF ‘EMPIRE’ Mauryan Rule and
Magadhan Territorial
Before we talk of the Mauryan empire let us try to understand what an ‘empire’ means. Expansion
This is necessary because we often indiscriminately use the term ‘empire’ in relation to
all types of kingdoms or states. Further, we somehow seem to think that ancient, medieval
and modem empires were all identical in nature. Obviously, the nature of the British
empire of modern times or even the central Asian Mongol empire of medieval times
could not have been identical with the nature of the Mauryan empire. There were
important differences between empires in different periods of history and when we
study the history of an ancient empire it is important that we understand what essential
elements constituted an empire.

13.5.1 Modern Views on Definition of ‘Empire’

Most often, ‘empire’ is understood to designate a political system which has under a
central control a vast expanse of territories not all of which are necessarily culturally
homogeneous. The centre in this definition is embodied either in the person of the king/
emperor or in the political institution which is organized to hold together the territories
under one control. The term ‘imperial’ comes from the Latin word imperium. This
indicates relative concentration of authority at the centre. The centre controls territorially
contiguous units which ultimately attain some symbols of common political identity.
Generally, Roman empire in the ancient world is taken as the classical example to which
all others, including the Mauryan, are then compared.
This definition, however, should not be understood as connoting sovereign nation states
some of which built vast empires in modern times. The nature of central authority in
early empires was either dependent on charismatic personality of the rulers and leaders
and their exploits and, most importantly, their upholding of a certain order of things
which are sanctioned by tradition.
Common view about the Magadhan empire of the Mauryas is that it could best be
understood as a centralized bureaucratic empire. This kind of ‘empire’ was prevalent in
other parts of the world as well.
Centralized bureaucratic empires were usually established through military and other
exploits of individuals, generally in periods of turmoil, strife and unrest of various kinds,
and thus, the establishment of their rule is considered to have brought about peace and
order. At the same time it would be natural for such empires to have enemies, because
in their rise to power they must have either usurped or challenged various interest groups.
In new territories their policy of aggrandisement must have nurtured animosity. The
rulers have, therefore, to make allies, passive or active, to implement their aims through
either matrimonial or diplomatic alliances. In terms of political goals such empires visualize
a unified centralized polity in which decision making is monopolized. This means that
they replace earlier traditional or local tribal authorities. In the rise and success of such
empires geo-political factors are usually said to shape their activities. It was absolutely
essential for such empires to be able to mobilize various resources, those of economic
raw materials and man power in particular. For active political support these empires
were usually dependent on urban economic, cultural and professional groups and, in a
passive sense, from the wider social strata of peasants and urban lower classes.
Recruitment from upper class groups ensured proper functioning of administrative bodies.
In the ultimate analysis, the administration, thus, evolved was expected to work for
exploitative purposes. In other words, in the early empires there was a high degree of
inequality in society, permitting the privileged groups and regions to exploit the resources
produced by others. 331
History of India 13.5.2 Indian Notion of Chakravari-Kshetra
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E. In understanding the Mauryan phase of Magadhan empire or, indeed, any other empire
of ancient India it may be useful to know how an ideal emperor was viewed in ancient
literature. The idea of an emperor is expressed through the Sanskrit term Chakravarti
and the sphere of his ‘imperial rule’ by the term Chakravarti-kshetra. Though in early
Brahmanic texts the kings performing sacrifices like Ashvamedha and Rajasuya are
mentioned it is only in the Arthashastra that a clear idea is given of what a chakravarti-
kshetra was. It is said to be the land which extended north to south from Himalayas to
the seas (of Indian Ocean) and measured a thousand yojanas. There is no doubt that
the Chakravarti ideal reflected the conventional ideas about an Indian ruler’s sphere
of influence and, in fact, it was an ideal never achieved except, perhaps, by Ashoka. On
the other hand, this aspiration of universal conquest is constantly emphasized in
exaggerated terms in both literary and epigraphical sources. Historians have often taken
these reflections to indicate the actual achievement of large territorial conquests by
kings and, thus, misreading the ideal for actual achievements.
The Arthashastra and several other texts also list different limbs (angas) which together
made a rashtra (state). Of the seven limbs of the state mentioned in the Arthashastra
the king is made out to be the most powerful. The seven elements (saptanga) of the
state, in general texts on ancient Indian polity, are stated to be the ministers (mantri),
ally (mitra), taxes (kara), army (sena), fort (durga), land or territory (desh) and to
these the Arthashastra significantly adds an eighth element: the enemy (shatru). In
defining the king as the most powerful being in the state, Kautilya, the author of
Arthashastra, also expects him to have exceptional qualities. You will read more about
how the king organized the state and administered his empire in Unit 14. Some of these
ideas about state and empire, as defined above, have led historians for some time to
consider Magadha under the Mauryas to have become a despotic state, with the king
controlling all regions of the empire through a centralized administration. This has now
been questioned, and we will review some of these views below. One can, however,
clearly say that the success of Magadha marked the triumph of a monarchical form of
political organization over others such as ganga-samgha forms of political organization.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
Use the space given below for your answers:
1) Tick the right answers using the code given below:
The early kings of Magadha entrenched its stability by achieving the following:
i) shifting the capital to Pataliputra,
ii) conquering the Anga capital of Champa,
iii) expanding the frontier up to Gandhara,
iv) incorporating the neighbouring kingdoms through war and alliance,
v) capturing the iron mines of Avanti.
code
a) i, ii, iii
b) i, iv, v
c) ii, iv
d) iii, v
332
2) To what extent do you think that the Nanda rule in Magadha was significant? Establishment of
Mauryan Rule and
..................................................................................................................... Magadhan Territorial
..................................................................................................................... Expansion

.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
3) On the basis of the definitions given above about what constitutes an empire how
would you describe the Mauryan empire? Answer in about five lines. Also, discuss
it with the Counsellor at the Study Centre.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
4) Mention which of the following statements are correct () or wrong (×).
a) The Magadhan empire can be described as a conquest empire.
b) The Magadhan empire can be described as a centralized bureaucratic empire.
c) The most important element of state in early texts was the army.
d) The ideal of a Chakravarti was achieved by most ancient Indian kings.
e) The king in the Arthasastra was expected to have exceptional qualities.

13.6 ORIGIN OF THE MAURYAN RULE

It has been suggested by D. D. Kosambi that the most immediate and unexpected by-
product of Alexander’s invasion of the north-west was that “it hastened the Mauryan
conquest of the whole country.” He has argued that because the tribes of Punjab had
already been weakened it was not difficult for the Magadhan army under Chandragupta
to conquer the whole of Punjab. Most of the Gangetic valley was already under the
control of Magadha. According to the foreign classical sources Chandragupta is
supposed to have even met Alexander and advised him to attack Magadha which was
under the unpopular rule of the Nandas. Though this is difficult to verify, both Indian
and foreign classical sources suggest that Alexander’s retreat resulted in the creation of
a vacuum, and, therefore, it was not difficult for Chandragupta to subdue the Greek
garrisons left there. However, what is not clear is whether he did this after his accession
to the throne of Magadha or before it. Some scholars date his accession to 324 BCE
while now it is generally accepted as 321 BCE.

Mauryan Ringstone with Standing Goddess found at North-west Pakistan, c. 3rd Century BCE.
Preserved in British Museum. Credit: World Imaging assumed (based on copyright claims).
Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mauryan
Ringstone.JPG). 333
History of India According to Indian tradition Chandragupta was assisted by the Brahmin Kautilya,
from the Earliest also known as Chanakya or Vishnugupta, to rise to power. It is further suggested on the
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
basis of a play of 6th century CE, which in its description of the overthrow of the
Nandas by Chandragupta, hints that at his accession to the throne at 25 years of age he
was, in fact, a weak ruler and the real ruler of the empire was Chanakya. The
Arthashastra is attributed to Kautilya who is said to have been well-versed in not only
the political principles of warfare and aggrandisement but was also deeply knowledgeable
about organization of the state and society to ensure that the empire did not collapse.
Though the early years of Chandragupta’s reign are little known, most historians agree
to assign either a ‘low caste’or a tribal origin to the Mauryan family. According to some
accounts Chandragupta was son of the last Nanda king by a “low born” woman called
Mura; from her came the family name Maurya. Buddhist tradition tells us that he was a
member of the Moriya clan of Pipphalivana and, thus, suggests that this dynasty was, in
some way, linked to the tribe of the Shakyas to which the Buddha belonged. In this
explanation the family name Maurya is said to have been derived from name of the
tribe. This also indirectly implies that as an old family of chiefs they were in some sense
Kshatriyas. The Puranas do not link the Nanda and Maurya dynasties, though they
too describe the latter to be Shudras. The Brahmanical perception about them is,
however, based on its earlier idea of the Magadhan society generally being unrighteous
and of mixed caste origin. The classical sources which know of the last Nanda king also
do not link these two dynasties, though Chandragupta, known to them as Sandrakottus,
is described to be of low origin. It is also suggested that the name ending ‘Gupta’ in
Chandragupta’s name and the later episode of Ashoka’s marriage to the daughter of a
merchant of Vidisa lend credence to the view that the Mauryas could have been of
Vaishya origin.
Though the caste affiliation of the Mauryas remains obscure it is significant that most
important rulers of this dynasty turned to heterodox sects later in their lives. On the
other hand, several sources that point to the role of the Brahmin Kautilya as advisor
and the motivating force behind Chandragupta cannot be ignored. The Puranas even
suggest that Chanakya had appointed Chandragupta as king of the realm. One can,
perhaps, suggest that the Mauryas rose to power in a society which was never very
orthodox. In the north-west there had been considerable contact with the foreigners
and Magadha itself was looked down upon in the orthodox Brahmanical tradition.
Besides, it was considerably exposed to the ideas of the Buddha and Mahavira. It was,
thus, amidst considerable turmoil – social and political – that Chandragupta was successful
in ascending the throne of Magadha.
Many historians who understand the Mauryan state as an empire primarily in terms of
its territorial extent attribute great importance to the role Chandragupta Maurya played
in ruthlessly stemming the tide of foreign interference in the north-west and suppressing
indigenous rulers in west and south India. Source material on the exact nature of these
military exploits is wanting and, therefore, one has to construct these details on the
basis of the accounts which are available for his successors who inherited this empire.
Both Indian and foreign classical sources agree that Chandragupta overthrew the last
of the Nanda kings and occupied his capital Pataliputra and this success is linked with
his accession to the throne around 321 BCE. As mentioned earlier, the political rise of
Chandragupta was also linked with the invasion of Alexander in north-west. The years
325-323 BCE were crucial in the sense that many of the governors who were stationed
in the north-west after Alexander’s invasion were assassinated or had to retreat and
this enabled Chandragupta to gain control of this region rather quickly. Here, it needs to
be stated that there is an uncertainty about whether Chandragupta routed the foreigners
334
first or defeated the Nandas. In any case, both these tasks were complete by 321 BCE Establishment of
and the state was set for further consolidation. Mauryan Rule and
Magadhan Territorial
One of the first major achievements of Chandragupta Maurya on the military front was Expansion
his contact with Seleucus Nikator who ruled over the area west of the Indus around
305 BCE. In the war that ensued, Chandragupta is said to have turned out victorious
and eventually, peace was established with this Greek viceroy around 303 BCE. In
return for 500 elephants Seleucus gave him eastern Afghanistan, Baluchistan and area
west of the Indus. The Satrapies, thus, called were Arachosia, Paropanisadae, Aria
and Gedrosia. A marriage alliance was also concluded. Further, Seleucus sent an
ambassador called Megasthenes who lived in the court of Chandragupta for many
years. This achievement meant that the territorial foundation of the Mauryan empire
had been firmly laid, with the Indus and Gangetic plains well under Chandragupta’s
control.
It is suggested by a majority of scholars that Chandragupta ultimately established his
control not only in the north-west and the Ganges plains, but also in western India and
Deccan. The only parts left out of his empire were, thus, present-day Kerala, Tamil
Nadu and parts of north-eastern India. Details of his conquests in different parts of
India are lacking. Greek writers simply mention that he overran whole country with an
army of 600,000. Conquest and subjugation of Saurashtra or Kathiawar in extreme
west is attested in the Junagadh Rock Inscription of Rudradaman of the middle of 2nd
century CE. This record refers to Chandragupta’s viceroy or governor, Pushyagupta
by name, who is said to have constructed the famous Sudarshana lake. This further
implies that Chandragupta had under his control the Malwa region as well. With regard
to his control over the Deccan, too, we have late sources. These are some medieval
epigraphs informing us that he had protected parts of Karnataka.
Tamil writers of the Sangam texts of the early centuries CE make allusion to “Moriyar”
which is said to refer to the Mauryas and their contact with the south, but this probably
refers to the reign of Chandragupta’s successors. Finally, the Jaina tradition informs us
that Chandragupta, having become a Jaina, abdicated the throne and went to south
with Bhadrabahu, the Jaina saint. At Shravana Belgola, the Jaina religious centre in
south Karnataka, he spent the rest of his life and died in the orthodox Jaina way by
slow starvation.
Bindusara, the son of Chandragupta, is said to have ascended the throne in 297 BCE.
There is comparatively little known about him from either Indian or foreign classical
sources. To the latter he is known as Amitrochates. They also inform us that he had
contacts with the Seleucid king of Syria – Antiochus I – whom he requested to send
him sweet wine, dried figs and a sophist.
In a very late source of the 16th century, in the work of the Buddhist monk Taranath of
Tibet we are told of Bindusara’s warlike activities. He is said to have destroyed kings
and nobles of about 16 cities and reduced to submission all the territory between eastern
and western seas. Descriptions of early Tamil poets of the Mauryan chariots thundering
across the land probably refer to his reign. Many scholars believe that since Ashoka is
credited to have conquered only Kalinga the extension of Mauryan empire beyond the
Tungabhadra must have been the work of his predecessors. It can, therefore, be
suggested that it was probably in Bindusara’s reign that the Mauryan control of Deccan,
and Mysore plateau in particular, was firmly entrenched.
Though Bindusara is called the “slayer of foes” his reign is not very well documented,
and, therefore, the extent of his conquests can only be arrived at by looking at a map of
the empire of Ashoka who conquered only Kalinga (Odisha). His religious leanings are
said to have been towards the Ajivikas. Buddhist sources suggest the death of Bindusara 335
History of India around 273-272 BCE. After his death there was a struggle for succession among his
from the Earliest sons for about four years. Ultimately, around 269-268 BCE Ashoka was crowned
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
Bindusara’s successor.

13.7 ASHOKA
Till about 1837 CE Ashoka was not a very well known king. In that year James Prinsep
deciphered a Brahmi inscription referring to a king called Devanampiya Piyadassi
(Beloved of the Gods). This was compared with what was known from the Sri Lankan
chronicle Mahavamsha and then it could be established that the king of the inscription
was indeed Ashoka. The fame of Ashoka is due to the fact that he turned away from
war and tried to establish a system of rule based on the principle of Dhamma. Below
we discuss some relevant details of his early life, Kalinga war and the extent of Mauryan
empire during his reign.

13.7.1 The Kalinga War

During his father’s reign Ashoka served as a viceroy at Ujjain and also at Taxila. It is
suggested that he was sent to Taxila for a special purpose: to quell a revolt. After being
successful at Taxila, the Buddhist sources tell us, he was sent to Ujjain as viceroy. The
events in his personal life here, like his marriage to a Vidisha merchant’s daughter and
birth of their two children Mahinda and Sanghamita are said to have had a great
influence in turning Ashoka towards Buddhism. Many of the details about his early life
come from the Buddhist chronicles, and, therefore, certain ambiguities in them cannot
be denied.
About his accession, too, there are several versions, but there is some general agreement
that he was, in fact, not the crown prince (Yuvaraja). Therefore, he was involved in a
struggle against other princes before he ascended the throne. His portrayal as an
extremely wicked king before his conversion to Buddhism is, undoubtedly, exaggerated
in Buddhist accounts so as to enhance his piety as a Buddhist. It is necessary to point
out that though Buddhism played a significant role in his later life one has to discount
those versions that depict him as a fanatic or bigot. An idea of the king’s personality and
beliefs comes through more clearly from his many inscriptions in which his public and
political role are both described. They also suggest his conversion to Buddhism to have
taken place after the Kalinga war.

LEFT: “Ashoka with his Queens” at 1 st -3 rd Century CE Sannati-Kanaganahalli Stupa, Gulbarga District,
Karnataka, with an Inscription mentioning him. Credit: Top – Wikimapia; Bottom – Upinder Singh,
A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12 th Century, New Delhi: Pearson,
2013, p. 333. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File :Kanag anahalli_ Asoka_with_ insc ription.jpg ).
RIGHT: Ashoka’s Visit to Ramagrama Stupa, Depicted on Sanchi Stupa 1. Credit: Photo Dharma.
Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ashoka%27s_visit_to_the_
336 Ramagrama_stupa_Sanchi_Stupa_ 1_ Southern_g ate way.jpg ).
Though his predecessors had intruded into Deccan and south and, perhaps, conquered Establishment of
parts of it, Kalinga, i.e., the present-day state of Odisha, still had to be brought under Mauryan Rule and
Magadhan Territorial
Mauryan control. It was of strategic importance as it controlled routes to south India Expansion
both by land and sea. Ashoka himself in Rock Edict XIII describes his conquest of
Kalinga which is said to have taken place eight years after his consecration, around 260
BCE. In this war the Kalingans were completely routed and “one hundred thousand
were slain and many times that number died”. Though on the battlefield he was victorious
the inscription goes on to describe his remorse which then ultimately turned him towards
Dhamma. A policy of conquest through war was given up and replaced by a policy of
conquest through Dhammavijaya. This was meant to work both at the state and personal
levels and totally transformed attitude of the king and his officials towards their subjects.

13.7.2 Magadha at Ashoka’s Death

Source: EHI-02, Block-5, Unit-18.

The location of various Rock Edicts and Pillar Edicts through which Ashoka preached
his policy of Dhamma gives us a fair idea of the extent of Magadhan empire during his
reign. There are 14 Major Rock Edicts, seven Pillar Edicts and some Minor Rock
Inscriptions which give us this information. The Major Rock Edicts are located at:
 Shahbazgarhi and Maneshra near Peshawar,
 Khalsi near Dehradun, 337
History of India  Sopara in Thane district,
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.  Girnar near Junagarh in Kathiawar,
 Dhauli near Bhuvaneshwar and Jaugada in Gangam district of Odisha.

LEFT: Khalsi Rock-Edict of Ashoka with Names of Greek Kings. Credit: Alexander Cunningham,
Archaeological Survey Of India, Vol. 1, p. 247. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Khalsi_rock_edict_of_Ashoka_with_names_of_
the_Greek_kings.jpg).

RIGHT: Stone-Elephant Carved From Rock at the Site of an Ashokan Inscription at Dhauli. ASI
Monument No. N-OR-59. Credit: Kumar shakti. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Elephant-sculpture-dhauli.JPG).

In Karnataka the Minor Rock Edicts appear, among other places, at:
 Siddapura,
 Jatinga-Rarneshwara, and
 Brahmagiri.
Other Minor Rock Edicts are found at:
 Rupnath near Jabalpur in Madhya Pradesh,
 Sahasram in Bihar,
 Bairat near Jaipur in Rajasthan, and
 Maski in Karnataka.

Full Title ‘Devanampiyasa Piyadasino Asokaraja’ in the Gujjara (Datia District, Madhya Pradesh)
Minor Rock-Edict I. Credit: Ashok.tapase. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gujarra_Devanampiyasa_Piyadasino_Asokaraja.jpg).

The Pillars bearing Asoka’s inscriptions are found at:

338  Delhi (originally located at Topara near Ambala and Meerut);
 Kaushambi in Uttar Pradesh; Establishment of
Mauryan Rule and
 Lauriya Araraj, Lauriya Nandangarh and Rampurva in Bihar, Magadhan Territorial
Expansion
 Sanchi near Bhopal;
 Sarnath near Benaras; and
 Rummindei in Nepal.

LEFT: Ashokan Pillar, Stupa 1, Sanchi Hill. ASI Monument No. N-MP-220. Author: Biswarup
Ganguly. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Ashokan_Pillar_-_Stupa_1_-_Sanchi_Hill_2013-02-21_4361.JPG).

RIGHT: Credit: Eugen Hultzsch. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/

wiki/File:Sarnath_pillar_inscription.jpg).

Exact location of these sites is indicated in the map given above and gives a clear idea
of large territorial spread of the empire under Ashoka. Placement of the edicts also
highlights the care with which they were located on important trade-routes linking river
and road traffic. Therefore, as suggested by recent writings on the subject, access to
raw materials appears to have been the main motivation particularly in controlling the
peninsula.
The Edicts also describe people on borders of the empire and this confirms the delineation
of the empire noted above. In the south are mentioned the Cholas, Pandyas, Sataputras
and Keralaputras as people living outside Mauryan empire. Inside the empire, too,
there were people of diverse origins and cultures. For example, in the north-west are
mentioned the Kambojas and Yavanas. They are mentioned along with other peoples
like Bhojas, Pitinikas, Andhras and Pulindas who can be located in parts of western
India and Deccan.
Apart from studying the locations of Ashoka’s edicts on a map the exact extent of his
empire can be ascertained, to some extent, by distinguishing ‘conquest territories’ (Vijita)
and ‘royal territories’ (Rajavishaya) from the bordering territories (Pratyanta). Just
as the territory of the Seleucid king Antiochus-II lay outside his empire in the north-
west, so were the territories of Cholas, Pandyas, Keralaputras and Satyaputras, as
also the island of Sri Lanka, outside his empire in the south. In east the empire of the
Mauryas seems to have included north and south Bengal.
Magadhan empire, thus, reached its greatest territorial expansion under Ashoka.
However, simultaneously, there was also a conscious attempt to end all wars in his
empire. Extension of the principle of non-violence to state policy was a unique experiment
that was never repeated in the annals of the political history of India. Often in the 339
History of India writings of different historians Ashoka has been idealized as a benevolent despot. This
from the Earliest tends to overlook the more enabled Ashoka to ideologically control a vast empire
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
which, otherwise, would, perhaps, have been difficult to rule. Finally, though the find-
spots of Mauryan inscriptions are on well-known trade routes, some of them bordering
peripheral zones of the empire, it still remains to be conclusively decided whether the
regions, where no evidence of inscriptions is found, were controlled in the same way as
those where they were found.

LEFT: Ashokan Capital Column (Sarnath). Source: EHI-02, Block-5, Unit-18.

RIGHT: Ashokan Pillar at Vaishali, Bihar; c. 3rd Century BCE. Credit: Bpilgrim. Source:
WikimediaCommons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ashoka_pillar_at_
Vaishali,_Bihar,_India.jpg).

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1) Mention which of the statements are correct () or wrong (X).
a) On the advice of Chandragupta, Alexander invaded Magadha. ( )
b) Nanda and Mauryan families were related by blood. ( )
c) Chandragupta was able to defeat Seleucus Nikator. ( )
d) Chandragupta and Bindusara conquered India up to Kanyakumari. ( )
e) Bindusara had contacts with the Seleucid king Antiochus-I. ( )
2) What are the various ways in which the caste/origin of the Mauryan family can be
explained? Give some of the views in about five lines.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
3) Write a note on why there was a change in the policy of conquest under Ashoka?
.....................................................................................................................
340
 ..................................................................................................................... Establishment of
Mauryan Rule and
..................................................................................................................... Magadhan Territorial
Expansion
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
4) Use the code given below to identify which of the following statements about
Ashoka are correct:
i) He was the crown prince and the successor to Bindusara.
ii) During the latter half of his life he turned towards Buddhism.
iii) His inscriptions were inscribed when conquest of a region had been made.
iv) He replaced the policy of conquest of war by conquest of dhamma.
v) In his inscriptions he is usually known as Davanampiya Piyadassi.
Code:
a) ii, iv, v
b) i, iii, iv
c) ii, iii, iv
d) i, iv, v

13.8 SUMMARY
In this Unit we have attempted to introduce to you the way in which the first historical
empire can be studied and also the details on the rise and territorial expansion of Magadha.
It is hoped that after going through this Unit you have been able to learn:
i) importance of the strategic location of Magadha and the factors responsible for its
rise,
ii) sources that can be used for writing about the political history of Magadha, in
particular with the Mauryan rule,
iii) chief events in the early history of Magadha before the rise of Mauryan rule,
iv) explanation about the notion of ‘empire’ in the context of the early period of Indian
history,
v) details pertaining to the origin of Mauryan family and their early history,
vi) expansionist policies of Chandragupta Maurya and Bindusara,
vii) issues surrounding the accession of Ashoka and his activities up to the Kalinga
war, and
viii) the extent of Magadhan empire at the time of the death of Ashoka.

13.9 KEY WORDS

Aggrandizement : Aggression.
Autocratic : An absolute ruler whose authority is unchallenged. 341
History of India Benevolent Despotism : Good or benign ruler but who exerts absolute
from the Earliest control.
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
Chakravarti-Kshetra : Sphere of influence of a chakravarti (universal
emperor).
Confederacy : League or alliance of states.
Contiguous : Adjacent or adjoining each other.
Dhamma/Dharma : Literally “universal order” but in its use in the
Ashokan inscriptions it is translated to mean
“piety”.
Satrapy/Satraoues : A term originally derived from an old Iranian
institution, it referred to the provinces into which
an empire was divided and which were placed
under the charge of the shatraps.
Saptanga : Seven limbs or parts.
Sophist : A philosopher, literally the “one meant to
deceive”.
Surplus : Amount left over when all consumption
requirements have been met. In an economic
sense, the difference between the value of goods
produced and wages paid.
Uttarapatha : Northern route usually referring to the land route
running along the foothills of Himalayas.
Yojanas : A unit of measurement in ancient India.

13.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) c
2) See Sec. 13.3
3) Consult Sec. 13.2
4) a) ×, b) , c) ×, d) ×, e) 
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) c
2) See last part of Sec. 13.4
3) See Sec. 13.5 and 13.6
4) a) ×, b) , c) ×, d) ×, e) 
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
1) a) 5, b) ×, c) , d) ×, e) 
342
2) Consult Sub-sec. 13.7.1 Establishment of
Mauryan Rule and
3) See Sub-sec. 13.7.2 and Map Magadhan Territorial
Expansion
4) Consult Sub-sec. 13.7.1
5) a

13.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

Bongard-Levin, G. (1985). Mauryan India. Delhi.
Nilakanta Sastri, K. A. (ed.) (1952). The Age of the Nandas and Mauryas. Varanasi.
Raychaudhuri, H. C. (1965). Political History of Ancient India. Calcutta, with an
update by B. N. Mukherjee. Calcutta.
Shrimali, K. M. (1985). History of Pancala to c. AD 500. Vols. I and II, Delhi.
Smith, V. (1957). Early History of India from 600 BC to the Muhammadan
Conquest. 4th edn., Oxford.
Thapar, Romila (1988). The Mauryas Revisited. Calcutta.
Thapar, Romila (1997). Asoka and the Decline of the Mauryas. 2nd edn, Delhi.
Trautmann, T. R. (1971). Kautilya and the Arthasastra. Leiden.

343
 UNIT 14 ADMINISTRATIVE ORGANIZATION,
ECONOMY AND SOCIETY*
Structure
14.0 Objectives
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Basis and Beginning of the Mauryan Empire
14.3 Administrative Apparatus
14.3.1 Sources
14.3.2 Kingship
14.3.3 The Amatyas
14.3.4 Army Administration
14.3.5 Espionage Department
14.3.6 Revenue Administration
14.3.7 Judicial System
14.3.8 City Administration
14.3.9 Provincial Administration
14.3.10 Local Administration

14.4 Perceptions of the Mauryan State

14.5 Economy and Society: The Mauryas
14.6 Post-Mauryan Polities
14.6.1 The Shungas and Kharavela
14.6.2 The Indo-Greeks
14.6.3 The Shakas and the Pahlavas
14.6.4 The Kushanas
14.6.5 Non-monarchies/Ganasanghas/Clan-Based Polities
14.6.6 The Shaka-Kshatrapas of Western India
14.6.7 The Satavahanas

14.7 Economy and Society: Post-Mauryas

14.8 Summary
14.9 Key Words
14.10 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
14.11 Suggested Readings

14.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you will:
 know the sources for the reconstruction of the Mauryan administrative system;
 know about the vast administrative apparatus of the Mauryan state;
 know about the different tiers of administration;

* Dr. Kavita Gaur, Assistant Professor, Department of History, Shyama Prasad Mukherjee College,
344 University of Delhi, Delhi.
 understand different perceptions of the Mauryan state; Administrative
Organization,
 know about the economy and society of the Mauryan period; Economy and Society

 understand the emergence of different types of principalities such as the Indo-

Greeks and the Kushanas in the north-west;
 understand the process of state formation in Odisha and the Deccan i.e. during the
Satavahanas; and
 know about the economy and society of the post-Mauryan period.

14.1 INTRODUCTION
The Mauryan period witnessed the formation of the first empire in the Indian subcontinent.
The term ‘empire’ means the vast territory in which the command of the Mauryan
emperor was established. It included diverse regions with varied ethnic groups, different
socio-economic conditions and multiple cultural patterns, and people of different religious
and linguistic backgrounds were brought together under one purview (Chakravarti 2013:
131). The definition of empire indicates heavy responsibility upon the Mauryan rulers
to administer the huge territory of their times. One notices the availability of a diverse
range of primary sources – literary and archaeological – for reconstructing the history
of the Mauryan period. Before delving into the administrative arrangements we must
have a look at the foundation and the duration of this empire.

14.2 BASIS AND BEGINNING OF THE MAURYAN

EMPIRE
The founder of this dynasty was Chandragupta Maurya who overthrew the last Nanda
king – Dhanananda – in c. 321 BCE.
It is believed that he was supported by the influential brahmana – Kautilya – in defeating
the Nandas and taking the throne of Pataliputra. He followed the policy of capturing
territories (the Indus, the Gangetic plains and the far north-west) and laid the territorial
foundation of the Mauryan empire. Bindusara succeeded Chandragupta Maurya and
reigned from 301 to 273 BCE. He made new conquests in the Deccan.
Ashoka, the son of Bindusara, came to the throne around 273 BCE. He is the renowned
king of the Mauryan empire for many reasons. At the time of the death of Bindusara his
empire included practically the whole of the Indian subcontinent except Kalinga.
Chandragupta Maurya added territories and expanded the physical boundaries of the
Mauryan realm. But, Ashoka is credited with uniting the diverse territories through the
policy of Dhamma. According to the Puranas the Mauryan rule lasted for 137 years.
The Mauryan age in Indian history lasted from the late 4th century BCE to the 1st
quarter of the 2nd century BCE (Chakravarti 2013: 131). This period has left an indelible
imprint on Indian history.
Different scholars debate on the origin and caste status of the Mauryas on the basis of
different sources. For instance, the Brahmanical sources imply that they were sudras
and heretics, presumably because each king was patron to a heterodox sect (Thapar
2002: 176). Another source – the Mudrarakshasa – highlights that the mother of
Chandragupta was a slave woman and her name was Mura (Chakravarti 2013: 121).
The Sri Lankan Buddhist text – Mahavamsha – mentions that Chandragupta was
born in Khattiya (kshatriya) Moriya family. And, a 12th century Jain text – the
Parishishtaparvam – states Chandragupta as the grandson of peacock-tamers 345
History of India (mayura-poshakas). The aforesaid is suggestive of the fact that the Mauryan rulers did
from the Earliest not belong to the royal kshatriya status. However, the Buddhist source the Mahavamsha
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
highlights the royal background of the Mauryan rulers. Probably, the association of
Asoka with Buddhism may have been the reason of such portrayal.

14.3 ADMINISTRATIVE APPARATUS

It is beyond doubt that Asoka managed to solidify the huge empire whose foundation
was laid down by Chandragupta Maurya. The working of the vast empire was possible
due to efficient administrative arrangements undertaken in this period.

14.3.1 Sources
The chief sources which throw light upon the nature of the Mauryan administration are:
i) The Arthashastra by Kautilya,
ii) Fragments of Megasthenes’ Indica,
iii) Ashokan inscriptions.
Arthashastra is the first Indian prescriptive text to define a state1 and its functions. It is
ascribed to Kautilya or Chanakya who is considered as the chief minister of Chandragupta
Maurya. There is a debate whether this text on polity describes the functioning of the
state of the Mauryan period or an ideal state. The study by Trautmann proves that the
earliest portion of the text pertaining to the heads of administrative departments belongs
to c. 3rd century BCE i.e. the Mauryan period, and it is not the work of a singular author
(Chakravarti 2013: 118). It consists of 15 sections. This work was discovered by R.
Shamasastry in 1905. It mentions the duties of a king, his council of ministers and the
state officials. The text also throws light upon civil and criminal law and foreign diplomacy.
The problem with this source is that it is a theoretical text and a portion of this text was
composed in the Mauryan period. Therefore, it is argued by many that it does not
reflect the conditions prevailing in the Mauryan period.
Another source is Indica based on the travels and experiences of Megasthenes. He
was the representative of Seleucus Nikator of Arachosia and came as a Greek
ambassador in the court of Chandragupta Maurya (Singh 2009: 324). This Greek
source is available to us in fragments preserved by later writers such as Diodorus,
Strabo and Arrian. It gives details on city administration and social segments on an
organized basis. Romila Thapar points out that Megasthenes envisioned India on the
basis of his understanding of the Seleucid realm of West Asia (Chakravarti 2013: 117).
Upinder Singh highlights that different versions of the fragments of the lost text are
known to us through the works of Diodorus, Strabo and Arrian (Singh 2009: 340).
The most significant archaeological source which throws light on the Mauryan
administration are the Ashokan inscriptions. They are broadly divided into two major
categories – 14 major Rock Edicts and six Pillar Edicts. These Rock and Pillar Edicts
are sets of inscriptions that occur with minor changes at different places. There are
several minor Rock Edicts, minor Pillar Edicts and Cave Inscriptions of Ashoka (Singh
2009: 328). It is interesting to note that these inscriptions provide an insight into Ashoka’s
idea as a king and are a contemporaneous account of the Mauryan period. However,
they provide incidental references related to the Mauryan administration.

1
The term ‘state’ implies the existence of a resource-base capable of generating surplus, and
346 the existence of a structure of relationships of domination and subordination.
Let us now have a look at the functions of the Mauryan administration through the Administrative
window of these sources. The Arthashastra outlines seven essential constituents of the Organization,
Economy and Society
state (saptanga rajya) which are as follows:
i) Svami (the king),
ii) Amatyas (ministers),
iii) Janapada (the territory and the people),
iv) Durga (the fortified capital),
v) Kosha (the treasury),
vi) Danda (justice), and
vii) Mitra (the ally) (Singh 2009: 341).

Source: EHI-02, Block-5, Unit-20.

14.3.2 Kingship
The king is a crucial figure in Mauryan statecraft. He is regarded as the upholder of
varnashrama dharma (Arthashastra 2.1.26). The paternal attitude of the king towards
his subjects is also noticed in the Arthashastra. The text states that the happiness of
the king rested on the happiness of his subjects and the benefits of the king lies in
providing benefits to his subjects (Arthashastra 1.19.34). The daily (day and night)
duties of a king are diligently laid down in this prescriptive treatise (Arthashastra 1.9.16).
The Megasthenes’ account also describes the hectic daily schedule of the ruler and
informs that Chandragupta carried out official affairs even during relaxation time
(Chakravarti 2013: 133). The importance of state affairs is also stressed in Ashokan
inscriptions when one of them states that all important official matters should be
communicated to the ruler even when the latter is in his inner chamber (Rock Edict VI).
The Arthashastra gives final authority to the king in all aspects of administration such
as the appointment and removal of ministers, protection of the treasury, activities for the
welfare of the people and provisions of punishment to the evil. He is given primacy in
determining these affairs. Though the Ashokan inscriptions (Rock Edicts I and II) reflect
the paternal attitude of the ruler towards his subjects, there is a certain authoritative
element visible towards people living in the border areas (Singh 2009: 343).2 The Rock
Edict VIII suggests that the title of devanampiya (Beloved of the Gods) was not limited
to Ashoka; instead, it is seen as the traditional dynastic epithet of the Mauryan rulers
(Chakravarti 2013: 126).

14.3.3 The Amatyas

The Arthashastra states that the work of the state cannot be handled without assistance;
2
The king cautions that not all kind of offences will be forgiven for the people of border areas
(Singh 2009: 343). 347
History of India therefore, amatyas need to be recruited. They are referred to as the wheel of the
from the Earliest chariot of the king. The amatya is a broader term which includes high ranking officials,
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
counsellors and the executive heads of departments. And these high ranking officials
were supposed to be chosen on clearing peculiar test of deception, which shows the
precarious posts held by them. On the other hand, mantri seems to be a specific term
used to refer to the king’s advisors and councillors (Singh 2009: 343). The text also
mentions mantri parishad as the larger body of the heads of various departments. The
term parishad in the Ashokan Rock Edict III appears as directing the officer known as
yukta to carry out certain duties. Further, the Rock Edict VI reveals that the king
should be informed immediately in case of disputes amongst the members of the parishad
(Singh 2009: 343). This is indicative of the fact that the final power vested with the king
and the primary role of the mantri parishad was advisory in nature. Interestingly,
Megasthenes, in his classification of the society into seven classes, refers to the counsellors
and assessors who were smaller in number and held highest position in administration
(Chakravarti 2013: 134). Overall, it can be suggested that the burden of administration
at the apex level was handled by high ranking functionaries (amatyas) than ministers.
If one looks at the Ashokan edicts it is noticed that the mahamatras are designated as
the highest officers. There are specific types of mahamatras mentioned in the Ashokan
inscriptions such as:
 anta-mahamatras as in-charge of frontier areas,
 itijhaka-mahamatras as in-charge of women in general,
 nagalaviyohalaka-mahamatras as in-charge of city administration, and
 dhamma-mahamatras as the special officers appointed for the propagation of
the dhamma policy of Ashoka.
14.3.4 Army Administration
The army was another essential component of the state. A powerful armed force was
required for maintaining frontier areas of the Mauryan empire. The fortified capital
(durga) was possible only with the availability of a military setup. Let us have a look at
the details of the military administration in this period. The Greek accounts suggest that
Sandrocottas (Chandragupta) had a vast territory under his rule which was made possible
due to his vast army comprising 600,000 soldiers. Though the numerical strength of the
army may have been an exaggerated figure, yet it indicates that the Mauryan state had
huge manpower resources. The victory over Kalinga by Ashoka also speaks of the
magnificent army of the Mauryas.
On the basis of Greek texts, the administration of the army was carried out by the
following six boards, each consisting of five members:
 the first board was concerned with naval affairs,
 second looked after the supply of provisions for the army with the help of bullock-
carts,
 the third board was in-charge of infantry,
 fourth took headship of cavalry,
 fifth was regarded as the in-charge of chariots, and
 sixth was in-charge of the elephant corps.
Hence, the Greek sources throw light on the administration of the army through committee
setup. The Arthashastra places different units of the armed forces under different
heads of department (adhyaksha). For instance:
348
 navadhyaksha as the supervisor of naval activities, Administrative
Organization,
 goadyaksha for bullock-cart management, Economy and Society

 patyadhyaksha as in-charge of infantry,

 rathadhyaksha as in-charge of chariots, and
 hastyadyaksha as in-charge of elephant corps.
Thus, we have seen that both Greek sources and Arthashastra talk about the
composition of the army into different units.
The text also mentions senapati as the commander of the army whose annual salary
was 48,000 panas. There is a historical reference to senapati of the Mauryan army –
Pushyamitra Sunga, the commander-in-chief of the last known Mauryan ruler Brihadratha
(Chakravarti 2013: 136). Besides, there is also a mention of a separate department to
look after the production and maintenance of a variety of armaments whose chief was
known as Ayudhagaradhyaksha. A doubt has been raised over this issue whether the
Mauryan army maintained regular navy or not. This is due to the fact that in the
navadhyaksha section of the text the subject of discussion was only riverine vessels,
not sea-going crafts. Kautilya also recognises that the fighting forces were recruited
from forest dwellers (aranya vaasin/van vaasin) (Chakravarti 2013: 136).

14.3.5 Espionage Department

Another important department which was closely linked with the armed forces was
espionage department. The well established system of espionage network is elaborated
in the Arthashastra. It provides detailed account of secret agents. Broadly, they are
divided into two types:
 stationary secret agents (samstha), and
 roving secret agents (sanchara).
The head of secret service was known as samahartta whose task was the collection
of revenue. In order to verify the information collected by these spies Kautilya states
that the information gathered by roving spies should be routed through stationary spies
to the head of secret service (Chakravarti 2013: 137). The main tasks of the spies are
stated as:
i) keeping an eye over the ministers,
ii) reporting on government officials,
iii) collecting impressions regarding the feelings of citizens, and
iv) to know the secrets of foreign rulers.
These spies were supposed to adopt various guises like ascetics, students, householders
etc.
The Ashokan inscriptions also mention the terms- pativedakas and pulisani who were
supposed to report public views to the king. The term pativedakas appears to have
been used for spies and pulisani for high ranking officials (Singh 2009: 345). The
classical texts also mention the term episcopoi as the most reliable people in the Mauryan
administration. This term may have been used for spies of the Mauryan realm (Chakravarti
2013: 137).
349
History of India 14.3.6 Revenue Administration
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E. The maintenance of the administrative officials of different grades suggests the
requirement and organization of the resources of the state. Therefore, revenue
administration (kosha) is the essential component of the saptaanga rajya in
Arthashastra. The text mentions Samahartri as the chief collector of revenue and
seen as an in-charge of maintaining accounts, and samnidhartri is regarded as the
treasurer of the royal stores (Singh 2009: 344). The chief collector was supposed to
look after the collection of revenue from these seven heads:
i) the fortified urban area (durga),
ii) the countryside (rashtra),
iii) mines (khani),
iv) irrigation projects (setu),
v) forest (vana),
vi) pasture grounds (vraja), and
vii) trade routes (vanika path).
All these resources had their own sources of collection in their areas. For example, the
cities collected revenues in the form of fines, sales tax (sulka), excise on sale of liquor,
a kind of income-tax imposed on the rich, etc. The text enlists approximately 22 taxes
which were supposed to be collected from the urban area (durga). The revenues from
the rural areas were appropriated by the state in the form of income from crown lands
(sita), land revenue (bhaga) from cultivators, taxes on orchards, ferry charges, etc. As
all the mines were under the control of the state the mineral wealth was a regular source
of income for the state. Taxes were levied on merchants travelling by road or water-
ways. Taxes were also levied on exports and imports. Land tax constituted an important
source of revenue. The rate of bhaga during Mauryan times is likely to be at least 1/6th
of the produce. It is only the Arthashastra which states that the irrigation cess
(udakabhaga) levied on cultivators ranged from 1/5th to 1/3rd. However, according to
some scholars it is unlikely that the Mauryas levied this tax on the farmers (Chakravarti
2013: 138).

Source: EHI-02, Block-5, Unit-20.

There were certain collections made directly by the state from concerned people. For
example, the gamblers were supposed to part with 5% of their winnings to the state and
the merchants had to pay when their weights were tested and certified by the state
officials. The state control over armament industry and salt trade increased its revenues.
The state was also empowered to impose taxes in case of emergency from:
350
 peasants, Administrative
Organization,
 merchants, Economy and Society

 artisans, and
 even courtesans.
There were various departments to collect, regulate and manage state revenues. The
details of the Arthashastra clearly indicate the fact that an active role was played by
state over the economy of the times. It is interesting to note that for the purpose of the
collection of revenue the text recognises the importance of even non-agrarian pursuits
as well as the profession of prostitution.
Most of the revenue collections which went to the state treasury had their outflow in the
form of expenditure. This can be described with the help of this flow-chart:

Source: EHI-02, Block-5, Unit-20.

This figure shows that the revenue of state was expected to be utilized for different
purposes. The major part of revenue appears to be used in the maintenance of armed
forces, payment of salaries to the state officials and king’s expenses. The state must
have also spent a substantial portion for the promotion of religious activities and gifting.
As discussed above, the special class of dhamma mahamatras was created for the
propagation of Ashoka’s dhamma. The text Divyavdana recounts the fact that Ashoka
sent his son Mahinda and daughter Sanghamitra on a mission to disseminate Buddhism
into Sri Lanka. Further, in the inscriptions it is noticed that he reduced the taxes of
agricultural produce of the villages of Lumbini to 1/8th. It was due to the fact that
Lumbini was the birthplace of the Buddha (Chakravarti 2013: 138). The keen interest
towards public welfare activities is noticed in Ashokan inscriptions as well as in the
Arthashastra. Like, in the inscription of Rudradaman (dated in the middle of 2nd century
CE) there is mention of the construction of a water reservoir (tadaga) called Sudarshana
during Chandragupta’s time. This was, obviously, built to facilitate the supply of water.
There are many references to medicine men of various kinds during this period, like
ordinary physicians (chikitsaka), midwives (garbhavyadhi) etc. From Ashokan
inscriptions we know that medical treatment and medicines were available to both men
and animals. The Arthashastra mentions that the king should look after orphans, old
unattended women etc. We are not certain to what extent these were actually carried
out at the time of the Mauryan rule. Another important aspect of public works –
construction and repair of roads and opening inns – is also the subject matter of the
text.

14.3.7 Judicial System

In order to maintain social order, smooth functioning of the administrative system and
flow of revenues to the state, an orderly legal system is the prerequisite. Danda is the
351
History of India sixth element of administration and understood as force or justice in the Arthashastra.
from the Earliest This text elaborately discusses the administration of justice. Judges are called dharmastha
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
and pradeshtri are referred to as the officers responsible for the suppression of the
criminals (Singh 2009: 347). The king was the upholder of dharma and held supreme
judicial power. The Arthashastra is full of codes listing punishments for various offences.
These included a vast range from violation of marriage laws, divorce, murder,
adulteration, wrong weights etc. There were different courts to try the offenders of law
or settle disputes at various levels.
Two kinds of courts are mentioned in the Arthashastra:
 Dharmasthiya were the courts which decided personal disputes, and
 kantakshodhana as the courts which decided upon matters related to individuals
and the state
For example, the first kind of courts would settle issues related to disputes over
stridhana (wife’s wealth) or marriages etc.; and the second category of courts dealt
with wages to workers, conduct of workers, murder, etc. The punishment ranged from
fines to mutilation of limbs to death. According to Megasthenes the incidence of crime
committed in Mauryan India was not very high. But, the range of punishments mentioned
in the Arthashastra indicates that the breakage of laws and crime were not uncommon
in the Mauryan social fabric. This may have led to the mention of detailed severe penal
code in the text. The penalties in the Arthashastra are based on Varna hierarchies,
meaning that for the same kind of offence a brahmana was punished much less severely
than a sudra.

14.3.8 City Administration

Let us have a look at the administration of the urban town. Megasthenes has given a
vivid description of city administration of Pataliputra, probably the apex centre of the
Mauryas. The officer-in-charge of city administration was known as astynomoi. In this
account, the city council is divided into the following six committees, each committee
consisting of five members:
1) The first committee looked after industry and crafts. Its functions included inspection
of such centres, fixing the wages, etc.
2) The second committee looked after the foreigners. Its functions included arranging
for their food, stay and comfort, security, etc.
3) The third committee’s work was registration of births and deaths.
4) The fourth committee was supposed to look after trade and commerce, and its
functions included inspection of weights and measures, controlling the market, etc.
5) The fifth committee inspected the manufactured goods, made provisions for their
sale and a strict watch was kept to distinguish between new and second-hand.
6) The sixth committee was supposed to collect taxes on the goods sold.
These committees defined the nature of the activities of city administration. The plan of
administration of the city and bureaucratic head is also noticed in the Arthashastra.
Like, it mentions that the head of city administration was called nagarika. Sthanika
and gopa were subordinate officers under him. Interestingly, according to the treatise
the functions of the fourth committee were performed by Panyadhyaksha, the collection
352
of taxes (sixth committee) was the responsibility of Sulkadhyaksha and the registration Administrative
of births and deaths was the work of Gopa. Besides these, there were a host of officials Organization,
Economy and Society
whose functions have been elaborately defined. For example:
 the Bandhanagaradhyaksha looked after the jail,
 Rakshi, i.e. the police, was to look after the security of the people,
 the centres where goods were manufactured was looked after by a host of
superintendents like the Lohadhyaksha, Sauvarnika, etc.
The Arthashastra also refers to a variety of activities related to city administration. The
nagalviyohalak mahamatras of Ashokan inscriptions certainly appear as being
associated with city administration (Singh 2009: 345). Thus, we can say that city
administration, as reflected in these sources, was elaborate and well planned.

14.3.9 Provincial Administration

The vast Mauryan empire could not function only from Pataliputra, the administrative
capital or apex centre of the Mauryas. It required centres of control at the provincial
and local level for administering the vast territory. The heads of provincial centres were
governors appointed by the ruler. The governor was, in turn, assisted by Mahamatyas
(Mahamatras during Ashoka’s period) and a council of ministers. It is believed that the
council of ministers at provincial level not only acted as a check on the governor, but, at
times, had direct relations with the king. In Ashokan edicts (Dhauli and Jaugada)
there is a reference that three provincial capitals – Tosali (in the east), Ujjain (in the
west), and Taxila (in the north) – were governed under the charge of Kumara (a prince
of royal blood). In the Major Rock Edict I Ashoka directly instructs local officers to
issue orders for tour of inspection, whereas the kumara was not informed. This suggests
that all kumaras did not have equal power in governing their provincial centres.
Another provincial capital – Suvarnagiri (in the south) – was under the charge of
Aryaputra. The term aryaputra probably refers to the eldest son of the family (according
to Panini’s Ashtadhyayi). Hence, it suggests the exalted status of aryaputra in
comparison to kumara. Possibly, the provincial centre of south (Suvarnagiri) given to
the eldest son indicates the rich resource region being delegated to the one who was
eldest and most responsible. (Chakravarti 2013: 139).
Certain areas within the province were administered by governors who may have been
minor rulers of their areas. We can say this because the Junagadh inscription of
Rudradaman mentions Tushaspa – a yavana – as the governor of Junagadh area during
the time of Ashoka. The same inscription, however, says that during Chandragupta
Maurya’s time his representative in that area was a vaisya Pushyagupta.
It is interesting to note that these governors did not carry the designation of royal prince.
Further, it needs to be pointed out that the term yavana stands for people of West Asia
and Tushaspa is an Iranian name. They both appear to be situated outside the royal
blood lineage (Chakravarti 2013: 140). Hence, it could be suggested here that in the
Mauryan empire there was an existence of diverse administrative units entrusted to
provincial authorities of different types.

353
History of India
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.

Junagadh Inscription of Rudradaman. Source: Epigraphia Indica Vol. VIII published in 1905.
Author: J. F. Fleet. Web Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Junagadh_inscription_of_Rudradaman_(portion).jpg).

14.3.10 Local Administration

The Ashokan edicts mention that provincial administration was further subdivided into
district level and the terms janapada and ahara are used for it. The important officers
at district level were:
 pradeshika,
 rajuka, and
 yukta.
These officers were supposed to go on tours every five years in order to instruct people
in dhamma and for other purposes (Singh 2009: 344). The pradeshika was regarded
as the overall in-charge of the district. His other functions included:
 survey and assessment of the land,
 collection of revenue, and
 maintenance of law and order.
The term rajju means rope; this reference may be related to the measurement of land
using a rope. Bongard Levin suggests that the rajukas of the aforementioned inscription
can be seen as similar to agronomoi of Megasthenes’ account. In the classical source
354
he is referred to as being engaged with the measurement of land for the purpose of Administrative
revenue assessment (Singh 2009:344). Similar meaning of rajuka is noticed in the Pali Organization,
Economy and Society
texts wherein the term rajjuggahakamachcha is used to denote the officer holding the
rope. His role as a settlement-officer holding a rope to measure the field suggests a
similar role discussed above (Chakravarti 2013: 141). Yukta was the junior officer
who provided secretarial assistance to the other two officers.
At the local level Kautilya recommends that the king should establish a headquarter
known as sthaniya which consisted of 800 villages, a dronamukha of 400 villages, a
karvatika of 200 villages and a samgrahana of 10 villages. The village was the lowest
unit of administration. Sthanika was the officer-in-charge of the district. Under him
were the gopas, the people in-charge of units ranging from 5 to 10 villages. Gramika
was the headman of the village (Singh 2009: 344). However, it is not possible to ascertain
whether local level of administration as mentioned in the theoretical text was also practised
in Mauryan period.
The sources for reconstructing Mauryan administration have advantages as well as
limitations. However, an attempt to draw comparison amongst these sources has been
helpful to reconstruct the administrative apparatus of the Mauryan empire. Though one
has to be cautioned that the Arthashastra is a prescriptive text and discusses the ideal
plan of the administrative setup (not the actual Mauryan administration) the fact cannot
be denied that a text like this, with such detailed accounts, would not have been written
without any historical background. And, the comparison of references from the Ashokan
edicts and Megasthenes’ account has helped in envisioning the nature of Mauryan state.
Ashokan edicts also throw light over administrative officials and directives given to
them from time to time. And Megasthenes’ account conveys the urban administrative
setup from a specific angle. The correlation of evidences helps in sketching the elements
which constituted the Mauryan system.

14.4 PERCEPTIONS OF THE MAURYAN STATE

There are different perceptions of the Mauryan state known to us. The popular view is
that the Mauryas established a uniform and highly centralized state system (Chakravarti
2013: 133). It means that the royal control over people, produce and resources was
homogeneously applied in all regions of the empire. However, an opposite stand is
visible in the writing of I. W. Mebbet (1972) who questioned the idea of centralized
control in his book titled “Truth, Myth and Politics in Ancient India.” Further, Gerard
Fussman stated, “given the extent of the empire and the communication networks of the
time the Mauryan empire could not possibly have been centralized” (Singh 2009: 340).
The centralized control presumes vast empire being maintained in a unified manner and
the directives of control being applied uniformly in all parts of the empire. However,
different political institutions such as monarchy and republican states are noticed in
Arthashastra. It is quite plausible that the degree of centralized administrative control
varied from place to place as well as from officials to officials. Some regions may have
been economically fertile; highest ranks of officials were placed there to extract maximum
revenue from those regions. For instance, different provincial centres were allocated to
different officials of the Mauryan state. On the other hand, an attempt to homogenize
the diverse cultures is noticed in the dhamma policy of Ashoka. It was used as a
political and administrative tool to accommodate diverse cultural practices within a
common code of conduct. An attempt to regulate diverse economies through the
provisions mentioned in the Arthashastra is also visible. The taxation mechanism suggests
the collection of resources from diverse economic activities.
355
History of India Romila Thapar in her earlier work “Ashoka and the Decline of the Mauryas (1961)”
from the Earliest viewed Mauryan empire being governed under a centralized mechanism. However,
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
later, she revised her arguments in another work, “The Mauryas Revisited (1987)” and
suggested that the empire entailed diverse regions with different economies, polities
and cultural milieu. Therefore, she pointed out that a three tier administrative structure –
metropolitan, core and peripheral – must have been prevalent in the Mauryan period.
Magadha was a metropolitan state where direct royal orders of the Mauryan ruler
were imposed. The core areas included Koshala, Vatsa, Avanti and Gandhara that
were either centres of trade or areas where the state system has just begun. And, the
areas which were situated at a long distance from Pataliputra were the peripheral areas
like the north-western borderlands and peninsular regions. These areas can be seen as
the ones where the state system had not started.
Hence, one can notice that instead of defining the nature of the Mauryan administration
as either “centralized” or “decentralized” it can be defined as having some elements of
centralized control at the apex level and significant amount of transfer of authority at the
provincial, district and village levels. The relationship between the metropolitan state,
core and peripheral areas varied and it was based on the extraction of resources from
core and distant areas. However, an attempt was made to give the political system a
degree of uniformity through the dhamma policy which was an administrative tool of
Ashoka (Singh 2009: 341). It suggests that the concept of state is not only related with
polity or administrative control; the economical and societal considerations were also
reorganizing the structure of the Mauryan state.

14.5 ECONOMY AND SOCIETY: THE MAURYAS

The discussion on revenue administration in the above section also throws light upon
crucial matters related to the economy of the Mauryan period. The Arthashastra informs
that the revenue was collected through taxes levied on urban and rural areas, irrigation
projects, mines and forested areas, and trade routes. Thus, a tightened control over the
economy by state is visible in this theoretical text. However, how far it was applicable
in the real scenario is uncertain. The economy of northern India was primarily agricultural.
An attempt to expand the areas of cultivation through agricultural policies of the state
(janapadanivesha) is noticed in Arthashastra (Chakravarti 2013: 151). The manual
also mentions the presence of private ownership of land apart from the state owned
land (sita). The private landowners paid a part as tax to the state.
The provision of irrigation facilities is intimately linked with agricultural production. In
this period the state and individual initiative in providing irrigation facilities to the people
can be seen. For instance, Megasthenes’ account informs us that there was a specific
officer-in-charge (agronomoi) in the countryside whose duty was to provide irrigation
facilities to cultivators. The Arthashastra also talks about two types of irrigation projects
being undertaken by the state. One hydraulic project was the provision of water through
natural sources while the other functioned through artificial means. Interestingly, the text
mentions the irrigation tax (udaka bhaaga) for availing irrigation services (Chakravarti
2013: 152). The Junagarh inscription of Rudradaman I, the post-Mauryan ruler, mentions
that one of the governors during the reign of Chadragupta Maurya constructed a dam
across a river near Girnar in western India. That dam is known as Sudarshana lake and
was built to supply water for the region (Thapar 2002: 187).
Kautilya’s account states that textile manufacturing was another state controlled
enterprise. And the details of employees, the amount of production and salary are
clearly laid out in the text. It is interesting to note that women workers were also employed
356
in textile manufacturing unit (Chakravarti 2013: 154). However, it is unlikely that all Administrative
textile production took place under the supervision of state. As textile manufacturing Organization,
Economy and Society
has been seen as an economic activity since earlier times it could be stated that an
attempt to organize the work force for the production of textiles is noticed in the
Arthashastra.
Similarly, supervision over trade and commerce is noticed in the sources of Mauryan
period. The Greek accounts mention that the city officers were supposed to look after
urban affairs which included:
 inspection of manufactured goods,
 the quantity and quality of goods, and
 tax on sold goods.
The Arthashastra also mentions that panyadhyaksha, i.e. the superintendent of trade
kept an eye over merchants. This head was supposed to be aware of:
 the goods brought in the market,
 ways in which the goods were brought,
 amount of profit, and
 the change in demand and prices of various commodities.
Urban taxes such as duties on imported and exported goods are also mentioned in the
text. Archaeological excavations indicate that this period witnessed agrarian and urban
expansion in continuation of the earlier period. Urban growth also brought about an
expansion of crafts, trade and guild organization. The remains of wooden Mauryan
palace and pillared hall have been found from the metropolitan area Pataliputra. The
discovery of a large number of seals suggest Bhita site in the upper Ganga valley as an
important trade centre of the Mauryan period. Evidence of specialized crafts activities
such as terracotta craft, copper and iron working, and bead-making have been noticed
in Mathura region. Similarly, the findings of mud brick walls, ring wells and a circular
barn suggests Atranjikhera as an urban centre (Singh 2009: 336). It could be suggested
here that in order to extract maximum revenue from diverse economic activities the
Arthashastra laid emphasis upon the state control over economy.
These sources also talk about the social conditions in the Mauryan period. According
to Megasthenes Indian society was divided into seven groups:
 philosophers,
 farmers,
 soldiers,
 herdsmen,
 artisans,
 magistrates, and
 councillors.
These were understood as castes and it was stated that no one was allowed to change
profession and marry outside their groups (Thapar 2002: 190). Megasthenes appears
to define social groups in terms of their occupations instead of social status. And, the 357
History of India Arthashastra upholds the Brahmanical ideal of social order and emphasizes upon the
from the Earliest maintenance of varna and asrama systems. An interesting picture of an unequal society
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
emerges from Ashokan inscriptions wherein the brahmanas and nobles are regarded
as arya, slaves and servants as dasabhataka, wealthy persons as mahat and low
persons as khudaka (Chakravarti 2013: 150).
The Arthashastra mentions that the ideal form of marriage is within the varna but
outside the gotra, i.e the practice of endogamy is highlighted here. If we look at the
Allahabad-Kosam Queen’s edict Karuvaki is mentioned as the second queen of Ashoka.
It highlights the practice of polygamy in society. Karuvaki is represented as queen and
mother of the prince. It suggests that the identity of queen is highlighted in relation to
male members of the family, which is a prominent feature of the patriarchal society.
Women are represented in the Arthashastra as undertaking diverse range of economic
activities. They appear to be employed as royal bodyguards and state spies. Poor
women, widows and prostitutes are also viewed as being employed for spinning and
weaving activities inside and outside their households. Kautilya also seems to recognize
the profession of prostitutes and outlines the appointment of Ganikadhyaksha for the
regulation of their profession. Hence, this prescriptive text appears to bring all sorts of
women under the ambit of the generation of revenues for the state. The economic
concerns of the state influenced the reorganization of social groups and society at large.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) What are the sources for the study of Mauryan administration?
.....................................................................................................................
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2) Was the Arthashastra written down in the Mauryan period? Discuss.
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3) Are Ashokan inscriptions more reliable source for the Mauryan history than the
Arthashastra?
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358
4) Write few lines on the city administration of the Mauryan empire. Administrative
Organization,
..................................................................................................................... Economy and Society

.....................................................................................................................
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5) Was the Mauryan state a centralized state? Elucidate. Was Dhamma an
administrative tool of the state?
.....................................................................................................................
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6) i) Match the following:
1) Navadhyaksha a) Head of elephant corps
2) Rathadhyaksha b) Head of Infantry
3) Hastyadhyaksha c) Head of naval affairs
4) Patyadhyaksha d) Head of Chariots
ii) Match the following:
1) Kosha a) Tax from cultivators
2) Bhaaga b) Secret agents
3) Ayudhagaradhyaksha c) Incharge of city administration
4) Astynomoi d) Revenue administration
5) Samstha e) Head of Armament production unit
7) Mark right () or wrong (×) against the following statements:
1) In the Arthashastra the dharmasthiyas are mentioned as courts dealing
with matters related to personal disputes whereas kantakshodhana dealt
with matters where the state and individuals were concerned. ( )
2) The Sthanika and Gopa are referred to as subordinate officers in rural
administration. ( )
3) The City Council, according to Megasthenes, was divided into six committees
and each committee consisted of five members. ( )
4) All provincial capitals were governed through Kumara, the prince of royal
blood. ( )
5) The term astynomoi is used for the officers of rural administration in Greek
accounts. ( )
359
History of India
from the Earliest 14.6 POST-MAURYAN POLITIES
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
The period between c. 200 BCE to 300 CE is perceived as the period of crisis in the
early works of historians due to the presence of foreign rulers and absence of a large
territorial structure in the Indian subcontinent. Recent studies highlight that it is one of
the dynamic periods in terms of extensive economic engagements and cultural
developments. Different types of polities were witnessed at this time. Foreign tribes of
central and West Asia established their political rule in the north-west region. The
emergence of monarchical polity was noticed in the Deccan and Odisha region.
Simultaneously, the rise of non-monarchical groups was seen in the northern and central
India.

Credit: PHG Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/

File:SatavahanaMap.jpg).

14.6.1 The Shungas and Kharavela

The breakup of the Mauryan empire was followed by the rise of a number of monarchies
in different parts of the Indian subcontinent. Pushyamitra, the senapati of the Mauryan
army, is believed to have killed the last Mauryan king Brihadratha and established the
Shunga dynasty. It is widely accepted amongst historians that the emergence of Shunga
empire could be seen as an attempt at Brahmanical revival after widespread patronage
to Buddhism in the Mauryan rule. The Divyavdana gives stories of Pushyamitra’s
cruelty and his hatred towards Buddhism (Singh 2009: 372).

Shungas’ realm extended to only a part of the Mauryan empire. It included Pataliputra,
Ayodhya and Vidisha. In some places viceroys were placed to look after the governance.
The Shungas are believed to belong to the brahmana bhardvaja gotra. They tried to
revive Vedic practices and sacrifices. The Ayodhya stone inscription of king Dhana
refers to Pushyamitra as the performer of two ashvamedha sacrifices (Singh 2009:
372). The last Shunga king, Devabhuti, became a victim of conspiracy devised by his
brahmana minister Vasudeva who founded the Kanva dynasty. It was a short-lived
rule. In Magadha the Kanvas made way for the Mitra dynasty in 30 BCE. The Mitras
were eventually displaced by the Shakas.

360
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Shunga and its Contemporary Empires (c. 185-75 BCE). Credit: Windy City Dude. Source:
Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sunga_map.jpg).
Kharavela emerged as an important ruler in the coastal and eastern part of Odisha
around mid 1st century BCE. He belonged to the Meghvahana lineage associated with
the Chedis (Thapar 2002: 211). Kalinga was an independent kingdom under his rule.
He is said to have raided a major part of the country including Magadha and the
Satavahana and Pandya countries. He was an ardent follower of Jainism. The
Hathigumpha inscription records the conquest, patronage and welfare of subjects of
this ruler. Kalinga was associated as one of the centres of Mauryan administration. The
process of state formation in this area was seen as the result of interaction with the
Mauryan empire. Some features of the Mauryan empire, like respect for different
religious practices and welfare issue of the subjects, were given consideration by
Kharavela in this region. The Hathigumpha inscription records the patronage given to
Jain monks and the fact that brahmanas were also exempted from taxes; respect
towards every sect; and construction of canals and tanks for the purpose of irrigation
(Thapar 2002: 212-213). He continued the use of punch-marked coins. However, the
dynasty did not last for a long time and disappeared after the death of Kharavela.

LEFT: Hathigumpha Rock Inscription of King Kharavela of Kalinga. Attribution: Windrider

24584 Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Hatigumfa.jpg).
RIGHT: Udayagiri Caves Complex, Home to the Hathigumpha Inscription, near Bhubaneswar,
Odisha. ASI Monument No. N-OR-62. Credit: Bernard Gagnon. Source: Wikimedia Commons
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Udayagiri_Caves_-_Rani_Gumpha_01.jpg). 361
History of India 14.6.2 The Indo-Greeks
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E. The Greeks of Bactria were originally kshatraps (subordinate rulers) of Seleucid empire
of West Asia. Bactria is the ancient name of modern northern Afghanistan. In mid 3rd
century BCE there was a revolt against Seleucid empire and independent Bactria was
carved out. These Bactrians extended their kingdom and reached to the south of the
Hindukush mountains. Around 145 BCE they lost their control over Bactria and
established control in north-western part of the Indian subcontinent (Singh 2009: 373).
The Bactrian Greeks who ruled in the north-west part of India between c. 2nd century
BCE to 1st century CE are known as Indo-Greeks (Singh 2009: 373).

LEFT: Indo-Greek Kingdoms in c. 100 BC. Credit: Thomas Lessman. Source: Wikimedia
Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Indo-Greeks_100bc.jpg).

RIGHT: The Heliodorus Pillar, Erected Around 113 BCE, Commissioned by the Indo-Greek
Ambassador Heliodorus who was one of the Earliest Recorded Indo-Greek Converts to Hinduism,
Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh. It is the 1st known inscription related to Vaishnavism in India. Credit:
Public.Resource.Org. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Heliodorus_pillar_inscription.jpg).

14.6.3 The Shakas and the Pahlavas

The Shakas belonged to the Scythian ethnic stock living in Jaxartes (central Asia).
Around 2nd century BCE, due to a series of tribal movements in central Asia, the Shakas
were displaced and they entered north-western part of the Indian subcontinent. Parthia
is a place in Iran and people of this area are known as Parthians. The term ‘Shaka-
Pahlava’ is used for various groups of invaders who came from Parthia to north-west
India in the 1st century BCE (Singh 2009: 375). The history of the Shakas-Pahlavas is
known through inscriptions and coins. An inscription from Taxila mentions a Shaka king
Moga and his kshatrapa (governor) Patika. Some coins suggest the practice of conjoint
rule. For instance, Spalirises and Azes I seem to have been co-rulers at a time. Another
important ruler was Gondophernes. In his coins the position of governor and military
governor is mentioned. Regarding the nature of polity it is understood that the Shakas’
kingdom was divided into provinces. Each province was under a military governor
362 known as mahakshtrapa. And, further subdivision of provinces was under a lesser
governor known as kshatrapa. They were also known as subordinate rulers. These Administrative
kshatrapas are seen as issuing inscriptions and minting coins in their own right. Hence, Organization,
Economy and Society
it appears that these governors enjoyed independent status rather than being state officials
working under the direction of their rulers. The Shakas carried out their administration
on the basis of Achaemenid and Seleucid systems in Iran (Thapar 2002: 220). The role
of kshatrapas and mahashtrapas in the expansion of their empire has been duly
recognised in history.

Indo-Scythian Kingdom at its Greatest Extent (c. 150 BCE-400 CE). Credit: DLommes. Source:
Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:IndoScythianKingdom.svg).

14.6.4 The Kushanas

Another centralAsian force which entered into the Indian subcontinent was the Kushanas.
They were a branch of the Yueh-chi tribe. The Yueh-chi tribe earlier belonged to central
Asia and was later displaced by Wu-sun and moved westwards. At this point there was
a split in the tribe into two parts – Great Yueh-chi and Little Yueh-chi. The former
moved to the Tibet region and the latter moved further west and finally settled down in
Afghanistan. The great Yueh-chi was divided into five principalities in the valley of Oxus.
One of the principalities was the Kushanas. Around the beginning of the 1st century CE
Kujula Kadphises amalgamated the five principalities and laid the foundation of an
unified Kushana empire. Coins of Kujula Kadphises have been found in the south of
the Hindukush region. His successor, Vima Kadphises, earlier acted as a co-ruler along
with his father and later ruled independently. He conquered Kandahar region from the
Parthians and established his control over the Indus valley and Mathura region (Singh
2009: 376).
The Kushana empire reached its height under the ruler Kanishka. Most scholars accept
that his reign began in 78 CE and that his successors dated their inscriptions in an era
beginning from this year (Singh 2009: 376). During Kanishka’s reign the empire extended
in east till the Ganga valley and southwards in the Malwa region. Kushanas’ influence
was noticed in western and central India as well where the Shaka-Kshatrapas recognised
the overlordship of Kushana rulers. Kanishka’s rule in Pataliputra and Champa in Bihar
is attested in the Rabatak inscription (Chakravarti 2013: 178). The Chinese source
Hou-Han-shu indicates that the Kushanas became powerful and wealthy due to their
conquest over the lower Indus region.
B. N. Mukherjee opined that the mining areas of Malwa region and the trade potential
in lower Indus region led to the expansion of Kushanas in these areas. Further, it was
argued that the decline in trading relations with the Makran coast led to the decline of
the Kushanas (Singh 2009: 377). This argument is suggestive of the fact that economic 363
History of India factor played an important role in the expansion of the Kushana rulers. Kanishka’s
from the Earliest empire probably included most of Afghanistan, easternmost part of China and extended
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
up to the north of Oxus valley in central Asia. The inclusion of vast regions proved to be
a major stimulus to trade (Singh 2009: 377). In other words, the vast empire played a
key role in facilitating trade from China to West Asia through India. The great Silk
Route passed through the northern portion of the Kushana empire.

Extent of Ancient Silk Route. Credit: Whole_world_-_land_and_oceans_12000.jpg: NASA/

Goddard Space Flight Center. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/File:Silk_route.jpg).

Formerly, the Kushana empire was a central Asian kingdom. Later, it expanded to
Afghanistan and north-western India. The centre of this vast empire was Bactria. In
India, Purushapura (Peshawar) and Mathura were two important capitals of the Kushana
power. The immediate successors of Kanishka were Vasishka, Huvishka, Kanishka I
and Vasudeva I. The Kushana power declined by mid 2nd century CE (Singh 2009:
377). The Kushana rulers took grand titles like:
 devaputra (son of heaven),
 maharajadhiraja (king of kings),
 soter (saviour), and
 kaisara (Caesar).
Thapar has suggested that these titles were borrowed from Persians, Chinese and
Romans; and the practice of depicting a halo on the portraits of Kushana rulers has
been followed after the Mediterranean customs (Thapar 2002: 223). These titles suggest
that in order to establish their authority over lesser kings and chiefs of those times
Kushana kings adopted them. On the one hand, they were making an attempt to legitimize
their position in their empire; on the other hand, the impact of central Asian traditions is
also visible in the wake of taking these titles. The administrative system of Kushanas
does not appear to be a centralized one. Different regions of the vast empire seem to
have had different degrees of control. Some regions were under the direct rule of the
king while other regions were under the control of lesser governors – the ksatrapas.
There were other regions which accepted the overlordship of Kushana rulers and
governed their territories in their own manner. Hence, a three-tier system of control is
known in Kanishka’s time:
 direct control,
 control through the local kshatrapas, and
 that through the subordinate rulers.
Kanishka is regarded as a great patron of Buddhism. He is credited for the establishment
364 of a stupa at Purushapura and sending missions to propagate Buddhism to Kashgar,
Yunan and China. A Buddhist council was held in his reign. Surprisingly, in his coins Administrative
different religious deities – Indian, Greek and West Asian – are represented. This Organization,
Economy and Society
suggests that an attempt was made by him to acknowledge religious diversity in the
composition of his empire. This may have been part of the royal policy to connect the
rulers with different religious tendencies that existed in their vast empire. The state tried
to sustain and perpetuate itself by accommodating the essentials of divergent
communities.

LEFT: Headless Statue of Kanishka, Mathura Musuem. Credit: Biswarup Ganguly. Source:
Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kanishka_enhanced.jpg).
RIGHT: Kanishka Inaugurates Mahayana Buddhism: Illustration from an Oil Painting on Canvas,
1910. Credit: Ambrose Dudley. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/
wiki/File:Kanishka-Inaugurates-Mahyana-Buddhism.jpg).

LEFT: Coin of Kanishka with Greek Lettering “ΒΟΔΔΟ” (i.e. Buddha). Credit: Classical
Numismatic Group, Inc. (http://www.cngcoins.com). Photo Courtesy: Wikimedia Commons (https:/
/commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Coin_of_Kanishka_I.jpg).
RIGHT: Qila Mubarak fort at Bathinda, Punjab built by Kanishka. Credit: en:User:Guneeta.
Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Qila_Mubarak_in_
Bathinda.jpg).

The Kushana power began to decline due to the victory of Iranian Sassanids. Bactria,
being the apex centre, went into the hands of Iran (Chakravarti 2013: 180). In the same
period there was a resurgence of different types of principalities – local and sub-regional
– in different parts of India.

14.6.5 Non-Monarchies/Ganasanghas/Clan-Based Polities

This period also witnessed the emergence of different tribal or clan-based polities in
different parts of north India. The Arjunayanas appeared in south-east of Mathura
(Alwar region in Rajasthan); the Malavas originated in Punjab and later migrated to 365
History of India Rajasthan; the Yaudheyas lived in eastern Punjab and the areas of Uttar Pradesh and
from the Earliest Rajasthan; Kunindas at the foot of Sivalik hills; Trigartas between the Ravi and Sutlej
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
river basins. The Yaudheyas were famous even in the time of Panini as professional
warriors and, during this period, are said to have been suppressed by Rudradaman, the
Shaka king. Many of these tribes claimed kshatriya status through epic heroes and
legends. And their coins were often issued in the name of gana or janapada like in the
case of the Yaudheyas (Thapar 2002: 211). Other tribal republics, as they are popularly
known, during this period are those of Sibis, Malavas, Trigartas and so on. These
janapadas interspersed the region of northern and north-western India and, at the
same time, independent principalities like Ayodhya, Kausambi, Mathura and Ahichhatra
also re-asserted their power, having earlier succumbed to the Mauryas.

14.6.6 The Shaka-Kshatrapas of Western India

The Shaka-Kshatrapas came to power in western India. Earlier, they were feudatories
of the Kushanas and owed allegiance to them. Gradually, they came to the forefront
and declared their independence. In the early centuries of the Christian era the two lines
of Kshatrapa rulers were the Kshaharatas and the Kardamakas. Bhumaka and
Nahapana were important rulers of the Kshaharata dynasty and they were loyal to the
Kushanas.
Chastana was the founder of Kardamaka dynasty. He was appointed as viceroy of the
south-western province of the Kushanas (Singh 2009: 379). The Kardamakas followed
the practice of senior and junior rulers with titles kshatrapa and mahakshatrapa
respectively.
Rudradaman I was the famous ruler of the Kardamaka dynasty. He came to the throne
in 150 CE and his conquests are inscribed in the Junagarh inscription. It mentions that
Malwa, Saurashtra, Gujarat and northern Konkan were the conquered regions by this
ruler. He defeated Satakarni ruler of Satavahana dynasty twice, probably Gautamiputra
Satkarni (Singh 2009: 381).

14.6.7 The Satavahanas

In the post-Mauryan period many local rulers started ruling in regions like Vidarbha,
eastern Deccan, Karnataka and western Maharashtra. The Satavahana empire is said
to have been built through the consolidation of numerous local centres. The Satavahanas
probably belonged to a clan or branch of the Andhra tribe whose power gradually rose
in the Deccan and western India around 1st century BCE (Chakravarti 2013:181).
They are believed to have begun their rule around 1st century BCE and the rule ended
in early 3rd century CE. Simuka is known as the founder of this dynasty whose apex
political centre was Pratishthan or Paithan.
The Prakrit Nasik inscription mentions the Satavahana ruler Gautamiputra Satkarni as
ekabrahmana (Singh 2009: 383). That another ruler of this dynasty – Satkarni I –
performed ashvamedha sacrifices is known through the Nanaghat inscription. These
facts suggest that the local rulers played a significant role in the making of Satavahanas.
They were the earliest indigenous tribes that were transformed into a monarchical polity.
The rulers of this dynasty may have attempted to sanctify their position through the
performance of Vedic sacrifices.

366
 Administrative
Organization,
Economy and Society

LEFT: This slab was first carved in about the 1st century BCE. When the Great Stupa at Amaravati
was refurbished under the patronage of the Satavahana rulers the Buddha was carved standing in
human form at the entrance of the Monument. British Museum, London. Credit: Gryffindor.
Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:British_Museum_
Asia_14.jpg).

RIGHT: Current Statue of Gautamiputra Satakarni at Amravati, Maharashtra. Credit: Krishna

Chaitanya Velaga. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Gautami_Putra_Satkarni_Statue_in_Amaravathi.jpg).

The Satavahana empire comprised of Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, north Karnataka,

south Madhya Pradesh and Saurashtra. Kharavela of Chedi dynasty of Odisha is believed
to have challenged the authority of the Satvahana ruler Satakarni I. Nevertheless, he
appears to have had a vast area under his control. This could be gleaned from the title
– the lord of Dakshinapatha – taken by him.
Gautamiputra Satakarni was the famous ruler of this dynasty and this empire reached
its height under him. The Nasik cave inscription mentions him as “the destroyer of the
Shakas, Pahlavas and Yavanas, the uprooter of Kshaharatas and the restorer of the
glory of Satavahanas” (Singh 2009: 383). The extent of Satavahana empire at this time
included Malwa and Saurashtra in the north to the Krishna delta in south, and from
Berar in the east to the Konkan coast in the west. The inscription also describes that the
Buddhist monks were donated a piece of land for dwelling purposes in his reign. This is
the first time in history when land was granted with terms and conditions, i.e. the land
will not be interfered by royal authority, will be free from state control and the landholder
will enjoy certain privileges over it (Singh 2009: 384). Probably, Yajnasri Satakarni,
also known as Gautamiputra Yajna Sri, was the last ruler of the Satavahana dynasty to
control eastern and western Deccan. Numerous dynasties emerged after the gradual
decline of the Satavahanas. Like the Vakatakas arose in Deccan region, the Kadambas
in Mysore, the Abhiras in Maharashtra and the Ikshvakus in the Andhra region (Singh
2009: 383).

LEFT AND CENTRE: Coins of Gautamiputra Satakarni, c. 108-132 CE. Preserved in the Los Angeles
County Museum of Art, California, USA. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://
c o m m o n s . wi k i m e d i a . o r g / wi k i / F i l e : C o i n _ o f _ G a u t a m i p u t r a _ S a t a k a r n i _ ( % 3 F ) _ L A C M A _
M.84.110.3_(1_of_2).jpg; https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Coin_of_Gautamiputra_
Satakarni_(%3F)_LACMA_M.84.110.3_(2_of_2).jpg).
RIGHT: Coins of Gautamiputra Yajna Satakarni, c. 167-196 CE. Attribution: Classical Numismatic
Group, Inc. (http://www.cngcoins.com). Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://
c ommo ns.wikime dia.or g/wiki/File :Gautamiputra_Yajna_Satakarni.jpg). 367
History of India The Satavahana empire was divided into small provinces known as aharas. Each province
from the Earliest was under civil and military officers. The following are the titles used for officials:
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
 Amatya,
 Mahabhoja,
 Mahasenapati,and
 Maharathi.
Amatya was the highest official. Village was the lowest administrative unit. The head of
town administration was known as nagarasabha and that of village administration
known as gramasabha. Both these officials carried out their functions independently.
There is a mention of a special official – Uparakshita – being appointed by the ruler to
look after the building activities of the caves for monks.
The above mentioned titles indicate that their administrative system was feudal in nature.
The power was not confined to the ruler. Instead, it was distributed through the hierarchy
of officials. The fiscal and administrative rights rested with feudal chiefs. Some were
allowed to issue their coins and some entered into marital alliances with the royal family.
Hence, it could be pointed out that the administration was carried out through local
channels with either less or no interference from royal authorities in provinces and regions.
However, a strong element of monarchy appears to exist in the apex centre of this
dynasty.
In the extreme south the three important chiefdoms that continued to be prominent from
the Mauryan period were:
 the Cheras who controlled the Malabar area,
 the Colas who held sway on the south-eastern coast and the Kaveri valley, and
 the Pandyas whose power centre lay around the tip of the peninsula.
The Sangam texts of this period give us a considerable amount of information on the
society, ecology, polity and economy of the region where these three kingdoms ruled.
For the extreme south we know that the chiefs of the three main chiefdoms (the Cheras-
the Colas-the Pandyas) were constantly at war with minor chiefs of the less developed
regions. The Velir chieftains, for instance, were famous as they controlled important
outlets to Roman trade on the south-east coast.
Though attempts were made in the post-Mauryan period by various dynasties to build
empires there were several instances of each of them contending the other. Further
sub-regional powers could not totally be suppressed. Whereas, on the one hand the
political decline of the Mauryas created a situation for many of these local powers to
rise, on the other hand their economic expansion witnessed in the Mauryan period
continued unabated. The crisis in the Magadhan empire under the Mauryas was, thus,
one of organization and control of its resources and not a lack of them.

14.7 ECONOMY AND SOCIETY: POST-MAURYAS

This period witnessed dynamic changes in economic and social spheres. Agriculture
remained a crucial source of revenue. The spread of sedentary agriculture was, for the
first time, noticed in the Satavahana and Kalinga kingdoms. The inscription from Nasik
also informs us about the coconut plantation in these regions (Chakravarti 2013: 194).
368
The Milindapanho mentions eight different stages of agricultural activities – from
removing weeds to harvesting of crops. It also enumerates varieties of crops and different Administrative
types of rice cultivated (royal and coarse) in this period. Archaeological evidences of Organization,
Economy and Society
agricultural implements such as iron ploughshare, axes, adzes, spades and sickle have
been found from Taxila and Sanchi (Chakravarti 2013: 194). Another important fact is
that Gahapatis (large landowners) and Kutumbika and halika (cultivators) appear as
donors or patrons to the Buddhist sangha. This suggests an exalted status of the
cultivators in economic terms.
The state and individual initiative to provide irrigation facilities continued in this period
too. The embankment of Sudarshana lake was repaired during the reign of Rudradaman
I, the Shaka ruler. Canals were built by the Nandas of Kalinga. The Nasik inscription
records that in the reign of Nahapana tanks were built. Another inscription informs that
a Greek named Theodorus donated an excavated tank near Taxila (Chakravarti 2013:
194).
Tremendous increase was noticed in trading activities within and between the sub-
continents in this period. One of the important trade route i.e. Uttarapatha connected
Taxila in the north-west with Tamralipti in the Ganga delta. Other major trade end-
points in northern India were:
 Pushkalavati in the north-west,
 Patala and Bhrigukachha in the west, and
 Muziris in the south.
The Kushanas and the Satavahanas used coins for small scale transactions. Coins of
gold, silver and copper facilitated trading activities. The Dharmashastras lay provisions
related to taxes, profits on indigenous goods and foreign goods. The Jatakas provide
information on long-distance travels. It mentions people taking different travelling modes
like bullock-carts, chariots and by foot. There were rest-houses for tired travellers to
rest for some time (Singh 2009: 406).
Another landmark change noticed in this period was the prospering long-distance trade
relations. There was a huge demand of Chinese silk in the Roman empire. The silk
reached the latter through far flung overland route from east Asia. There were two
ways of silk routes – northern and southern silk routes. Bactria falls on the southern silk
route. The significant issue is that when the Kushanas rose to power and captured
Bactria the Roman empire found an alternative way of trade through the Indian
subcontinent. It provided immense avenues to the Kushana power and this empire
flourished on the basis of silk route from India to the Roman empire. The discovery of
south-west monsoon winds added to the possibilities of maritime trade in the Indian
Ocean.
The Periplus and Ptolemy’s Geography mention that Chinese silk entered north-western
India through Bactria and Kabul, reached Mathura and from there to Ujjayini. From
Ujjayini the merchants and merchandise reached the port city Barygaza. And the items
were sailed from here to the ports of Red Sea and eastern Mediterranean region
(Chakravarti 2013: 202). It also paved the way for trading relations between the Indian
merchants and the Roman world. The exports from India included:
 precious gems like diamond, pearls,
 ivory products,
 finest textiles, and
 exotic spices.
369
History of India Black pepper was in high demand in the Roman empire. The import items included:
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.  Chinese silk,
 distinct potteries like Arretine ware,
 imported amphorae, and
 the Mediterranean wines.
The trade contacts between India and east and south-east Asia also intensified in this
period. The flourishing trade relations and continuous interaction of migrating groups in
north-western India provided the backdrop for craft specialization in this period. The
Milindapanho mentions 60 types of people specialized in crafts such as:
 potter,
 carpenter,
 metal smith,
 reed-maker,
 bamboo-maker,
 ivory-worker etc.
The organization of these craftsmen into guilds (shrenis) is also an important feature of
the post-Mauryan period. Shreni was a group of professionals, merchants or artisans
who decided their common interests and policies pertaining to their professions. The
inscriptions of western Deccan mention guilds of:
 weavers,
 potters,
 flour makers,
 oil millers,
 bamboo workers, and
 merchants.
These guilds also seem to have had a close connection with royal officials (Singh 2009:
404).
The normative Brahmanical literature – Manusmriti and Yajnavalkya Smriti – upholds
the fourfold varna system; it also accommodates numerous jatis. The offsprings born
of union of two different varnas were assigned the status of jati, and the jatis were
denoted by specific or hereditary occupations. The Manusmriti also refers to vratya
kshatriyas as kshatriyas who were degraded due to the non-performance of rituals
(Singh 2009: 418). The proliferation of jatis may have been due to the absorption of
tribal groups into the Brahmanical structure resulting from the gradual spread of the
state society. And the foreign tribes who came from central and West Asia appear to be
assimilated as the vratya kshatriyas. Earlier, they were regarded as outsiders (yavanas),
but gradually given space in the Brahmanical literature in the form of degenerated
kshatriyas (Chakravarti 2013: 210).

370
Regarding the position of women Manusmriti lays emphasis upon guarding the wives Administrative
and keeping them under the control of men. It states that women should be under the Organization,
Economy and Society
guard of father, then husband and then, the son. A subordinate position has been assigned
to women in the domain of household. The preference for son over daughter and women
being confined to the domestic sphere is emphasized in the text. The ideal form of
marriages such as brahma, daiva, arsa and prajapatya are permitted for the upper
varnas and for the lower varnas, asura, gandharva, rakshasa and paishacha were
prescribed. If we look at the Mahabharata the marriage between Arjun and Subhadra
was a rakshasa form of marriage. Surprisingly, the Swayamvara form of marriage is
not mentioned in normative literature (Chakravarti 2013: 212). Another important aspect
noticed in the Smriti literature of the 2nd century BCE is that the property of women
(stridhana) was recognized and prescriptions were laid out in this regard.
The practice of using mother’s gotra in their names has been noticed amongst the
Satavahana rulers. This suggests that the mother may have been considered significant,
as ancestry is traced through their names. Inscriptions indicate that the women of
Satavahana dynasty made donations in their own rights. Other epigraphic sources suggest
that a large number of women, who did not belong to the royal background, were also
donors at the Buddhist sites. This indicates that these women may have had some
degree of economic liberty.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) Who were the Indo-Greeks?
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
2) Discuss the nature of polity of the Shaka dynasty.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
3) Write a note on Kanishka.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

371
History of India 4) Highlight the significance of the Kushana rule.
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E. .....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
5) Throw light on the administrative system of the Satavahana dynasty.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
6) i) Match the following:
1) Kharavela a) Junagarh Inscription
2) Rudradaman b) Hathigumpha Inscription
3) Kanishka c) Nasik Cave Inscription
4) Gautamiputra Satkarni d) Rabatak Inscription
ii) Match the following:
1) Yaudheyas a) Yueh-Chi Tribe
2) Kushanas b) Professional Warriors
3) Rudradaman c) Andhra Dynasty
4) Satavahanas d) Kardamaka Dynasty
7) Mark right () or wrong (×) against the following statements:
1) The last Mauryan king Brihadratha was killed by Gautamiputra Satkarni.
( )
2) Pushyamitra Shunga emerged as an important ruler in the coastal and eastern
part of Odisha. ( )
3) The term Yaudheyas-Kunindas is used for the group of invaders who came
from Parthia to north-western India. ( )
4) The Kushana empire played a key role in facilitating silk trade from China to
West Asia through India. ( )
5) The Shakas probably belonged to the Andhra tribe whose power arose in
the Deccan region. ( )

14.8 SUMMARY
In this Unit we discussed the establishment of the first empire in the Indian subcontinent
372 – the Mauryan empire. The origin and dynastic history of the Mauryas was discussed.
The constituents of the state and its elaborate mechanism of administration have been Administrative
highlighted. Different types of sources are correlated to understand the nature of Mauryan Organization,
Economy and Society
state. The Arthashastra highlights the essential matters pertaining to governance; the
Ashokan inscriptions reveal the royal proclamations of Ashoka and the Megasthenes’
account envisions the workings of the state and society in the court of Chandragupta
Maurya. The social and economic processes of earlier period continued and expanded
in this period. The royal policies that appeared to consolidate and weave the vast
heterogeneous empire in one thread have been studied here.
The post-Mauryan period can be characterized as the period of diverse and dynamic
polities. An attempt to reconstitute the Brahmanical society is visible in the rule of Shungas
and Kanvas. The invasions of Shakas, Pahlavas and Kushanas added to social flux and
also denote the intermixing of governance aspects, culture and religious practices. There
were monarchies established by foreigners in the north-western portion of the Indian
subcontinent. Tribal polities were witnessed in the Indo-Gangetic divide such as the
Yaudheyas, Arjunayanas etc. The Satavahanas and Kalinga highlight the beginning of
indigenous state societies in new areas. There was expansion of cities, specialized crafts
and trade networks.

14.9 KEY WORDS

Saptanga Rajya : The Arthashastra uses this term to define seven
essential organs of a state system. It included
svami (the king), amatyas (ministers), janapada
(the territory and the people), durga (the fortified
capital), kosha (the treasury), danda (justice)
and mitra (relationships with neighbours).
Varna system : It refers to the fourfold classification of society
into brahmanas, kshatriyas, vaishyas and
sudras. The status of these varnas is also
considered in a sequential manner and the duties
of these varnas appear to be fixed in the
Brahmanical sources. Like, the brahamanas are
supposed to perform rituals, the kshatiryas are
supposed to protect the other varnas, the
vaishyas are for trading activities, and the sudras
are supposed to serve the upper three varnas.
Dhamma : It is a Prakrit term equivalent of the Sanskrit word
dharma. The term dharma means duty or
righteousness. In the Buddhist principle it is used
for the teachings of the Buddha. Ashoka gave it
a broader meaning.
Stridhana : The property received by a woman as a gift at
the time of marriage by parents, relatives or
friends.
Sita : Land under the control of the king/the state.
Janapadanivesha : This term is mentioned in the Arthashastra. It is
used for the mechanism of agrarian expansion in
the new areas. In order to maintain stable agrarian
373
History of India resource-base this term is given emphasis in the
from the Earliest text.
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
Ganasangha : Refers to a system of governance where political
power is exercised through a group of rulers. The
concept of a single ruler is absent here. The
political decisions are taken collectively by these
rulers through their assembly.

14.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) See Sub-section 14.3.1
2) See Sub-section 14.3.1
3) See Sub-section 14.3.1
4) See Sub-section 14.3.8
5) See Section 14.4
6) i) 1-c, 2-d, 3-a, 4-b
ii) 1-d, 2-a, 3-e, 4-c,5-b
7) (i)  (ii) × (iii)  (iv)  (v) 
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) See Sub-section 14.6.3
2) See Sub-section 14.6.4
3) See Sub-section 14.6.5
4) See Sub-section 14.6.5
5) See Sub-section 14.6.8
6) (i) 1-b, 2-a, 3-d, 4-c
(ii) 1-b, 2-a, 3-d, 4-c
7) 1) × 2) × 3) × 4)  5) ×

14.11 SUGGESTED READINGS

Chakravarti, Ranabir (2013). Exploring Early India Up to C. AD 1300. New Delhi:
MacMillan.
Fussman, G. (187-88). Central and Provincial Administration in Ancient India: The
Problem of the Mauryan Empire. Indian Historical Review. Vol.14, Nos. 1-2, 43-72.
Jayaswal, K. P. (1955). Hindu Polity. Bangalore: Bangalore Printing and Publishing
Co, [1918].
Jha, D.N. (2009). Ancient India in Historical Outline. New Delhi: Manohar
374 Publishers, revised and enlarged edition.
Levin, Bongard G. (1985). Mauryan India. New Delhi: Abhinav. Administrative
Organization,
Raychaudhuri, H. C. (1987). Political History of Ancient India. Delhi: Oxford Economy and Society
University Press. (revised edition).
Sharma, R. S. (1991). Aspects of Political Ideas and Institutions in Ancient India.
Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.
Sharma, R.S. (1983). Perspectives in Social and Economic History of Early India.
New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal.
Sharma, R.S. (1983). Material Culture and Social Formations in Ancient India.
Delhi: Macmillan Ltd.
Sharma, R.S. (2007). India’s Ancient Past. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
Shastri, A. M. (2002). Early History of the Deccan: Problems and Perspectives.
Sandeep Prakashan.
Singh, Upinder (2013). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the
Stone Age to the 12th Century. New Delhi: Pearson.
Thapar, R. (1983). Ashoka and the Decline of the Mauryas. Delhi: Oxford University
Press.
Thapar, R. (1998). The Mauryas Revisited. Calcutta: K.P. Bagachi & Co.
Thapar, R. (2002). Early India from the Origins to AD 1300. New Delhi: Penguin.

375
 UNIT 15 EARLY STATE FORMATION IN
DECCAN AND TAMILAHAM
Structure
15.0 Objectives
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Sources
15.3 State Formation
15.4 Antecedents
15.5 Geographical Background
15.6 Outline History of Satavahana Dynasty
15.7 Settlement Pattern
15.7.1 West Coast
15.7.2 Inland Settlements
15.8 Administration
15.9 Society
15.10 South India (Tamilaham): The Region
15.11 The Five Eco-zones and Subsistence Patterns
15.12 Evolution of Political Society
15.12.1 Different Kinds of Chiefdoms
15.12.2 Plunder and Booty Redistribution
15.12.3 Muvendar and Other Levels of Political Control
15.13 Summary
15.14 Key Words
15.15 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
15.16 Suggested Readings

15.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit, you will be able to learn about:
 Satavahana dynasty which founded the earliest state in Deccan;
 nature of administration under the Satavahanas; and
 changes in the society at this time.
You should be able to understand:
 what eco-zones constituted Tamilaham (south India) of the early period;
 how various forms of subsistence co-existed and interacted;
 how different kinds of chiefdoms functioned; and
 how they represented different levels of political control.

376 * This Unit has been adopted from EHI-02, Block 7.

 Early State Formation
15.1 INTRODUCTION in Deccan and
In the previous Unit you learnt about the expansion of trade in north India in post- Tamilaham
Mauryan period. This was associated with an increase in the number of cities and
developments in art and architecture. In this Unit we will study changes in the Deccan.
The major power that rose in the Deccan around 1st century BCE was the Satavahana
dynasty. Here, we will concentrate on the political and social structure of Deccan under
the Satavahanas.
After learning about early state formation in Deccan under the Satavahanas you will see
that a similar situation is not seen in south India (Tamilaham) during this period. We do
not see the existence of a state power in the region, but only chiefdoms. State presupposes
the existence of a centralized political authority over a territory. Its authority would be
based on the control of territorial resources. It would have a regular system of taxation
and organized defence. For facilitating both taxation and defence, the state would have
a bureaucracy or a team of officials of different ranks and functions. On the other hand,
a chiefdom would have no such evolved features. A chiefdom would be a society of
hereditary status, ruled by a chief. His authority would be the one based on the control
of his people bound by the concerned tribal or clanish ties of kinship. The chief would
be the embodiment of the kinship relations of his people. There would be no regular
taxation or periodic exaction of any revenue from the people, but only occasional
voluntary payments to the chief. In this Unit you will be made familiar with the variety of
chiefly powers and their levels of political development in Tamilaham.

15.2 SOURCES
The names of Satavahana rulers, also known as the Andhras, occur in the lists of kings
found in the Puranas. However, there are many difficulties in using these lists as sources
of history without critically comparing them with other sources. For example, the names
of kings and the duration of their rule vary in different Puranas. Moreover, information
about kings is interwoven with myths and legends, and one has to carefully distinguish
between facts and legendary stories. The Puranas are, nevertheless, useful when studied
with other sources such as coins and inscriptions. The Satavahanas minted a large
number of coins in:
 lead,
 silver, and
 an alloy of copper.

Satavahana 1st Century BCE Coin Inscribed in Brahmi Script. British Museum Collection,
London. Credit: PHGCOM. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Satavahana1stCenturyBCECoinInscribedInBr hmi(Sataka)Nisa.jpg). 377
History of India Their silver coins carry the portrait of king and his name. The inscriptions are found in
from the Earliest Buddhist caves cut in the rock and record donations made by Satavahana kings and
TimesUpto C. 300 C.E.
queens as well as by a large number of ordinary people. By comparing the information
available in these different sources, scholars generally accept that the Satavahanas began
their rule around 1st century BCE. Their earliest record is found engraved on rock in a
cave near Nasik in the present state of Maharashtra.

15.3 STATE FORMATION

We should now pose the question: What is a state and how does the emergence of
state bring about changes in society? There are many theories which seek to explain the
reasons for the emergence of a state. Reasons for the emergence of a state vary from
region to region. In certain cases the development of trade and growth of urban centres
could lead to the rise of a state. Other theories suggest that population pressure or
conquest could also result in a change in the political structure.
Scholars generally agree that a state is a more efficient method of controlling expanding
populations. A state exercises control over a more or less well-defined territory and
maintains an administrative machinery to collect taxes and revenue. It pays for a regular
army that enforces law and order. But together with all this, the inequality and stratification
in society also increases. There is a well-marked distinction between rulers and the
ruled. The rulers control the resources of society for their own benefit and use. The
ruled, on the other hand, provide revenue and money required to maintain the members
of ruling family, the notables in the state, various categories of officials and army. Thus,
the basic difference between a tribal society and a state society is in the nature of
political control. In a state system, a specialized administrative machinery separates
rulers from the ruled. In a tribal society, political power is generally exercised by a clan
which has no authority to enforce its decisions. The position of the clan depends on
loyalty of the members and most decisions are taken together.

15.4 ANTECEDENTS
In Unit 7 you learnt about the spread of Chalcolithic settlements in western Deccan in
the 2nd millennium BCE. Eastern Deccan was occupied a little later in second half of the
1st millennium BCE by iron using communities. These were, by and large, village
settlements – the abode of a large number of tribes. Early Sanskrit literature, particularly
the epics and Puranas, mention several tribes such as Andhras, Sabaras, Pulindas, etc.
who lived in the Deccan. Many of these are also mentioned by Ashoka in his inscriptions.
But, most of these references are of a general nature and it is difficult to define the
region where they lived in the Deccan.
The process of change, perhaps, started with Mauryan expansion in the Deccan. The
Mauryas were primarily interested in exploiting mineral resources of the Deccan
peninsula. Gold, diamonds and gems from the mines in Karnataka and Andhra were
transported to Magadha in the north through a series of land and coastal routes. Market
centres developed at important points along these routes such as Dharanikota on the
banks of Krishna in the Guntur district of Andhra and Karad in Satara district of
Maharashtra. Many chiefs known as maharathis became important in several scattered
pockets. But, it was under the Satavahanas who were related by marriage to the
maharathis that the first state emerged in the Deccan.

378
 Early State Formation
15.5 GEOGRAPHICAL BACKGROUND in Deccan and
Tamilaham
The Deccan peninsula is divided into plateau region and coastal plains by the hill ranges
of Eastern and Western Ghats. Andhra coast is much wider than Konkan coast to the
west. The general slope of the plateau is to the east and as a result, major rivers such as
the Mahanadi, Godavari and Krishna flow eastwards into Bay of Bengal. Deltas and
valleys of the rivers provide fertile areas for settlements. Perhaps, a significant aspect of
the geography of Deccan is the fact that the hill ranges of the plateau can be crossed
only along the passes.

15.6 OUTLINE HISTORY OF SATAVAHANA

DYNASTY
According to the Puranic tradition it was Simuka Satavahana who established the
Satavahana power. Kanha or Krishna, his brother, is perhaps known to us from an
inscription at Nasik. Another record that lists several rulers of the dynasty is the Nanaghat
inscription of Queen Nayanika, the widowed queen of Satakarni, who performed Vedic
sacrifices. Nanaghat was a major pass connecting Junnar with the coast, and in a cave
at the head of the pass portraits of Satavahana rulers were carved. Unfortunately, the
sculptures are now completely destroyed and all that remains are labels over their
heads giving their names.
We know very little about the rulers that followed Satakarni till we come to the reign of
Gautamiputra Satakarni. An inscription of his mother engraved on the entrance to a
cave at Nasik provides us details about the extent of his kingdom and events of his
reign. One of his major achievements was defeat of the Kshatrapas of western Deccan
and Gujarat. His mother’s epigraph praises him as the restorer of Satavahana glory and
further proof of this comes from numismatic evidence. After his victory, he counterstruck
silver coins of the Kshatrapa Nahapana with his own legend and symbols. According
to the Periplus of the Erytheaen Sea, as a result of the rivalry between Kshatrapas
and Satavahanas, Greek ships entering Kalyan, a port near present Bombay, were sent
under guard to the port of Bharuch. Perhaps, control of the lucrative foreign trade was
one of the causes for the conflict. It would also seem that under Gautamiputra Satakarni,
Satavahana rule extended over Andhra as well.
Gautamiputra was succeeded by his son Pulumavi and it was at this time that the
Satavahanas consolidated their power in eastern Deccan. For the first time we find
Satavahana inscriptions outside western Deccan at Amaravati. Yajnasri Satakarni was
the last important Satavahana ruler and after him the kingdom was splintered and divided
between his successors – one line of kings ruling in the Andhra region. It was also under
the later Satavahanas that coins with bilingual legends were issued and in addition to the
name of the king in Prakrit these carried a legend in a south Indian language – opinion
being divided on its identification between Tamil and Telugu.
In addition to the Kshatrapas, an early Satavahana ruler had to contend with the power
of Kharavela from Odisha (Kalinga). Kharavela rose to power in Kalinga in the middle
of the 1st century BCE. He dispatched an army to the west without caring for Satakarni;
this suggests that early Satavahana power suffered setbacks both at the hands of the
Kshatrapas and of Kharavela. It was revived only through the exploits of Gautamiputra
Satakarni.

379
History of India
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.

Approximate Extent of the Satavahana Empire under Gautamiputra Satakarni. Source: The
History and Culture of the Indian People, Vol. II. Credit: chetanv. Source: Wikimedia
Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Satvahana.svg).
One of the problems of Satavahana history is that we know very little about different
pockets of the Deccan. For example, the inscriptions refer to marriage relations of
Satavahanas with Maharathis and Mahabhojas – in fact, in the Nanaghat inscriptions a
Maharathi finds precedence over a Kumara (prince) and Queen Nayanika herself was
the daughter of a Maharathi. Maharathis are also known to have made independent
donations – most of their inscriptions having been found around Karle, while the records
of Mahabhojas occur along the west coast.

Nanaghat/Naneghat Cave Inscription of Queen Nayanika/Naganika in Sanskrit, c. 2nd Century

BCE. Credit: Elroy Serrao. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
380
File:Complete_view_of_Inscription_in_cave_at_Naneghat.jpg).
 Early State Formation
15.7 SETTLEMENT PATTERN in Deccan and
Tamilaham
On the basis of the find-spots of their earliest inscriptions, it can be said that the
Satavahanas began their rule in western Deccan. A 2nd century BCE inscription of
Gautamiputra Satakarni’s mother from Nasik provides information about the extent of
the kingdom under the Satavahanas. The mention of both the Western and the Eastern
Ghats as forming parts of Gautamiputra Satakarni’s empire suggests that by this time
Satavahana rule covered the entire Deccan and that it was divided into aharas (districts).
We get the names of at least five aharas in the inscriptions:
 Govardhana-ahara with its centre around Nasik;
 Soparaka-ahara on the west coast;
 Mamala-ahara comprising the hilly portions of Pune and Satara districts;
 Satavahanihara covering the Bellery district of Karnataka; and
 Kapurachara perhaps in Gujarat.

Satavahana Settlements. Source: EHI-02, Block-7, Unit-27.

15.7.1 West Coast

On the west coast there were a series of ports at Bharuch, Kalyan, Sopara and Chaul
and continuing further south all along the Konkan coast. To these ports commodities
were brought from the inland centres through passes along the Western Ghats. An
important source for understanding the nature of travel and trade is the 1st century CE
text Periplus of the Erytheaen Sea written by an anonymous Greek sailor. It provides
a graphic account of the dangerous passage through the narrow mouth of the Gulf of
Cambay to Bharuch. As a result, incoming ships were piloted into the port by royal
fishermen of the district. We have earlier referred to the conflict between Satavahanas
381
History of India and the Kshatrapas over control of maritime trade and competition between the ports
from the Earliest of Bharuch and Kalyan.
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
15.7.2 Inland Settlements
Across Western Ghats on the inland side, the major concentrations of settlements were
around:
 Nasik,
 Junnar within a 30 km. radius of Karle, and
 further south in the upper Krishna basin around Kolhapur.
It should be emphasized that all these areas are agriculturally rich and fertile and provided
a valuable resource base for the ports on the west coast. These ports handled much of
the trade in 1st century CE between India and the Mediterranean region and were also
linked by the overland trans-peninsular route across the Deccan to centres in Andhra
and along the east coast. It went from Bharuch to Paithan and Ter and further east to
centres in Andhra. The ancient site of Paithan spreads over 4 sq. km. along the Godavari
and from time to time a rich yield of antiquities like coins, moulds, terracottas and
pottery have been carried out in the area so far and hence, we know very little about
structural remains of the Satavahana period.
Ter lies in the major cotton producing region of Deccan. Excavations at the site have
yielded evidence of wooden fortifications and a number of vats, perhaps for dyeing
cloth. It is also well known for the find of an ivory figurine very similar to the specimen
found at Pompeii, but, perhaps, the most important ruin at the site is that of a brick
chaitya subsequently converted into a Brahmanical temple.
Another route in the Deccan linked Ujjain to Maheshwar on the Narmada and past the
caves at Ajanta and Pitalkhora to Bhokardan and Paithan. Bhokardan was a major
bead-making centre and was also known for shell and ivory-working. Inhabitants of
Bhokardan or Bhogavardhana are known to have made donations at the Buddhist
caves of Bharhut and Sanchi in central India.
Further south in the upper Krishna valley, Karad is an early centre referred to in Buddhist
inscriptions. Also located in the same region is Kolhapur. In western part of the town a
rich hoard of bronze objects was found. Some of these like the statuette of Poseidon
were, clearly, imports, while others like carts and bronze vessels were of local
manufacture. An extensive site in the adjacent district of Belgaum is the site of Vadgaon
Madhavpur, a suburb of Belgaum town where excavations have yielded large numbers
of coins and other antiquities. Further south is the site of Banavasi known as the find-
spot of one of the Satavahana inscriptions. It was, perhaps, a fortified settlement as
there are indications of a fortification wall and a moat.
The trans-peninsula route across the Deccan linked these sites in western Deccan to
centres like Amravati in lower Krishna valley and went past the Karimnagar region of
Andhra. The Karimnagar region has an extensive distribution of early historical sites, an
important centre being that of Kondapur about 70 km. north-west of Hyderabad.
Excavations at the site have yielded a rich collection of coins and terracottas and several
structures of brick of various sizes laid in mud mortar. Peddabankur is a small village
now but was an important settlement during the Satavahana period extending over a 30
hectare area. About 10 km. from Peddabankur was the fortified site of Shulikatta. It
was surrounded by a mud-rampart and excavations have unearthed a large brick
382 structure at the site. Another major habitation site was at Kotalingala which was settled
in the pre-Satavahana period as indicated by recent coin finds. The Satavahana settlement Early State Formation
had a mud fortification and extensive brick structures. Large quantities of iron slag and in Deccan and
Tamilaham
ore were found at the site. Leading from the Karimnagar region, the route branched off
into the lower Krishna valley which has a large concentration of early historical sites.
Prominent among these are Amaravati and Dharanikota on both banks of the river
Krishna, and Dharanikota was connected to the river through a navigation channel.
Earliest structural activity at the site was marked by the construction of a wooden wharf
which was later converted into a brick structure. But, with the gradual silting up of the
navigation channel the site was abandoned in the 4th century CE. In addition to the
trans-peninsular route, another alternative was to go to the region of Vidarbha into
central India – the important settlements in Vidarbha being those of Panuar, Pauni,
Mandhal, Bhatkuli and Adam.
One point that needs to be stressed here is that it is only during the Satavahana period
that fortified settlements develop in Deccan, and excavations indicate a marked
improvement in the quality of construction. Brick was increasingly used both for
fortification as well as for other structures. The floors were well made by means of
rammed clay and the roof supported by wooden posts and covered with tiles.
Railway lines at present follow the same routes that were used in the ancient period.
The Bhorghat is still the only pass across the Western Ghats connecting Pune to Bombay
past a series of early Buddhist caves such as:
 Shelarwadi,
 Bedsa,
 Bhaja,
 Karle,
 Ambivale, and
 Kondane.

15.8 ADMINISTRATION
Administration under the Satavahanas was much simpler that under the Mauryas.
Inscriptions refer to ministers who were in charge of various functions. Among other
things, they served as treasury officers and maintained land records. The exact number
of ministers is not known. These ministers were appointed directly by the king and the
post of a minister does not seem to have been hereditary, i.e. passed from father to son.
They were, perhaps, paid in money from the revenue collected by the state. We do not
have exact figures for the amount of revenue collected, but we do know that the state
collected taxes both from agriculture and trade. One of the practices started by
Satavahana rulers in 1st century BCE was that of donating revenue of a village to either
a Brahmana or the Buddhist sangha. This practice became much more widespread
under Gupta rulers.
The importance of land revenue for the king can be judged from the elaborate procedure
that was used to record donations of land. These donations were first proclaimed in an
assembly (nigama-sabha). It was then written down either on a copper-plate or cloth
by an officer or minister. This record was then delivered to the donee to whom the grant
had been made. There was a keeper of records who maintained a detailed account of
these donations.
383
History of India The rulers at this time were eager to bring more land under cultivation so that they could
from the Earliest earn extra revenue. It seems that anyone who cleared the forest and tilled a plot could
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
claim ownership of land. Revenue from trade was another major source of income. We
will discuss the expansion of trade in the subsequent Unit. Here, we should point out
that much of the trade was handled by guilds who also acted as bankers. The state took
elaborate measures to encourage trade. Highways were made secure and rest-houses
were constructed along them.

15.9 SOCIETY
The social structure of Deccan under the Satavahanas shows many features which are
different from those prescribed in the Sanskrit texts such as the Manusmriti. For example,
many inscriptions of the Satavahana rulers mention the names of their mothers rather
than those of their fathers, such as Gautamiputra Satakarni (Satakarni, son of Gautami).
This is not in keeping with the Dharmashastras which state that in the approved forms
of marriage the bride acquires the gotra of her husband and loses that of the father.
Another interesting feature of the inscriptions is that the Satavahanas refer to themselves
as unique Brahmanas who crushed the pride of Kshatriyas. According to the
Brahmanical texts it was only the Kshatriyas who had the right to rule. The inscriptions
are also useful as they record donations by a cross-section of the population and from
this we can judge the prosperity of certain sections of society. Traders and merchants
figure prominently as donors, but also important are blacksmiths, gardeners and fishermen.
No doubt, these artisans and craftsmen benefitted from the increased long-distance
trade. What is noteworthy is that they mention their occupations with names and not
their castes. In an earlier Unit we had mentioned that Buddhist texts prescribe a somewhat
different division of society as compared to the Brahmanical texts. Here, the distinction
was based on work and craft and in most cases people were known by their occupations
rather than their castes.
Another category of donors that is known at this time was that of Yavanas (foreigners).
The term yavana originally denoted an Ionian Greek, but around the Common era it
was used indiscriminately for any foreigner. Many of the Yavanas adopted Prakrit
names and made donations to Buddhist monasteries. Women frequently made gifts
either on their own or sometimes with their husbands or sons. One of the Satavahana
queens named Nayanika also performed Vedic sacrifices and made large donations to
Brahmana and Buddhist monks.
These examples indicate that society in the Deccan, as it is known from the records of
this period, was not governed by rules laid down by the Brahmanical texts. Thus, any
reconstruction of ancient social structure should carefully analyze textual references
and establish their veracity by comparing these with other sources such as inscriptional
or archaeological.
The role of Buddhist monasteries mentioned in the records of the period had also
changed a great deal since the time of the Buddha. In the beginning Buddhist monks
were allowed very few personal possessions. These were limited to few robes and a
begging bowl. Gradually, the influence and membership of the Buddhist sangha increased.
We have seen that Satavahana kings donated large sums of money and land to Buddhist
monasteries. This added to the wealth of the sangha. It is also at this time that we get
references to donations made by Buddhist monks and nuns themselves.

384
Check Your Progress Exercise 1 Early State Formation
in Deccan and
1) Discuss some features of the society under Satavahanas. Tamilaham
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
2) Write a short note on inland trade routes of the Satavahana period.
.....................................................................................................................
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.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

15.10 SOUTH INDIA (TAMILAHAM): THE REGION

The land in between the hills of Venkatam and Kanyakumari is called Tamilaham. It
includes the whole of modem Tamil Nadu and Kerala. With forested hills, undulated
terrains, pastures, arid zones, wet-lands and long sea coast, the region represented a
combination of diverse eco-zones. The three principal chiefdoms – Cheras, Cholas
and Pandyas – had their strongholds both in the interior as well as on the sea coast. The
Cheras had Karur in the interior and Muciris, the well known ancient port on the west
coast. The Cholas had Uraijur in the interior and Puhar on the Coromandel coast as
their strongholds. Similarly, the Pandyas had Madurai and Korkar as their interior
headquarters and port respectively. These were the most important political centres of
the period in the region.

Ancient Tamilaham Ports. Source: http://www2.demis.nl/mapserver/mapper.asp. Credit: Lotlil.

Photo Courtesy: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Ancient_tamilakam_ports.png).

385
History of India
from the Earliest 15.11 THE FIVE ECO-ZONES AND SUBSISTENCE
Times Upto C. 300 C.E. PATTERNS
Ecological differences of the region are reflected in ancient Tamil poetry. This is in the
form of the concept of aintinai (five eco-zones). In ancient Tamil poetry Tamilaham is
portrayed as a combination of five tinais, viz.:
 kurinji (hilly backwoods),
 palai (arid zone),
 mullai (pastoral tracts),
 marutam (wet-land), and
 neytal (sea coast).
There could be areas in which one tinai or the other dominated. But, generally most of
the tinais were fragmented and mixed up all over the region. The mode of human
adaptation varied from tinai to tinai depending on its ecological conditions. Social
groups also varied. The people of kurinji took to hunting and gathering. Palai being
dry land, the inhabitants over there could not produce anything. They took cattle lifting
and plundering. The people of mullai practised animal husbandry and shifting cultivation.
In marutam, the people could pursue plough agriculture and in the neytal, fishing and
salt making. Thus, Tamilaham had different forms of subsistence as determined by
ecological conditions of the five tinais. People from each tinai went out interacting
with the peoples of other tinais and entered into barter of goods. For example, people
from the hilly backwoods came down to other zones for exchanging their resources like
honey, meat, fruits and other wild goods. The people of pastoral tracts exchanged their
dairy products and the coasted people fish and salt. Agrarian zones attracted all of
them. The small, self-sustaining tinais grew up into larger eco-zones through such
interaction and interdependence. There were larger zones of productivity as well as
non-productivity. The zones of better productivity had a relatively developed social
division of labour. In the zones of lesser productivity the society was essentially simple
and consisted of clans. By and large, the peoples of Tamilaham represented a complex
society of unevenly developed components which shared a common culture. Political
level of the society varied from simple chiefdom of clans to complex chiefdom of ruling
houses. A full fledged state power was yet to take shape.

15.12 EVOLUTION OF POLITICAL SOCIETY

The earliest recognizable phase of the evolution of political society can be seen in the
chiefdoms of clans. There were several chiefdoms of clans, some big and others very
small. The chiefs of clan-chiefdoms were addressed to in the poems as the great son
(perumakan) or chiefly, son (ko-makan) indicating the relation between chiefs and
their clan members. What is really indicated is the basis of kinship. Some such chiefdoms
must have grown beyond kinship through conquests and subjugation of other clans.
The relatively larger chiefdoms of complex nature were born out of conquests and
subjugation. Marriage alliances of chiefs also were responsible for the formation of
larger chiefdoms, but the real basis of the enlargement of chiefdoms was their wealth.
Chiefdoms with large agricultural areas constituted the most powerful ones. There were
three such most powerful chiefdoms in contemporary Tamilaham, viz.; Cheras, Cholas
and Pandyas which represented the phase of evolution of a political society anticipating
the emergence of a real state.
386
15.12.1 Different kinds of Chiefdoms Early State Formation
in Deccan and
There were three different kinds of chiefdoms in Tamilaham: Tamilaham

 kizar (little chiefs),

 velir (bigger chiefs), and
 vedar (biggest chiefs) categories of chiefs.
The kizar were headmen of small villages (Ur), generally bound by kinship. Many
kizars are mentioned in the poems. They are referred to by being prefixed with the
name of their respective villages. Arnkantur-kizar or Urntur-kizar may be cited as
examples. Some of them were subjugated by bigger chiefs and had to serve them in
their campaigns. The poems refer to kizar doing vidutozil (obligatory services) to
bigger chiefs like Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas in their campaigns. The bigger chiefs, in
their turn, rewarded the kizars through gifts which included grant of predatory control
over the subjugated villages. Such kizars, sometimes, received control over certain
other villages also as reward for serving bigger chiefs. The velirs were mostly hill
chieftains, though there were velirs controlling low-lands too. The hill chiefs were:
 hunter chiefs,
 vetar-koman or
 kuravar-koman or
 nedu vettuvan.
Vetar, kuravar and vettuvar were major clansmen of the hills dominated by the velir.
Venkatamalai (the hills of Venkatam), Nanjilmalai (the high ranges south of Travancore),
Parampuralai (probably modem Parampikkulam reserve forest near Pollachchi),
Potyilmalai (high ranges in the modem Madurai district) are some of the important
centres of the hill chiefs of this period. The Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas were the three
principal ruling houses of the biggest category of chiefs. They were known as Muvendar
– the three cendars. These chiefly houses had control over peoples of larger areas.
Cheras controlled the peoples of the Kurinji dominated areas of the Western Ghats
towards sea. Cholas had control over the peoples in the Kaveri area and the Pandyas,
in the south-central area toward seas. They had several lesser chiefs under their service
and paying tributes (tiarai). There was no notion of a precisely demarcated territory.
The political authority functioned through control over peoples rather than privileges
over basic resources. For example, the control over the peoples like kuravar or vetar
or vettuvar by their chiefs made them chiefs. The hills as well as plains were collectively
owned by such peoples. The right of their chiefs emanated from their kinship with
people. The resources were inherited not by individuals but by groups whose members
were bound by ties of common ancestry. These were descent groups and they made
voluntary payments to their chiefs. Regular and periodic payment of taxes was not in
vogue. However, productivity of the chiefdom determined the strength of the chiefs.
Compared to the chiefs of agricultural areas, the pastoral and hunter chiefs were less
powerful. Powerful chiefs tried to subjugate lesser ones and extracted tributes from
them. Plunder raid was the characteristic feature of contemporary political practice.

15.12.2 Plunder and Booty Redistribution

All chiefs, big and small, had to resort to plunder raids for satisfying the needs of their
people. The chiefs redistributed the booty among their warriors, bards and mendicants
besides their own kinsmen. The institution of gift-giving (kodai) was integral to the 387
History of India practice of booty redistribution. Gift-giving was considered to be the most important
from the Earliest responsibility of any chief. Most of the poems in Puranaruru (one of the anthologies
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
under Ettuttokai) praise the generosity of the chieftains. Generosity and bravery are the
two major virtues of chieftains according to such poems. The insufficiency of local
resources made chiefly plunders an economic imperative. A poem in Puranaruru,
praising a chief namely Urtur-kizar, shows how meagre his resources were. When a
dependent approached him for gifts, he called his blacksmith to get him a new lance, so
that he could go for a raid and acquire booty to give gifts. Plunder raids and booty
redistribution, thus, became the characteristic feature of contemporary polity. Chiefs of
all kinds indulged in plundering against one another. Lesser chiefs joined hands with big
ones in plunder campaigns and obtained their shares of booty. Cattle and grain constituted
the routine items of booty. Bards of the period sing about the gifts of:
 elephants,
 horses,
 golden lotuses,
 chariots,
 gems, and
 muslin.
Sometimes, the raids of bigger chiefs involved subjugation of villages beyond their control.
In such cases the lesser chiefs assisting the bigger ones got the subjugated villages. It
was not land of the village that was granted but control over the people there.

15.12.3 Muvendar and Other Levels of Political Control

The antiquity of Muvendars as principal ruling groups goes back to the Mauryan period.
Ashokan edicts mention them. The bards praise the Muvendars as ‘crowned kings’
and mention that the whole of Tamilakam belonged to them. The title of crowned
kings need not necessarily indicate the establishment of state power. A state presupposes
the existence of:
 standing militia,
 regular taxation,
 bureaucracy, and
 local administrative bodies.
These had not evolved as yet. Nonetheless, the authority of the Muvendar was
significantly different from that of the other categories of chiefs. Their subjugation of
lesser chiefs was an ongoing process. The main concern of all the three ruling groups –
Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas – was subordination of velir chiefs who were next in
importance. The velir also had great antiquity. Along with Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas,
Satyaputras or the Adigaiman chiefs are also mentioned in Ashokan edicts. Satyaputras
were of the status of velir chiefs. They held sway over the communities in the high
ranges of upper Kaveri area. The other prominent velir chiefdoms lay on the highlands
and sea coast along the fringes of the areas of Muvendar. The modern districts of
Dharmapuri, Nilgiris, Madurai North Arcot, Tiruchirapalli, Padukkottai are the chief
places of the hills and plains occupied by velir chiefs. There were about 15 important
velir chiefdoms in all as scattered in Tamilaham. Some of them had control over
388 communities in strategic centres like:
 points of exchange, Early State Formation
in Deccan and
 ports, Tamilaham

 junctions of highways, and

 hill stations.
Certain places and resources determined the nature of their power. With the coming of
the period of Indo-Roman trade and control over strategic centres and trade goods
added to the importance of the chiefs. Pari of Parambumalai (near Pollachchi), Ariyar
of Podiyilmalai (Madurai), Andiran of Nanjilmalai (south of Travancore), Irunko-vel of
Kodunbai (Pudukkottai) were some of the prominent velir chiefs mentioned in the
poems. Velir chiefs controlling such strategic centres had to face severe challenges
from superior chiefs like Muvendar; sometimes such competitions led to annihilation of
the weak. Destruction of the domain of Pari, the velir chief of Parambunadu, by
Muvendar is a well known example. Apart from direct combats, the bigger chiefs tried
to gain access to the velir domains through marriage relations also. There were several
instances of the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas taking their brides from velir families. In
the case of the village chiefs of strategic areas the bigger chiefs adopted the method of
military control. They were subjugated and made subservient to bigger chiefs.
Muvendars had several such subjugated chiefs as their subordinates serving them in
plunder raids.
It is obvious that Muvendar was most powerful political authority in contemporary
Tamilakam. Next to them was the political authority of velir. The village chiefs of
Kizar constituted the primary level of political authority. Although this gives the impression
of a political hierarchy, there was no determinate chain of political control uniting these
three levels of political authority. Integration of lesser chiefs was in progress under the
subjugative and marital policies of Muvendar. But, a unified political system was still in
the making. The traditional authority over resident communities based on kinship
remained fundamental to contemporary political control. Traditional assembly of elders
transacted day-to-day affairs in every settlement. The assembly site was called manram,
a raised seating around the foot of a tree. It was also called podiyil. The chief was
assisted by a council of elders called avai (sabha), the structure, composition and
functions of which are not known. Two other bodies often discussed as part of early
Tamil polity are:
 aimperumkuzu (the five great groups) and
 enperayam (the eight great groups).
These were relatively later bodies which, probably, developed after 3rd century CE.
The structure and functions of these bodies, also, are not known.
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) Read the following statements and mark right () or wrong (×).
i) The chiefdoms of Tamilaham were based on payment of regular taxes. ( )
ii) The political authority of the period was based on the control of people
rather than resources. ( )
iii) The Muvendars were full-fledged state systems. ( )
iv) Gift-giving was a chief’s primary social responsibility. ( )
389
History of India 2) How did different categories of chiefdoms co-exist and interact?
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E. .....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

15.13 SUMMARY
Satavahana period was important in the history of Deccan because it was in 1st century
BCE that the earliest state came into being in peninsular India. Administration of the
state was simpler than that of the Mauryas. A crucial factor was the expansion of overland
and maritime trade networks. This provided additional revenues to the rulers and also
resulted in the prosperity of a large number of towns and cities throughout Deccan in
this period.
In this Unit you have also learnt about various eco-zones, their subsistence pattern and
various details of the chiefdom level political formation. You learnt how the system of
plunder raids and booty redistribution functioned as crucial factor in the political practice
of the time. Another important point you learnt is the basis of clan ties and kinship in the
political authority. You could also learn about the gradual process of institution formation
during the period after the 3rd century CE.

15.14 KEY WORDS

Eco-zones : A small area with its own ecological
characteristics such as climate, soil conditions,
organizms etc.
Tinai : A region with its special ecological factors, social
groups and subsistence pattern.
Chiefdom : A society of hereditary status controlled by a chief
who collected voluntary tributes from his people.
Muvendars : The three principal ruling groups, namely the
Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas.
Velirs : Chiefly groups next to the principal ones.
Kizar : Smallest category of chiefs who had, virtually,
the control over their descent groups.
Manram or Podiyil : A raised seating around the foot of a tree.

15.15 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) See Section 15.9

390 2) See Section 15.7.2

Check Your Progress Exercise 2 Early State Formation
in Deccan and
1) i) × ii)  iii) × iv)  Tamilaham

2) See Sub-section 15.12.3

15.16 SUGGESTED READINGS

Champakalakshmi, R. (1996). Trade, Ideology and Urbanization: South India 300
BC to AD 300. Delhi.
Gurukkal, Rajan and Raghava Varier, M. R. (Eds.) (2000). Cultural History of Kerala.
Vol. I Tiruvananthapuram.
Kailasapathy, K. (1972). Tamil Heroic Poetry. Oxford.
Mahalingam, T. V. (1970). Report on the Excavations in the Lower Kaveri Valley.
Madras.
Subrahmanian, N. (1980). Sangam Polity: The Administration and Social Life of
the Sangam Tamils. Repr., Bombay.

391
 UNIT 16 AGRARIAN SETTELEMENTS,
AGRARIAN SOCIETY, EXPANSION
OF TRADE AND URBAN CENTRES –
PENINSULAR INDIA*
Structure
16.0 Objectives
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Forms of Subsistence
16.3 Spread of Agrarian Settlements
16.3.1 Tamilaham
16.3.2 Deccan

16.4 Ownership Rights

16.5 Revenue and Surplus Extraction
16.5.1 Revenue from Agriculture
16.5.2 Modes of Acquiring and Distributing Resources in Tamilaham
16.5.3 Excesses in Extraction

16.6 Social Organization

16.6.1 Society in Tamilaham
16.6.2 Society in the Deccan

16.7 New Elements and Social Change

16.8 Types of Trade
16.8.1 Local Trade
16.8.2 Long-Distance Overland Trade
16.8.3 Long-Distance Overseas Trade

16.9 Aspects of Commercial Organization

16.10 Exchange Facilities
16.11 Coins as a Medium of Exchange
16.11.1 Local Coins of Different Varieties
16.11.2 Roman Coins

16.12 Revenue from Trade

16.13 Weights and Measures
16.14 Urban Centres
16.15 The Impact of Trade and Urban Centres on Society
16.16 Summary
16.17 Key Words
16.18 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
16.19 Suggested Readings
392 * This Unit has been adopted from EHI-02, Block 7.
 Agrarian
16.0 OBJECTIVES Settlements,
Agrarian Society,
The aim of this Unit is to discuss the spread of agrarian settlements in the Deccan and Expansion of Trade
south India from c. 200 BCE to 300 CE. We will also discuss briefly the different and Urban Centres –
dimensions of the expansion of trade and urban centres in south India during the Peninsular India
aforementioned period. This Unit will focus on the kingdom of Satavahanas and regions
far south under the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas as well as local chieftains who were
less important. After reading this Unit, you will be able to know about:
 different forms of subsistence which were prevalent in different parts of south
India;
 nature of the spread of agrarian settlements;
 nature of the ownership of land;
 revenue income from agriculture and redistribution of resources in agrarian
settlements;
 organization of agrarian society;
 introduction of new elements and beginnings of change;
 nature of exchange which determined the character of trade at various levels in
early peninsular India;
 transport and communication facilities;
 coins as medium of exchange in trade;
 interest of political authorities in trade;
 urban centres in south India; and
 impact of trade and urbanization on the society of early peninsular India.

16.1 INTRODUCTION
The earliest evidence of cultivation in peninsular India is traced back to the later phase
of new stone-age which is dated in the first half of 2nd millennium BCE. The new Stone-
Age people cultivated millets like ragi and bajra and also pulses like green gram and
horse gram. Making terraces on the slopes of hills was an important feature of the
settlement of new stone-age and cultivation was limited to the terrace fields. Rice was
found in peninsular India roughly around the beginning of 1st millennium BCE which is
the starting point of iron age in the south. Spread of rice cultivation took place in Deccan
and south India during the iron age.
The earliest of the iron-age settlements are seen in upland areas. Introduction of iron
did not bring any sudden change in the techniques of cultivation. Technological
advancement came later with the introduction of iron-ploughshare. This coincided with
a concentration of settlements in the river valleys. Harnessing of bullocks to the plough
and extensive use of iron-ploughshare resulted in the expansion of area under cultivation
and an unprecedented increase in agricultural production. There was a corresponding
increase in population too. A remarkable change occurred later in the agrarian sector
with the beginning of the practice of donating village land to religious beneficiaries such
as Buddhist monasteries and the Brahmanas. They had better knowledge of seasons
and the ability to predict weather. Grants of land to monks and Brahmanas resulted in
393
History of India coming in of non-cultivating groups in the agrarian sector. Thus, we identify three phases
from the Earliest in the spread of agrarian settlements in early south India:
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
1) The first phase of primitive agriculture with a low-level technology in which cultivation
was confined to hill slopes.
2) A second phase, characterized by plough agriculture with considerable advancement
in technology and spread of cultivation to river valleys.
3) A third phase which witnessed introduction of non-cultivating groups into the
agrarian sector that were endowed with better knowledge of seasons, managerial
capacity and aids for method of cultivation.

16.2 FORMS OF SUBSISTENCE

The forms of subsistence were determined by several factors such as:
 geographical location,
 nature of terrain,
 material culture, and
 level of technology of the given region.
Primitive techniques lingered on for long in some pockets while some other areas
advanced in material production and social development. Diverse forms of subsistence
are more visible in the region of Tamilaham. You will read in the subsequent Unit that
the early Tamil Sangam poems speak of five eco-zones in terms of tinai and the
subsistence pattern of each eco-zone was quite distinct. There were:
 Kurinji – the hills and forests,
 Mullai – the pasture land with low hills and thin forests,
 Marutam – the fertile agricultural plains
 Neytal – the sea-coasts, and
 Palai – the arid zone.
Mullai or Kurinji tracts could become an arid zone in scorching summer. Kurinji
tracts had forest tribes who were variously known as Kuravar, Vetar etc. Their main
occupations were hunting and collecting forest produce like bamboo, rice, honey and
roots. They practiced “slash and burn” cultivation on hill slopes and produced millets
and pulses. They used various tools such as:
 spades,
 sickles, and
 iron-tipped hoes.
Such hill tracts were places where pepper and other spices were grown in plenty.
There are literary references to the cultivation of pepper and facilities for watering the
gardens. Pastures of the Mullai were occupied by cowherds who were known as
Itaiyars/Idaiyars. Their source of livelihood was cattle rearing. They exchanged dairy
products. They, too, practised shifted cultivation and produced:

394  millets,
 pulses, and Agrarian
Settlements,
 lentils. Agrarian Society,
Expansion of Trade
The Marutam or agrarian areas were mostly in fertile river-valleys which were suitable and Urban Centres –
for wet land cultivation of paddy and sugarcane. People, who were called Uzhavars, Peninsular India
meaning ploughmen, engaged themselves in plough agriculture and produced
considerable surplus of paddy. People of other tinais depended on the Marutam tracts
for rice, their staple food. The Neytal people, who were known as Paratavas, were
engaged in fishing and salt producing. They exchanged fish and salt for earning their
livelihood. The Palai zone was a seasonal phenomenon of summers during which
cultivation was not possible due to scarcity of water. Therefore, there were some people
in the region who took to wayside robbery and cattle lifting. Salt merchants and dealers
in other articles often passed through Palai regions in caravans that were often plundered
by people who belonged to the Maravar groups.
From the above discussion, following forms of livelihood can be listed:
 hunting and gathering forest produce,
 cattle rearing,
 plough agriculture,
 fishing and salt making,
 wayside robbery.
Chart I: Physiographic Divisions, Inhabitants and Occupations

Region Geographical Inhabitants Occupations

Feature
Kurinji Hill and forests Hunters and Hunting, food
gatherers gathering, slash and
(Kuravar, Vetar) burn cultivation
Mullai Pasture land with Shepherds (Ayar Cattle rearing,
low hills and thin and Itaiyar) shifting cultivation
forests
Marutam River valleys and Cultivators Plough agriculture
plains (Uzhavar and
Vellaler)
Neytal Sea-coasts Fishermen Fishing, pearl
(Paratavar) diving, salt making
Palai Arid zone Robbers (Eyinar, Wayside robbery
(transformation of Maravar) and hunting
the hill tracts of
pasture land in
summers)

16.3 SPREAD OF AGRARIAN SETTLEMENTS

An increase in population is a notable change from new stone-age to iron-age in the
Deccan and south India. This increase is reflected in the number of the iron-age sites.
As a result of this change there was a spread of settlements from upland areas to fertile
river-valleys and a transformation from partly cattle rearing and partly shifting cultivation
to settled agricultural economy. The main features of this way of life were: 395
History of India  a concentration of settlements in the river valleys,
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.  a certain level of craft specialization,
 extensive use of iron tools and implements,
 new technology of the iron ploughshare,
 management of minor irrigational facilities, and
 a change from the dry land crops to a more surplus yielding wet land crop of
paddy.
Archaeological sites which suggest these changes are scattered all over south India.
They are generally known as Megalithic sites. You have already studied about the
Megaliths in one of the previous Units. Before discussing agrarian settlements we would
mention in brief about the Megaliths.
Megalith literally means big stone. The Megaliths are associated not with actual settlements
of the people but with the burial sites in the form of stone circles around the graves.
Some habitational sites such as Tirukkampuliyar, Alagarai etc. also have been brought
to light but they are very rare. Beginnings of the Megaliths are traced to about 1000
BCE but in many cases they are dated in the 5th to the 1st century BCE. In some places
they continued even later. The grave goods consisted of a variety of articles like:
 human bones,
 various types of pottery including the characteristic Black and Red ware,
 inscribed pot sherds,
 tools and weapons of iron,
 beads and ornaments,
 cult objects and several other things.
It is from these Megalithic remains that we know about the material culture of the
agrarian settlements of iron-age in south India. Further, they corroborate some evidence
supplied by the contemporary Tamil poems.

16.3.1 Tamilaham
Agriculture in Tamilaham was carried on with the help of iron-ploughshare. Spades,
hoes and sickles also were used for different agricultural purposes. Blacksmiths knew
the metallurgy of iron, and some sites have yielded furnaces used for iron smelting. Iron
slags also have been obtained from such sites. Iron tipped plough is necessary for deep
ploughing. For rice and sugarcane land needed deep ploughing. The use of ploughs is
attested by literature and inscriptions. A dealer in ploughshare figures as a donor in a
cave inscription in Tamilaham. Bullocks and buffaloes were harnessed to the plough,
and the employment of draught animals combined with the use of the plough made
agricultural operations efficient.
Irrigation facilities were organized at times by local cultivators and at times by kings and
chieftains. River water was channelized to the fields. Remains of an ancient reservoir
were discovered near Kaveripattinam in Tamilaham. Irrigation was important because
rainfall was not sufficient in the region. Paddy and sugarcane were two important crops
in the fertile Marutam fields. Pulses also were grown. It is known from literature of the
396
period that people had some knowledge of seasons which was necessary for successful Agrarian
cultivation. Settlements,
Agrarian Society,
Uzhavar and Vellalar were cultivators of land. Uzhavar literally means ploughman Expansion of Trade
and Urban Centres –
and Vellalar means master of soil. One of the sources of the labour for agriculture was
Peninsular India
the groups of ploughmen. Atiyor and Vinaivalar are also mentioned as working in the
fields. Atiyor probably means slave and Vinaivalar means worker earning wages.
Details about wage rates and other conditions of labour are not known. In several
contexts the members of big families are found engaged in agricultural production.
Production based on family labour alone did not yield large amount of surplus. However,
in spite of this limitation the agrarian settlements could sustain different groups of
functionaries like:
 blacksmiths,
 carpenters,
 bards,
 dancers,
 magicians,
 priests,
 monks etc.

16.3.2 Deccan
There was an overall increase in the number of settlements in Deccan in the river basins,
on coasts and on the plateau during the Satavahana period (c. 1st century BCE to 3rd
century CE).The Godavari valley had largest number of settlements. Material culture of
the Satavahana settlements showed some improvements from that of the Megalithic
settlements of Deccan. The tools and implements included:
 ploughshares,
 sickles,
 spades,
 axes, and
 arrow-heads.
Hoe continued in the developed phase but it was properly socketed. Iron ore was
available in the areas of Karimnagar and Warangal. Iron working in these areas is
indicated as early as the Megalithic period. Gold working also is attested to in Deccan
in the Satavahana period. These developments show that metallurgy had progressed in
these areas.
Irrigation facilities were known in the form of tanks and wells. Water wheel was used
for lifting water. Digging tanks and wells was considered to be a meritorious act. Some
rulers are praised in the inscriptions as the makers of tanks. Rich people also constructed
tanks and wells.
The people of Deccan had knowledge of paddy transplantation. The river basins of
Godavari and Krishna became extensive rice producing regions in first two centuries of
the Common era. Cotton was grown in black soil areas and the cotton products of 397
History of India Andhra became famous even in foreign countries. Cultivation of coconut trees went a
from the Earliest long way in the development of coastal areas. Plantations of mango tree and some
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
other trees of timber are also heard of in different parts of the Deccan.
Source of labour in the Deccan included waged labourers and slaves. The Periplus of
the Erythrean Sea states that slaves were brought from Arabia. This clearly shows
that there was a sharp distinction and stratification in society. Distinction between ‘high’
and ‘low’was prevalent in Tamilaham. The ‘high’ group consisted of rulers and chieftains
and the Vellalar and Velir sections who were masters of the land. The ‘low’ section
consisted of ordinary peasants, bards and dancers, workers etc. The distinction was
more crystallized in the Deccan where a fusion of indigenous developments and the
northern ideals and ideology took place at an earlier stage.

16.4 OWNERSHIP RIGHTS

Social distinction on the basis of wealth and property takes us to the problem of ownership
rights. In the far south we have seen that there were some Vellalar groups who were
masters of the soil. This seems to suggest possession of land rather than work on
other’s land for wages. Occasionally, the chieftains granted Ur settlements to their
fighters and bards. In effect, the person who was given land received the right to collect
income from Ur settlements which were granted to him. Generally, the field was owned
collectively and the produce was also enjoyed collectively after paying dues to the
chiefs. The nature of land rights is clearer in the Deccan. There were Gahapati
householders who were both landowners and merchants. According to an inscription
Ushavadatta, the son-in-law of Kshatrapa ruler Nahapana of western Deccan, purchased
a plot of land from a Brahmin and donated it to a Buddhist sangha. This was possible
because of the fact that land could be owned privately. From this deal the private
owner received 40,000 kahapana coins. Satavahana kings donated plots of land and
even villages to religious beneficiaries. Lay devotees followed this practice only later.
From inscriptions of the period we know that private individuals owned plots of land.
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) Mark the right () or wrong (×) statements:
a) Diverse forms of subsistence are more visible in the region of Tamilaham.
( )
b) The five Tinais were the Deccan, Andhra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
( )
c) The Palai zone is a seasonal phenomenon. ( )
d) The third phase of agriculture in south India is characterized by the introduction
of non-cultivating groups into agrarian sector. ( )
e) Megalithic monuments are the remains of new stone-age. ( )
f) Millet crops could not be cultivated with hoes. ( )
g) Irrigational facilities were not known in the river valleys of Tamilaham.( )
h) The chieftains donated villages to the temples. ( )
i) Private individuals in the Deccan were not entitled to own land. ( )

398
2) Write five lines about the eco-zones of ancient Tamilaham. Agrarian
Settlements,
..................................................................................................................... Agrarian Society,
Expansion of Trade
..................................................................................................................... and Urban Centres –
Peninsular India
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
3) Write a note on the form of subsistence in the Mullai (pasture lands).
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
4) List six features of agrarian villages in ancient south India.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
5) Write five lines about the tools and implements and irrigational facilities in agrarian
settlements in the Deccan.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
6) Write five lines about the ownership of land in the Deccan.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

16.5 REVENUE AND SURPLUS EXTRACTION

Land revenue was the main source of income. Its collection was done by the state 399
History of India through an organized mechanism. In this section we will discuss land revenue and its
from the Earliest collection.
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
16.5.1 Revenue from Agriculture
Tamil literature mentions Irai and Tirai as the two types of contribution received by the
chieftains. The Irai appears to have been a more regular contribution and the Tirai,
tribute. Unfortunately, we do not have much information from contemporary records
about the rate and mode of collection of revenue. The rulers are often advised to be
gentle and moderate in the collection of revenue. This seems to suggest that coercion
and excesses were practiced by the authorities in collecting shares from the cultivators.
The revenue system was, probably, more regular in Deccan under the Satavahanas but
again, there also the details are not very clear. We hear about some names of taxes like:
 Kara,
 Deya,
 Meya, and
 Bhaaga.
The actual significance of these terms or the amount of revenue claimed by the state are
not known. The donation of villages to Buddhist sanghas and Brahmanas included
revenues from donated villages. In such cases some immunities are mentioned. These
immunities were:
i) against entry by king’s soldiers for collecting any sort of fees;
ii) against royal officers taking possession of articles from the village.
These would show that:
 ordinarily, villagers had to pay some contribution of money or articles to soldiers
when they came to the village, or
 the soldiers were authorized to collect revenue.
It appears that in some Satavahana regions the rural areas were under the Gaulmika
who was in-charge of a small military unit. When land was granted to Buddhist
monasteries or the Brahmanas the state had to guarantee that their rights were not
interfered with by the troops operating in rural areas.

16.5.2 Modes of Acquiring and Distributing Resources in

Tamilaham
How did the resources reach the hands of those who required them? In the Deccan
under a well-organized state system the modes of appropriation were regularised
according to rule and custom. You have read in the previous Unit that a regular state
system was yet to emerge in the far south; there was, therefore, no well-regulated
system of distribution of resources.
Several modes of distribution of resources were prevalent in the agrarian settlements in
Tamilaham. Here, we shall take up the important form of redistribution through gift.
Gift was, perhaps, the most common mode of circulation of resources. Each producer
gave a part of his product to others for services rendered. Gift of a rich meal or a piece
of cloth was a simple form of redistribution. Fighting heroes were provided with feasts
400
both before and after plunder and raid. Poor singers and dancing women who sang and Agrarian
danced in praise of chieftains travelled from court to court, eager to get a full meal and Settlements,
Agrarian Society,
something to put on. At times the gift objects included fine imported wine, silk clothes Expansion of Trade
and even gold ornaments in addition to the feast. Brahmin priests and warrior-heroes and Urban Centres –
often received villages and cattle in gifts by way of remuneration for their services. The Peninsular India
gift of villages to the Brahmanas accounts for the Brahman settlements in ancient
Tamilaham. Acts of redistribution through gift were made by three groups of persons
with wealth and power, namely:
 the crowned king (Vendar),
 the minor chieftain (Velir), and
 the well-to-do agricultural householders (Vellalar) of the agrarian settlements.

16.5.3 Excesses in Extraction

In order to make distribution of gifts possible it was necessary that resources were
collected in a centre which was the residence of the chiefs. Distribution of gifts from a
centre was an important feature of redistribution. Pooling of resources often led to
plunder and pillage of agrarian tracts. Grains and cattle were looted. What they could
not carry was destroyed. Setting fire to peasant settlements, devastation of the harvesting
fields of enemies and conversion of rich gardens to waste land were some of the acts of
the plunderers. The Marava fighters of hill tracts and pasture lands were used by the
chiefs to plunder settlements. The booty of such plunders was redistributed among
Marava fighters and Brahmin priests by way of presentation and remuneration for
expiatory rituals. The defenseless plight of the peasants and the way they were terrorized
and exploited are attested to by a number of songs of the Sangam anthologies.
In spite of all such excess committed against the poor peasants the war was celebrated
as a noble heroic act. It was even institutionalised. The cult of war was propagated
through the praise of the courage of warriors whose memorial stones were made cult
objects or objects of worship. The Pana singers sang in praise of the warlike qualities
of the chieftain and his fighters. Booty capture was necessary because of the scarcity of
resources. At the same time, such activities of excesses resulted in the destruction of
resources. This was a contradiction which was inherent in the mechanism of redistribution
at the level of chieftains.

16.6 SOCIAL ORGANIZATION

In this section we will study different social groups and customs in Tamilaham and
Deccan areas. Let us first discuss Tamilaham.

16.6.1 Society in Tamilaham

Society in ancient Tamilaham was, essentially, tribal in character with its kinship
organizations, totem worship and tribal cults and practices.
In all the tinais (eco-zones) tribal customs prevailed, but a change was gradually
happening in the predominantly agricultural region. In this region social organization
was becoming complex. This was characterized by the gradual breaking up of old
kinship ties and the introduction of the Brahmanical varna concept. Social stratification
or inequality between different social groups appeared and there was broad distinction
between different social groups appeared and there was broad distinction between
‘high’ and ‘low’. The landed vellalar and velala peasants constituted basic producing
groups in the agrarian settlements. 401
History of India
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.

Approximated Two Millennium Old (Sangam Age) Paintings Found near Palani, Tamil Nadu.
Credit: Gopikumar.ila. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Sangam_age_paintings,_Palani,_Tamil_Nadu_in_India_-_2.jpg).

Craft specialization was only rudimentary and subsidiary to agricultural production. We

hear of blacksmiths (Kollan) and carpenters (Techan). Extended family was their unit
of production. Weaving was another profession.
Religious worship and cult practices of the village folk followed old tribal rituals which
necessitated the presence of ritual groups such as Velan, Venttuvan etc. They looked
after the supernatural elements and their management. However, society was not ‘priest-
dominated’. There was considerable surplus which led to the prosperity of trading
groups. They were known after the commodity in which they traded. Thus, we hear of:
 Umanar (salt merchant),
 Koola vaanigar (corn merchant/grain seller),
 Aruvai vaanigar (textile merchant),
 Pon vaanigar (gold merchant) etc.
Towards the end of our period these traders were accommodated within the varna
order which had, by that time, taken roots in the far south. Tolkappiyam, the earliest
available work on Tamil grammar, portrays Tamil society as consisting of four varna
divisions. According to this text the traders belonged to the vaishya group. In deep
south, especially in Madurai and Tirunelveli regions of the Pandya country, these traders
are found associated with some heterodox religious groups. They figure in early
inscriptions of this region as donors of cave dwellings to the ascetics of Jaina or Buddhist
order. The presence of ascetics of heterodox sects suggests that they had some followers
in the region.
It was quite natural that the chiefly groups established their centres in the agrarian tracts
(Marutam) for the reason that surplus resources necessary for the sustenance of a
non-producing group were available there only. The chieftains of Marutam agricultural
tracts started claiming descent from Suryavamsha (Solar line) or Chandravamsha
(Lunar line) as the kshatriyas of north India did.
Chieftains exploited the peasants in agrarian settlements and extracted surplus with the
help of Maravar groups of the peripheral regions. They often plundered the villages. In
the Sangam poems war and warlike qualities of the warrior heroes are glorified. The
function of Pana singers and Virali dancers was to glorify the heroes and their heroism.
Thus, we find that society in the agrarian Marutam region of ancient Tamilaham was
an amalgamation of old tribal practices and of Brahmanical ideals and ideology.

16.6.2 Society in the Deccan

In Deccan all the three major religious systems i.e. Brahmanism, Buddhism and Jainism
enjoyed large following. Satavahana rulers extended their patronage to Vedic ritualism.
For example, Naganika, an early queen of the Satavahana family performed several
Vedic rituals and made gifts mentioned in the Vedic texts. Jainism had some following in
the region and some of the famous teachers of the Digambara sect flourished in this
402
period. Kondakundacharya, founder of the Mulasangha which became popular in Agrarian
south, lived in the region. Buddhism spread as a popular movement and that religion Settlements,
Agrarian Society,
could enlist participation of a large number of followers, mostly traders and artisans. Expansion of Trade
The Mahayana sect of Buddhism enjoyed good popularity. Ruling authorities, rich and Urban Centres –
men and workers donated liberally to viharas and stupas. Acharya Nagajuna, the Peninsular India
greatest exponent of Mahayana faith, flourished in the Deccan. Some foreign elements
like Yavanas, Shakas and Pahlavas embraced either Brahmanical or Buddhist religion.
Thus, the period under study witnessed the fusion of various cultural elements in society.
The rulers of foreign descent used Prakrit and later on Sanskrit in their inscriptions and
even adopted Indian personal and family names.
The idea of four-fold division of society was familiar in Deccan. The practice of calling
people according to their profession was popular. Halaka (ploughman), Golika
(shepherd), Vardhaki (carpenter), Kolika (weaver), Tilapisaka (oil presser) and
Kamara (smith) were some such professional labels. Caste rules were much flexible
and this might be due to mixing up with foreign elements. Joint family system was the
normal feature of society. Male domination is clearly attested to in social life. Sometimes,
some women are found accepting the titles of their husbands like Bhojiki, Maharathini,
Mahasenapatini etc.

16.7 NEW ELEMENTS AND SOCIAL CHANGE

In the Deccan some new elements made their first appearance in the agrarian order
during the first centuries CE. Satavahana and Kshatrapa rulers donated plots of land
and even entire villages to religious beneficiaries such as Buddhist monks and Brahmanas.
Along with land certain economic privileges in the form of the right to collect revenue
from the village and to enjoy the right over mines were also transferred to the grantees.
It appears that land grants included some fiscal and administrative rights over the
peasants. The royal grants freed the village folk from obligatory payments to
administrative functionaries and soldiers who visited the village. In the past many grants
to individuals had been temporary. But now the trend was to make the grant perpetual.
The privileges and immunities sanctioned by the rulers and the grant of permanent right
over land placed the religious beneficiaries in a highly powerful position. These new
developments in the agrarian sector brought about serious and far-reaching changes in
the land system and economy which can be summed up as follows:
i) In the first place, the religious beneficiaries became powerful authorities of the
villages received by them with the new economic and administrative privileges in
addition to the spiritual control which they exercised.
ii) Secondly, land grants to monks and priests created a new class of non-cultivating
land owners. Buddhist monks and Brahmin priests were not cultivators themselves.
They had to employ others to work on their land. Actual tillers were, thus, separated
from the land and its produce.
iii) Thirdly, this type of private ownership abolished earlier collective rights over forests,
pastures, fisheries and reservoirs.
iv) Fourthly, the beneficiaries enjoyed rights not only over land but also over peasants
who worked on land. This led to an erosion of the rights of peasants who became
servile.
These developments in the Deccan were to become prominent elsewhere in subsequent
centuries. Finally, the practice of land grant contributed, with several other features, to
the creation of a social order which is described by some scholars as “Indian feudalism”. 403
History of India Check Your Progress Exercise 2
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E. 1) Mark the right () and wrong (×) from the following:
a) Irai and Tirai were the two items of revenue to be paid in cash.
b) Gualmikas were rural administrators of the Satavahanas.
c) The bards and dancers travelled from court to court to receive rich
presentations of cattle and land.
d) Plunder war was institutionalized in ancient Tamilaham.
e) Social complexity started appearing in the pasture lands.
f) According to Tolkappiyam the traders belonged to kshatriya groups.
g) In Madurai and Tirunelveli regions the cave dwellings were donated to ascetics
of heterodox sects like Jainism and Buddhism.
h) Kondakundacharya was the founder of the Mulasangha of the Digambara
sect.
i) The idea of four-fold division of society war familiar in ancient Deccan.
2) Write five lines on the plunder wars in ancient south India.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
3) Write about the excesses in the appropriation of surplus in early Tamilaham.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
4) Discuss the craftsmen groups in Tamilaham.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
5) Write a note on the Satavahana land-grants to religious groups in the Deccan.
.....................................................................................................................
404
 ..................................................................................................................... Agrarian
Settlements,
..................................................................................................................... Agrarian Society,
Expansion of Trade
..................................................................................................................... and Urban Centres –
Peninsular India
.....................................................................................................................
6) Write about the results of land grants to Buddhist monks and Brahmin priests.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

16.8 TYPES OF TRADE

You have read about agrarian settlements and agrarian society in ancient Deccan and
far south. In this segment we will discuss other such aspects of economy as trade and
urbanization which helped bringing about significant changes in the society of early
peninsular India.
In peninsular India the growth of trade and emergence of urban centres were not isolated
phenomena but were very much associated with other important changes taking place
in the region which were generated by:
i) changes within society in different parts of peninsular India caused by the growth
of agriculture in major river valleys. To an extent this was connected with iron
technology of peninsular Megalithic culture and with irrigation. In some parts
agricultural surplus appears to have been available.
ii) Mauryan expansion in peninsular India led to greater contact with the north and to
movement of traders, merchants and others. This is suggested by the advantages
of southern route (dakshinapatha) highlighted in the Arthashastra. There were
further contacts along the coasts. The earlier system and network of exchange in
peninsular India, thus, underwent major changes.
iii) To this was added another factor. From the close of 1st century BCE demand for
Indian goods brought merchants and ships from Roman world in the west in close
contact with peninsular India. This provided a major impetus to the growth of
trade and urban centres.
iv) All these, again, are associated with the growth of crafts specialization or growth
of skill in producing crafts items which were required for members of the society
either in local exchange or for long-distance trade. For example, different types of
pottery, bead-making, glass-making, weaving of cloth all required different skills.
It has, however, to be remembered that all corners of India were not uniformly affected
by these changes. There were and there continued to be areas in which earlier forms of
culture persisted. Secondly, between Deccan and the far south the changes were more
prominent in different parts of Deccan. In the beginning changes were slower and limited
territorially in far south.
405
History of India Different aspects of the growth of trade and urban centres can be studied under following
from the Earliest heads:
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
a) Exchange mechanism in local transactions and long-distance trade,
b) organizations of guilds,
c) transportation, storage and shipping,
d) means of exchange,
e) revenue from trade,
f) urban centres, and
g) economic and social changes brought about by trade and urbanization.
You have learnt about the various geographical regions and their produces. Each region
had something to exchange for items of other regions. At the same time each of these
regions lacked some items which were essential for its own society. Agricultural tracts
produced food-grains and sugarcane but it had to depend on coastal areas for salt and
fish. Coastal areas produced considerable surplus in salt and fish but rice, the staple
food, had to be brought from the areas of paddy cultivation. The hill ranges were rich in
timber, spices etc. but they had to depend on agricultural tracts and coastal areas for
food grains and salt. The result of this kind of interdependence was that exchange
relationship had come to exist among various geographical regions.
Some of the articles available in south India were required by other parts of the sub-
continent and even by other countries and civilizations. Contacts were established through
land-routes or sea-routes by those distant countries and necessary articles were
procured. Thus, we can identify three levels of trade:
i) Local trade
ii) Long-distance overland trade, and
iii) Long-distance overseas trade.

16.8.1 Local Trade

Barter was the most common mode of transaction in the context of local exchange.
Most of the items of barter were for immediate consumption. Salt, fish, paddy, dairy
products, roots, venison, honey and toddy were regular items of barter in far south.
Salt was exchanged for paddy; paddy was exchanged for milk, curd and ghee; honey
was given for taking fish oil and liquor; rice flakes and sugarcane were given for venison
and toddy. Very rarely, luxury items like pearls and elephant tusks also appeared as
items of barter. They were also bartered for articles of consumption such as rice, fish,
toddy etc. Loan was not unknown in the barter system of Tamil south. A loan of a fixed
quantity of an article could be taken to be repaid in the same kind and quantity at a later
date. This was called Kurietirppai.
Exchange rates were not fixed. Petty bargaining was the only method of fixing the price
of articles. Paddy and salt were the only two items for which a set exchange rate was
known in the barter system of far south. Salt was bartered for an equal measure of
paddy.
In Deccan under the Satavahana rule the use of coins was quite common. Even so the
continuation of barter need not be ruled out. Craft produces like pots, pans, toys and
406
trinkets were bartered in rural areas.
In the barter system of the far south the following features can be noted: Agrarian
Settlements,
1) Most of the items of exchange were of consumption articles. Agrarian Society,
Expansion of Trade
2) Exchange was not profit-oriented. and Urban Centres –
Peninsular India
3) As in the case of production, distribution also was subsistence-oriented.

16.8.2 Long-Distance Overland Trade

Contacts in various spheres between the northern and southern parts of India can be
traced back at least to c. 4th century BCE if not earlier. Resources of the regions which
lay to south of the Vindhyan ranges were known to the north. Early Buddhist literature
seems to refer to a route which ran from the Ganga valley to the Godavari valley. This
was known as the Dakshinapath. Kautilya, the author of Arthashastra, has written
about the advantage of this southern route. According to him the southern territories
abounded in:
 conch-shells,
 diamonds,
 pearls,
 precious stones, and
 gold.
Moreover, this route passed through territories that were rich in mines and valuable
merchandise. He says that this route was frequented by many during those days. The
route touched many southern centres including the city of Pratishthana which was to
become the capital of the Satavahanas at a later date. Most of the items of this north-
south trade were luxury articles such as pearls, precious stones and gold. Good varieties
of textiles moved between north and south also. Perhaps, a fine variety of silk came
from Kalinga. The name of this thin silk was Kalinga, evidently named after the place
of its origin. This was an important item favoured by the Tamil chieftains. The bards
who sang in praise of chieftains received this silk cloth as a valuable present. The fine
type of pottery called Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW) also found its way to
the extreme south. Archaeologists have unearthed some NBP sherds in territory of the
early Pandyas.
Besides the above items some herbs and spices also were brought to the south. These
included spikenard and malabathrum (a herb for preparing ointment) which were shipped
to the west.
The northern traders also brought a large quantity of silver punch-marked coins. Punch-
marked coins in large hoards have been unearthed from different parts of south India.
They bear testimony to brisk commercial contacts between north and the south. As the
long-distance trade with northern Indian was mostly in luxury items the benefit of this
trade was enjoyed by a small section consisting of ruling elites and their men.

16.8.3 Long-Distance Overseas Trade

Indian items such as spices, precious and semi-precious stones, timber, ivory and many
other articles were in great demand in western countries. The main source of these
articles was south India. These articles were shipped to the west from very early times.
Considering the bulk of transactions and the resultant profit, direct trade with the Roman
world, of which we have evidence from the close of the 1st century BCE proved to very
significant for the economy and society of peninsular India. 407
History of India We shall identify two stages in the commercial contact of Rome with peninsular India:
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E. 1) An early stage with the Arabs as middlemen.
2) A second stage in which a direct contact was established with the knowledge of
monsoon winds.
For a long period navigation in the Arabian sea was coastal. It was tedious and expensive.
The Arabs had established commercial connections with India, making the sea as a
highway of trade before the beginning of the Common era. Geographical position of the
Arabs was favourable to them in enjoying the monopoly in East-West trade. They had
some knowledge of wind systems in the Arabian sea and they kept it as a trade secret.
Thus, they played the role of middlemen and raised considerable profit out of the trade
with peninsular India.

Indian Ship on the Lead Coin of Vasisthiputra Sri Pulamavi, Testimony to the Naval, Seafaring
and Trading Capabilities of the Satavahanas during 1st-2nd Century CE. Location: British Museum,
London. Credit: PHGCOM. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Indian_ship_on_lead_coin_of_Vashishtiputra_Shri_Pulumavi.jpg).

With the ‘discovery’of monsoon winds which is attributed to a navigator named Hippalus,
direct contact was established by the Romans with India. This marked the beginning of
a period of increase in commerce between Rome and peninsular India.
Romans brought to the south Indian ports their articles which included both raw materials
and finished products. The raw materials consisted of:
 copper,
 tin,
 lead,
 coral,
 topaz,
 flint,
 glass (as a few material for making beads).
The finished products were:
 best quality of wine,
 clothes of fine texture,
 fine ornaments,
 gold and silver coins, and
408  different types of excellent pottery.
A large number of articles were shipped by the Romans from peninsular India to the Agrarian
west. We will identify the following categories among them: Settlements,
Agrarian Society,
i) Spices and medicinal herbs like the pepper, spikenard, malabathrum, cinnabar; Expansion of Trade
and Urban Centres –
ii) precious and semi-precious stones such as beryl, agate, carnelian, jasper and Peninsular India
onyx as well as shells, pearls and tusk;
iii) timber items like ebony, teak, sandalwood, bamboo;
iv) textile items of coloured cotton cloth and muslin as well as dyes like indigo and lac.
Among the above items of export beads and textile were the finished goods.
The Romans paid for Indian articles mainly in gold. A majority of the export items were
locally available and the collection of merchandise in the Deccan and south India was
done by Indian merchants themselves. Wagons and pack animals were for transporting
them to the ports. The shipping of merchandise to the western lands was carried out
mostly by foreign merchants though there were Indian maritime traders in Deccan and
south India. South India had commercial connections with Sri Lanka and south-east
Asia. Important articles of this trade were:
 some spices,
 camphor, and
 sandalwood.
Merchants of Tamil origin were, probably, responsible in taking the initiative in this
trade. Sri Lankan merchants came to Tamilaham also. There are inscriptions written in
Tamil Brahmi characters which refer to those who came from Elam (Sri Lanka). However,
details of this trade are not known.

16.9 ASPECTS OF COMMERCIAL ORGANIZATION

In small-scale local transactions quite often the producers were the dealers too. Fishing
and salt making were done exclusively by the community of the Parathavas mentioned
in the Sangam literature as living in Neytal (coastal) region, and so, they had to devote
their whole time for these activities. Therefore, a different method was followed in the
distribution of fish and salt.
Fish was taken to neighbouring areas of the sea-coast by womenfolk of the fishermen’s
family. They appeared in the places of village fairs and other rural gatherings.
As an essential item salt was in demand everywhere. A separate group took to the
distribution of salt. Salt merchants were known as Umanaasa in Tamilaham. In the
coastal areas and neighbouring villages the umanaasa hawker girls carried salt in head
loads and bartered it mainly with paddy. In the interior rural villages salt was taken by
the umanaasa. Big bags of salt were transported in carts drawn by bullocks or asses.
Salt merchants moved in large groups. These salt caravans were called Umanchatu.
They bartered salt for local products. Thus, the umanchatu acted as the collectors of
merchandise from different parts of the regions.The umanaasa moved in caravans with
their family. No organization other than the family is known to have existed among the
salt merchants.
Besides salt dealers, there were dealers in corn (Koola vaanigar), cloth (Aruvai
vaanigar), gold (Pon vaanigar), sugar (Panita vaanigar) etc. They figure in some
409
History of India ancient cave inscriptions of Tamilaham as donors of dwelling places to some ascetics.
from the Earliest This indicates that they were affluent. Details of their trade and organization are not
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
known. There is a single epigraphic reference to a traders’ organization of Tiruvellarai in
the deep south, the members of the which are described as nikamattor meaning the
members of the nigama, a guild.
In Tamilaham the organization of traders was, perhaps, a rare thing. But, in the Deccan
merchants’guilds or associations were a regular phenomenon. Another route ran from
the western hilly region to Kanchipuram which was a seat of a local chieftain and a
famous city on the east coast.
Salt-caravans and other merchants were the travellers who traversed these routes. The
caravans moved in large groups. Besides merchants, very often, wandering bards,
dancers, messengers, mendicants etc. also moved from place to place along such routes.
These groups chose to join the caravans because the journey was often hazardous.
Most of the routes passed through dense forests and over hills where wild tribes lived.
Wayside robbery was a perpetual threat to the merchants and the caravans employed
guards of their own in absence of effective protection from the rulers.
In territories under the Satavahanas the picture was somewhat different. The main route
to the Deccan from the north came from Ujjaini to the city of Pratishthana (Paithan), the
capital of Satavahanas. From Pratishthana it passed across the Deccan plateau to lower
Krishna valley and then went further south to reach the famous southern cities of Kanchi
and Madurai. A network of roads developed early in the Common era from this old
route linking the producing areas in the interior with inland markets and towns and the
port towns on the western coast. The fertile river valleys of Godavari and Krishna also
had such network of routes to connect the interior with the coastal towns.
It is interesting to note that some of the famous ancient Buddhist cave sites and religious
centres in the Deccan were situated on such trade routes. These religious centres were
helpful in many ways to the merchant-caravans. Besides providing food and shelter
they even issued loans.
The rulers also showed interest in conditions of these routes. They donated liberally to
Buddhist religious establishments which were located on the routes. They constructed
rest houses at port towns and established watersheds on the routes. Officials also were
appointed for their upkeep. Unfortunately, information is not available regarding the
policing on such roads. Often the routes had to cross over rivers. Ferries were established
at such points and a toll was also collected from merchants. Some of the ferries were
toll-free.
Due to familiarity with a long coast-line and several river systems, navigation both on
the sea as well as rivers was known to south Indians. Smaller boats were used for
ferry-crossing and river navigation. Navigation on the sea was made possible by
construction and use of bigger vessels.
Navigation in Tamilaham was mainly coastal. There were some trade connections
with Sri Lanka. Sri Lankan (Elam) traders figure in some ancient inscriptions of south
India. Similarly, Tamil traders appear as donors in some early inscriptions of Sri Lanka.
These evidences show that traders from Tamilaham participated in maritime trade.
The Deccan, too, had merchants who were particularly engaged in sea-borne trade.
Ships fitted out of Bharukachchha are known from literature of this period.
Merchants of peninsular India, particularly those of the Deccan, participated in foreign
trade. The presence of some Indian traders in Egypt and Alexandria is attested by
410 foreign writings of this period.
Royal authorities were aware of the importance of maritime trade. They provided facilities Agrarian
for the traders. Ships arriving at Bharukachchha were piloted by local boats and Settlements,
Agrarian Society,
conducted to separate berths at the docks. Expansion of Trade
and Urban Centres –
In far south the big chieftains of Tamilaham encouraged sea-trade in different ways.
Peninsular India
Lighthouses were erected on the shores; there were wharves where the Roman ships
unloaded their merchandise to be stamped with the chieftains’ emblem. Storage facilities
were provided and protection of goods was also arranged at the warehouses. Sea-
borne trade in the far south as well as in the Deccan shows some features of what is
described as “administered trade” by some modern scholars. The difference between
the two regions is that the features are more prominent in Deccan whereas in Tamilaham
they are at the rudimentary level.

16.10 EXCHANGE FACILITIES

The question of facilities for transportation, storage and shipping is relevant particularly
in the context of long-distance trade in which the movement of bulk items is a problem.
In the far south pepper, paddy and salt were main items which required movement in
bulk. In western Deccan timber also was a bulk item of demand from the West. Pack
animals and carts were used for inland transport.
In Tamilaham there were several routes which connected interior tracts with the
settlements in river valleys, port towns and seats of rulers. One such route went from
western areas of the Kaveri valley to the Chola port town Kaveripumpattinam.
Each town seems to have had a guild (nigama). Each guild had an elderman (setthi)
and its own office. The organization of traders acted as a bank. It received deposits
and lent out money. Guilds of weavers, potters, oil pressers, bamboo workers, braziers
etc. are known from the inscriptions of Deccan. The guild, as a working unit, was more
efficient than the family unit. Besides the strength of unity guild was capable of providing
all sorts of help to its members including financial assistance. Further, the individual
member was relieved from the responsibility of finding out a customer. Thus, the territories
under Satavahanas had a comparatively advanced system in the organization of trade.

16.11 COINS AS MEDIUM OF EXCHANGE

Though barter was the most common mode of transaction the use of coins as a means
of exchange became current in the period that we are discussing. They can broadly be
divided into two broad categories:
i) Local coins of different varieties, and
ii) Roman coins.

16.11.1 Local Coins of Different Varieties

Local coins of different varieties were prevalent in different regions in peninsular India.
Ancient Tamil literature speaks about some of them such as:
 Kasu,
 Kanam,
 Pon, and
 Ven Pon.
411
History of India But actual coins which may correspond to these names have not been discovered. In
from the Earliest the Deccan inscriptions refer to the use of Kahapanas which were silver coins locally
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
minted and Suvarnas which refer to gold coins either of the Romans or the Kushanas.
Actual coins of different varieties and minted in different metals like lead, potin (copper
mixed with tin and other metals), copper and silver were in use. The earliest among
them were punch-marked coins which, as you have learnt in a previous Unit, came to
be minted in north-west and north India from c. 6th-5th century BCE onward. In
peninsular India too different varieties of punch-marked coins were minted in different
regions. Other varieties of coins, manufactured by using other techniques like casting
and die-striking, gradually came into use. From c. 2nd century BCE kings of small
localities of members of the important Maharathi and other families started minting
coins in their own name. To these were added coins of the Satavahana rulers minted in
different metals, possibly from c. 1st century BCE onward. In northern Deccan, Gujarat,
Malwa and adjacent regions silver coins of the Kshatrapas were in great demand.
Thus, between c. 2nd century BCE and the close of 2nd century CE the largest varieties
of local coins were minted and were in circulation in peninsular India.

16.11.2 Roman Coins

Ancient Tamil literature refers to Yavana (Roman) ships bringing large quantities of
gold to Tamilaham to be exchanged for pepper. The Roman emperor Tiberius wrote
to the Senate in 22 CE that the wealth of the empire was being drained off to foreign
lands in exchange of petty things. In c. 1st century CE Pliny, author of The Natural
History, complained that every year a huge amount of Roman wealth went out to
India, China and Arabia for luxury articles. These statements are well supported by
large number of Roman Coins found in hoards in various places of peninsular India like:
 Andhra,
 Karnataka,
 Tamil Nadu, and
 Kerala.
Most of the coins belong to a period between c. lst century BCE and 3rd century CE.
This suggests that Roman contact with peninsular India was brisk during this period.
Roman coins are mostly in gold and silver. Copper coins are extremely rare but not
altogether unknown. Roman money was brought to purchase items which were dear to
the Westerners. These items could not be procured by exchanging Roman things in
bulk. Big transactions were done by means of gold coins. Silver coins were used for
comparatively small purchases. Some scholars are of the view that Roman gold was
accepted not as coin but as bullion. It is also held by certain scholars that Roman gold
was used for ornaments by south Indians.

Roman Gold Coins Excavated in Pudukottai, Tamilnadu. British Museum Collection, London.
Author: Uploadalt. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Roman_gold_coins_excavated_in_Pudukottai_India_one_coin_of_Caligula_31_
412 41_and_two_coins_of_Nero_54_68.jpg).
Some numismatists have maintained that Roman coins and the punch-marked coins Agrarian
were current in the country side-by-side. Roman coins were of roughly the same weight Settlements,
Agrarian Society,
as punch-marked coins. In some hoards they are found along with punch-marked coins. Expansion of Trade
Both types are equally worn out and this suggests that they were current for a long time and Urban Centres –
before they were placed in hoards. Imitations of Roman coins were also current in Peninsular India
south India, especially on the Coromandal coast where there were some Roman trading
stations. These imitated coins may have been manufactured to satisfy the needs of such
‘colonies’.

16.12 REVENUE FROM TRADE

Collection of revenue as a regular source of income to the treasury depends on several
factors including efficiency of the government. Political developments in different regions
in peninsular India in our period were not uniform in character. So, the revenue system
also varied from region to region. Toll was collected for merchandise moving on pack
animals and carts. This toll was known as Ulku, a derivative of the Sanskrit term sulka
meaning toll. This seems to indicate that the idea of toll was borrowed from the north.
However, all the crowned chieftains and lesser chieftains of the south are said to have
been interested in trade, especially with the Yavanas, evidently with an eye on the income
from commerce.
In the Chola port town of Kaveripumpattinam there were Chola ruler’s agents to affix
Chola emblem of the tiger on the merchandise. Toll was also levied on articles. Detailed
information about this aspect is, sadly, not available. Further north, in the territory of the
Satavahanas taxation seems to have been more regular and systematic. Toll was collected
on each item of trade. Custom duties and various tolls were levied on merchants at
each major town. The rates of such duties and tolls are not specified anywhere. Ferry
duties were another source of income. Ushavadatta, the son-in-law and representative
of the Kshatrapa ruler Nahapana of western India is said to have made arrangements
for toll-free ferries on some rivers.
Revenue was received in kind or cash. Artisans had to pay tax on their products. This
was known as Karukara (Karu = artisan and Kara = tax). From this fragmentary
information one can only say that the ruling authorities derived considerable income
from trade and commerce.
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
1) Write about the features of the barter system in ancient south India.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
2) Mark which of the following statements are right () or wrong (×).
a) Most of the items of barter were for luxury. ( )
b) Kurietirppai means barter in which a loan of a fixed quantity of an article is
taken to be repaid in the same kind and quantity at a later date. ( )
413
History of India c) Kautilya thought that the southern route was superior because it was less
from the Earliest dangerous than other routes. ( )
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
d) South India exported only raw material to the West and imported finished
products from the West. ( )
e) Trade guilds in the Deccan acted as a bank which received deposits and lent
out money. ( )
f) In Tamilaham there were several routes which connected interior tracts with
the settlements in river valleys, coastal towns and the seats of ruling chieftains.
( )
g) Satavahana rulers established watersheds on trade routes and appointed
officials for their upkeep. ( )
h) Whether found in north or south the punch-marked coins carried a standard
weight. ( )
i) In ancient south India the Roman gold coins were used exclusively as
ornaments. ( )
j) The tax paid by merchants was called Karukara. ( )
3) Write a note on salt-caravans in early Tamilaham.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
4) Write a note about trade organizations in the Deccan.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
5) Bring out the contrasting experience on the trade routes in ancient Deccan and
south India in about 50 words.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

414
6) Write on the local coins in early south India. Agrarian
Settlements,
..................................................................................................................... Agrarian Society,
Expansion of Trade
..................................................................................................................... and Urban Centres –
Peninsular India
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
7) Write about five lines on the silver punch-marked coins.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
8) Write a note on Roman coins and their use in early south India.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

16.13 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES

A developed system of exchange requires regular weights and measures. When it is
possible to weigh, measure and count objects which one is buying or selling exchange
becomes both easy and efficient. The buyer and the seller do not have to feel uncertain
about the quantity or size of the object bought or sold.
In Deccan, where dealing with different kinds of items in the trading centres was a
regular practice, the idea of exact measurements must have been prevalent. Coins were
issued in different denominations and land was measured in terms of nivartanas.
Maa and Veli were measures of land in the far south. Here, grain was measured in
ambanam, probably a large measure, in the context of paying tributes. Smaller measures
such as nali, ulakku and alakku were also known.
Weight was known by means of balance. Balance was, perhaps, a rod with marks on
it. Even minute weight could be balanced, for we are told about weighing gold on a
balance. In day-to-day transactions the linear measurement was expressed in terms of
length of gingilly grain (el), paddy grain (nel), finger and hand.

16.14 URBAN CENTRES

In the course of the above discussion we touched upon various aspects of commercial
expansion of trade in early peninsular India. This early trade provided great impetus to
415
History of India the rise and growth of a number of urban centres. We will begin with centres of the
from the Earliest Deccan where the features of urban growth are clearly visible.
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
Western and eastern coasts had several port-towns. In the coastal Andhra region in the
delta of the Godavari and Krishna there were some important centres. Ships sailed
from there to the Malay peninsula and eastern archipelago. The western port towns of
Bharukachchha (Broach), Sopara and Kalyan, however, appear to be older and more
important in the early phase of Indo-Roman trade.
In the interior there were big and small urban centres:
 Pratishthana (Paithan),
 Tagara (Ter),
 Bhogavardhana (Bhokardan),
 Karahataka (Karad),
 Nasik,
 Vaijayanti,
 Dhanyakataka,
 Vijayapuri,
 Nagarjunakonda etc.
We may identify following factors which led to the rise of these centres which were
distinct from ordinary rural settlements:
1) An agricultural hinterland capable of producing necessary surplus for the
consumption of different social groups living in urban centres.
2) Emergence of such groups as those of traders, artisans and handicraftsmen who
were not directly involved in food production.
3) Emergence of guilds which organized the activities of traders and craftsmen.
4) Facilities for collection of commodities required in local and foreign exchange and
development of shipping.
5) A ruling class capable of channelizing surplus to the centres and also providing
help and protection.
6) Emergence of a monetary system.
7) Spread of writing which is essential for accounting and registering.
Functionally, the urban centres belonged to different categories:
 Administrative centres,
 collection centres,
 cantonments,
 centres of foreign trade,
 markets, and
416  manufacturing centres.
However, most of these functions could be carried out at a single urban centre. Agrarian
Settlements,
Three distinct types of centres can be identified in Tamilaham mostly on the basis of Agrarian Society,
references in the Sangam poems and other literary writings and to some extent, on the Expansion of Trade
and Urban Centres –
basis of archaeology:
Peninsular India
 rural exchange centres,
 inland market towns, and
 port towns.
In the process of exchanging articles for subsistence between different tinais (eco-
zones) there emerged several centres as points of contact. These contact points were
often junctions on traditional routes. Some of these centres became more active because
of regular exchange activities. It will not be appropriate to call them ‘urban’ in modern
sense of the term. However, contemporary society viewed them as distinct from ordinary
peasant settlements. Inland towns like Uraiyur (near modern Tiruchirapalli), Kanchi
(Kanchipuram) and Madurai had markets. They, too, had not developed into full-fledged
urban centres.
Pattinams (port-towns) were more active under the patronage of the rulers. There
were several such centres:
 On east coast: Puhar or Kaveripumpattinam (of the Cholas), Arikamdu, Korhai
(of the Pandyas);
 on west coast: Muziris and Tyndis (of the Cheras), Bakare and Neleynda.
They were the centres of maritime trade and some of them like Arikamedu had ‘colonies’
of the Yavanas. Muziris was a busy centre with a port crowded with ships of all kinds,
with large warehouses and markets.
Since the emphasis of trade at the port-towns was on luxury items the pattinams were
not closely linked with local exchange network. They remained as “pockets of foreign
trade” with mainly the rulers and rich as clientele. The growth of these centres was,
thus, a result of external trade. With the decline of external trade these centres, too,
dwindled and disappeared slowly.
The nature of these urban centres was, thus, characterized by the absence of:
a) Linkage with local exchange networks,
b) craft specialization,
c) support of such institutions as monastery and guild.

16.15 THE IMPACT OF TRADE AND URBAN

CENTRES ON SOCIETY
Early trade and urban developments do not seem to have brought about very fundamental
changes in the social life of Tamilaham. Local exchange was subsistence-oriented.
This means that the items which changed hands through local exchange were used for
regular consumption by different groups of people. Long-distance trade was mostly in
luxury goods which did not circulate beyond kinship circles of the chieftains and their
men. Individual merchants’ wealth and prosperity, as seen in their gifts to monks, were
not very impressive.
417
History of India Craftsmen and traders were not organized in guilds. They functioned together as members
from the Earliest of a family or as close relatives. They, thus, acted only according to the norms of the
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
kinship-based relations of a tribal nature.
In Deccan the situation was different. Participation of local trading groups was necessary
also for long-distance trade. So, the advantage of this trade filtered down to the other
levels of society. The wealth and prosperity of the artisans, craftsmen and traders are
reflected in their donations to Buddhist monasteries.
The guild organizations of artisans and traders were instrumental in breaking old kinship
ties and introducing a new type of relations in production of handicrafts and in trading
ventures.
The relationship between rulers, commercial groups and Buddhist monastic
establishments was responsible in introducing important changes in society and economy
of the Deccan.
Check Your Progress Exercise 4
1) Mark right () or wrong (×) statements given below:
a) Maa and Veli were linear measurements. ( )
b) Inland towns were more active than coastal towns in early south India.( )
c) Guilds introduced some change in the production relations among the artisans
and traders. ( )
d) The circulation of luxury goods was among the members of the crowned
monarchs and their families. ( )
e) Long-distance trade was not dependent on local exchange networks in the
Deccan. ( )
2) Write five lines on relations between the monasteries and the traders.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
3) Write a note on the impact of trade and urbanizm on local traders and artisans.
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................

418
 Agrarian
16.16 SUMMARY Settlements,
Agrarian Society,
In this Unit we discussed several aspects of agrarian settlements and agrarian society in Expansion of Trade
ancient peninsular India. You have learnt from this lesson about: and Urban Centres –
Peninsular India
 Economic activities of different sub-regions in Tamilaham.
 The spread of agrarian settlements.
 The problem of ownership of land.
 Collection and distribution of resources.
 Main features of the social organization in Tamilaham and Deccan.
 New elements which were introduced in the agrarian order in the early centuries
of the Common era and the changes brought about by these elements.
Our attempt in this Unit was also to discuss with you certain important aspects of
expansion of trade and urban centres in ancient peninsular India. You also have learnt
from this Unit about:
 Different types of trade and ways in which exchange was carried on.
 Guilds of artisans and traders.
 Exchange facilities like transportation, storage and shipping.
 Different kinds of coins which were used as means of exchange.
 Revenue from trade.
 Distinctive features and functions of urban centres.
 Impact of trade and urbanizm in different regions of peninsular India.

16.17 KEY WORDS

Administered Trade : This refers to trade in which existed centres of
trade offering facilities like those of anchorage
and storage, civil and legal protection and
agreement on the mode of payment.
Anthology : A collection of poems’ lyrics.
Nigama : A guild of traders or artisans.
Numismatics : The study of coins.
Pana : A singer of ancient Tamilaham who sang in
praise of chieftains.
Potin : An alloy of copper and tin.
Punch-Marked Coins : In manufacturing these coins the metal was
beaten into flat sheets and then cut into strips.
Blank sheets were cut into desired weights. The
blank pieces were square or rectangular in the
first instance. For getting actual weight the edges
were clipped. So, most of these coins are
419
History of India irregular in shape. Symbols were stamped on
from the Earliest them with punches, each punch having one distinct
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
symbol.
Slash and Burn Cultivation : A primitive type of agriculture. Trees and bushes
on hill-slopes are cut down and then burnt. Thus,
the ground is prepared and then the seed is sown.
Shifting Cultivation : Mode of agriculture in which the plot of
cultivation is shifted periodically. This is to avoid
exhaustion of land caused by continuous use of
the same plot.
Tinai : A generic term for a physiographic division of
land in early Tamilaham.
Totem Worship : Worship of the main symbol of a tribe.

16.18 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1) a)  b) × c)  d)  e) × f) × g) × h) × i) ×
2) In your answer you should write about Kurinji, Mullai etc. zones. See Section
16.2
3) You should write about pastures and cattle rearing. Also see Section 16.2
4) See Section 16.3
5) You should write about such tools as ploughshares, sickles, spades etc. and tank
and well irrigation. See Sub-section 16.3.2
6) You should write about Vellalar, Gahapati etc. and their rights. See Section 16.4
Check Your Progress Exercise 2
1) a) × b)  c) × d)  e) × f) × g)  h)  i) 
2) You should write about the attacks in agrarian tracts. See Sub-section 16.5.3
3) You should write about the excesses commited against peasants. See Sub-section
16.5.3
4) See Section 16.6
5) You should write about land and village grants for religious and other purposes.
See Section 16.7.
6) You should write about the changes brought about in the agrarian sector by the
grants to religious beneficiaries. See Section 16.7.
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
1) See Sub-section 16.8.1
2) a) × b)  c) × d) × e)  f)  g)  h)  i) × j) ×
420
3) See Section 16.9 Agrarian
Settlements,
4) See Section 16.9 Agrarian Society,
Expansion of Trade
5) See Section 16.10 and Urban Centres –
Peninsular India
6) See Section 16.11
7) See Section 16.11
8) See Section 16.11
Check Your Progress Exercise 4
1) a) × b) × c)  d) × e) ×
2) See Section 16.14
3) See Section 16.15

16.19 SUGGESTED READINGS

Ludden, D. (1985). Peasant History in South India. New Jersey.
Nilakanta Sastri, K. A. (1958). A History of South India: From Earliest Times to
Vijayanagar. Madras.
Parashar-Sen, Aloka (ed.) (1993). Social and Economic History of the Early Deccan:
Some Interpretations. New Delhi.
Ray, H. P. (1986). Monastery and Guild, Commerce under the Satavahanas. New
Delhi.
Yazdani, G. (ed.) (1982). The Early History of the Deccan. Repr, Delhi.

421
 UNIT 17 GROWTH OF TAMIL LANGUAGE
AND LITERATURE*
Structure
17.0 Objectives
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Early Evidences
17.3 Heroic Poems
17.3.1 Classification
17.3.2 Techniques of Composition
17.3.3 Problems of Dating
17.3.4 The Poetics
17.3.5 Literary Development

17.4 Other Compositions

17.5 Summary
17.6 Key Words
17.7 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
17.8 Suggested Readings

17.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit you will be able to learn:
 how old is Tamil language and literature;
 what are the Tamil heroic poems;
 how were they composed and classified;
 what are their literary merits; and
 which are the other compositions of the period.

17.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous Unit you learnt how settlements grew up, agriculture began to expand
and trade flourished in Tamilaham. Trade brings in immigrants and opens up avenues
of interaction between local people and outsiders within the region. Interaction of cultures
helps the growth of language and literature in a region. In this Unit you will be made
familiar with the growth of Tamil language and literature.

422 * This Unit has been adopted from EHI-02, Block 7.

 Growth of Tamil
Language and
Literature

LEFT: Ancient Tamil Script Found on the Walls of the Thanjavur Brihadeeshwarar Temple,
Tamilnadu, Built by Raja Raja Chola I Between 1003 and 1010 CE. Credit: Symphoney Symphoney.
Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ancient_Tamil_
Script.jpg).

RIGHT: The Mangulam Brahmi Inscription Dated to c. 2nd Century BCE, Written in Old Tamil (c.
6th century BCE-6th century CE), Found at Dakshin Chithra, Chennai. It mentions the Pandyan
king Nedunchezhiyan I and Jaina monks. Credit: Sodabottle. Source: Wikimedia Commons
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mangulam_inscription.jpg).

17.2 EARLY EVIDENCES

Tamil had become a literary language, i.e. a full-blown language with its own system of
writing, at least by c. 3rd century BCE if not earlier. Earliest evidence of the Tamil
literary tradition, i.e. the tradition of writings in the language, comes from Tamil Brahmi
inscriptions in Jaina and Buddhist caves from the Tamil Brahmi hills. These inscriptions
are in the form of labels of persons or bodies who donated the caverns. The major
centres of these label inscriptions are:
 Arittappatti (Mauylam, Madurai),
 Karungalakkuti (Melur, Madurai),
 Kongarpuliyamkulam (Madurai),
 Azakarmalai (Madurai).
Many Tamil words along with local adaptations of Sanskrit and Prakrit/Pali occur in
these labels. Nigamattor, the member of a nigaman, and Vanikan (he who is engaged
in vanikam/vanigam i.e.trade) may be cited as two examples of the Tamil adaptations
of Sanskrit words. It has to be noted that the Tamil language used in these labels was
different from the literary Tamil. The difference was due to Jaina and Buddhist immigrants
from the north who were introducing a considerable number of Sanskrit and Prakrit/
Pali terms. These terms were adapted to suit the linguistic structure of Tamil language.
The combination of names of persons, professions and places that figure in inscriptions
gives clues to the currency of Tamil as a literary language. The period of these label
inscriptions is roughly between c. 200 BCE and 300 CE. Tamil heroic poems, popularly
called the Sangam literature, constitute major evidence of the old Tamil literary tradition.

17.3 HEROIC POEMS

The Tamil heroic poems are called the Sangam literature since they were collected and
classified by the Sangam which was an academy of scholars. The poems by themselves
423
History of India were not the product of the Sangam. They were much earlier than the Sangam. History
from the Earliest of the Sangam is clogged in legends. Tradition says that there were originally three
Times Upto C. 300 C.E.
sangams among which the works of the last one alone have survived. Previously, it
was believed that the Sangams were academies of court poets. But, now it is a matter
of consensus that they were constituted by the scholars in literature. The time lag between
the Sangam and the heroic poems shows that the name Sangam literature is a misnomer.
By and large, the Tamil heroic poems were products of the folk. They signify and
highlight the tradition of bards who roamed about singing the praise of their patron
chiefs. However, all the poetic compositions were not of the wandering bards. Some of
them were composed by scholarly poets who followed the bardic tradition. Kapilar,
Paranar, Avvayar and Gautamanar were some of the well known poets of the period.
They were scholarly bards, namely the Pulavar as distinguished from the common
bards, namely the Panar. It is, thus, not the literature of any particular social group but
part of a common way of life. Spanned over a few centuries the poems reflect the
gradual development of Tamil language and literature. They survive not in their original
independent form but as classified anthologies or choice collections.

Maharishi (Great Sage) Agastyar, Father and Chairman of the first Tamil
Sangams, Madurai, Pandyan dynasty. 12th Century Stone Sculpture Found at Lakhi Sarai, Bihar
and Preserved at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, USA. Credit: Wikipedia Loves Art
participant “team_a”. Source: Wikimedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:WLA_lacma_12th_century_Maharishi_Agastya.jpg).

17.3.1 Classification
Now we see the poems in the form of classified collections of specific poetic themes
and conventions. Ettuttogai: the eight collections of poems and Pattupattu: the ten
idylls are the two categories of anthologies that comprise the heroic poems. Narrinai,
Kuruntokai, Ainkurunuru, Patirruppattu etc. are the few examples of anthologies
grouped under Ettuttogai and Mullaippattu, Madurikkanj, Kurunjippattu etc. are
the example of anthologies under Pattupattu. The anthologies are divided into akam –
dealing with themes of subjective experience like love or affection, and puram – dealing
424 with themes of objectification like raid or plunder. Both the above categories of
anthologies comprise collections of poems based on akam and puram themes. Growth of Tamil
Akananuru, a collection of 400 poems based on akam themes and Purananuru, a Language and
Literature
similar collection based on puram themes are two examples of the Ettuttogai category.
In the same manner, there are examples of both akam and puram anthologies in the
Pattupattu category. Apart from the heroic anthologies the classified corpus of Sangam
literature includes the Tolkappiyam, a treatise on Tamil grammar and
Patinenkizkanakku, the 18 didactic texts also. The famous Thirukkural by Tiruvalluvar
is one of the 18 didactic texts. Both Tolkappiyam and Patinenkizkanakku were
composed after most of the Ettuttogai and Pattupattu poems had been composed.
The diction and techniques of composition of the heroic anthologies keep them distinct
from other texts that are later.

133 Feet (40.6 m.) Tall Stone Sculpture of the Tamil Poet and Philosopher Tiruvalluvar atop a
Small Island near Kanyakumari, Tamilnadu. Credit: Shivamsp182. Source: Wikimedia Commons
(https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Thiruvalluvar_Statue_of_kanyakumari.jpg).

17.3.2 Techniques of Composition

The heroic poems were composed on the principles of oral bardic literature. The features
of oral compositions are strikingly similar all over the world. Use of stock phrases and
expressions is the most important feature of such compositions. Stock phrases or
expressions are readymade expressions or phrases current among the people of those
times. Poets knew the contexts of readymade expressions, where to use them and how
in their poems. The poems are composed using set motifs or readymade expressions in
a formula that is orally transmitted and commonly shared by the bards as well as the
society. The set expressions required for poetizing the variety of contexts recur in the
poems. For instance, if the context is to praise a chieftain the series of stock forms like
“warrior of victorious lance”, “possessor of lofty chariots”, “chieftain of swift steeds”,
“hero of eyefilling garlands” and so on flow effortlessly whoever the poet is or the
chieftain. These examples show that the bards just had to master such ready-made
expressions and their contexts. This is not to minimize the individual poetic talents
completely. But, by and large, the most important aspect was not the individual style or
expressions of the poets. The technique of versification in oral poetry depended on the
general or common styles and expressions. It is a technique of combining set phrases
over which the poets as well as the society, by and large, had mastery. So, there are
repeated lines and themes with marginal modifications in different poems by different
poets. The hereditarily transmitted stock phrases leave the bulk of heroic poems full of
old memory. This is one of the many hazards in dating the poems.
425
History of India 17.3.3 Problems of Dating
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E. The corpus of Sangam literature cannot be precisely dated owing to a series of problems.
In fact, several periods are represented in the poems of Sangam anthologies. One is
the period of actual composition and oral transmission which was fairly long and spread
over a few centuries from about 2nd century BCE to 3rd century CE. Next is the period
of codification of the poems into anthologies which is between c. 6th and 9th centuries.
Another period is that of the commentaries which are not earlier than c. 13th-14th
centuries. Tolkappiyam, the traditional grammatical treatise in its present form, is not
earlier than c. 3rd century CE, though basic parts of the text could be slightly earlier. All
the Kizkanakku texts belong to a period later than c. 3rd century CE. The great difficulty
in dating Sangam literature is that it is hard to clearly sort out the earlier from the later
portions as they are all mixed up.

17.3.4 The Poetics

Based on the Sangam literature there developed a fairly evolved set of poetic
conventions. Though the poetics as such is a little later the rules and conventions of the
compositions were part of the old Tamil bardic tradition. The two fundamental aspects
of traditional Tamil poetics are the divisions of the compositions into akam and puram
genres. We have already noted what are akam and puram in a previous section. Akam
is subdivided into five stages of love in relation to the five tinais. Each tinai is associated
with a particular mood of love. For instance, palai is associated with the sentiment of
separation of the lovers. The puram genre of poems has its own tinais (situations) and
turais (contexts). There are as many as nine tinais and 63 turais which the poets
could opt for the compositions. Both the akam and puram genres of poems followed
the fixed conventions of each. Each akam poem had to follow the notion of tinai which
had its own deity, biological organizms, subsistence pattern, musical instruments and
songs. Similarly, each puram poem had to abide by the restrictions associated with the
variety of tinais (situations of behaviour).

17.3.5 Literary Development

The Tamil literary tradition is independent of the classical Sanskritic literary tradition of
India. It represents a parallel linguistic tradition in relation to Sanskrit. However, the
development of Tamil language and literature was never a process in isolation. Even the
earliest stratum of the Tamil literature contains influences of Sanskrit. The heroic poems
and the other Sangam works contain traces of Aryan culture. By Aryan culture we
mean Vedic ideas and institutions in this context. The tradition of Vedic rituals is well
attested by the poems. Some of the bards like Gautamanar, Paranar and Kapilar were
Brahmanas. Gautamanar is mentioned to have officiated many velvi (Yajna or Vedic
sacrifice) for his patron Celkezu Kuttuvan, a Chera chief. The Epic and Puranic ideas
are also seen in Tamil heroic poems. While praising the patron chiefs the poets refer to
the former’s participation in the Mahabharata battle. Many Puranic deities are equated
to their Tamil counterparts. Mayon (the black god), well-known in the poems as the
Tamil counterpart of Krishna, is one example. But, these influences never undermined
what was typical of the Tamil literary tradition. This original aspect of Tamil language
and literature does not owe to Sanskrit for its origin. But, its growth and development
towards linguistic and literary perfection certainly owes to the influences ofAryan culture.
The heroic poems and other works of the Sangam tradition testify widespread literary
culture of early Tamilaham. They also indicate linguistic maturity achieved by the Tamils
by c. 3rd century.

426
 Growth of Tamil
17.4 OTHER COMPOSITIONS Language and
Literature
The basic parts of Tolkappiyam and some of the Kizkanakku texts constitute the
other compositions here. These are called the other compositions because they do not
belong to the bardic tradition of heroic poems. But, they are not far removed from the
literary background of the bardic tradition. The Poruladikaram part of Tolkappiyam
that deals with the akam and puram conventions of old Tamil is close to the period of
heroic poems. Similarly, the tinai texts and works like Kalavazi are relatively earlier.
Though some scholars regard the twin epics, Silappadikaram and Manimekhalai, as
contemporaneous to the heroic poems, they are identified as works of a much later
period.

Statue of Ilango Adigal, the Author of Silappadikaram, at Marina Beach, Chennai. Credit:
Rakesh.5suthar. Source: Wikipedia Commons (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:Ilango_Adigal_statue_at_Marina_Beach_closeup.jpg).

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1) Read the following statements and mark right () or wrong (×):
i) The Sangam literature belongs to a uniform period. ( )
ii) The name Sangam literature is a misnomer. ( )
iii) The heroic poems were composed using set phrases and expressions.( )
iv) The development of Tamil language and literature was a process in isolation.
( )
2) What do you know about literary conventions of the Tamil bardic tradition?
.................................................................................................... .................

.....................................................................................................................
.....................................................................................................................
427
History of India .....................................................................................................................
from the Earliest
Times Upto C. 300 C.E. .....................................................................................................................

17.5 SUMMARY
In this Unit you learnt about how old the Tamil literature is and what it is constituted by.
You also learnt about the main features of heroic poems, their techniques of composition
and the problems of dating. Another point you learnt was the level of literary and linguistic
development of old Tamil. You could also understand how the works in old Tamil were
classified and codified into anthologies during the Sangam period.

17.6 KEY WORDS

Akam : A genre of poems dealing with subjective
experiences like love.
Bard : He who roams about composing and singing
poems in praise of his patrons.
Didactic : Poetry or text which intends to teach a moral
lesson is called Didactic poetry or text.
Puram : A genre of poems dealing with objectifiable
experiences like raid or plunder.
Sangam : An academy of scholars that collected and
classified old Tamil works.
Turai : A poetic convention indicating the thematic
situation of puram poems.

17.7 ANSWERS TO SELF-CHECK EXERCISES

Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1. i) × ii)  iii)  iv) ×
2. Sub-section 17.2.2, 17.3.5

17.8 SUGGESTED READINGS

Meenakshi, K. (2000). Literary Criticism in Tamil and Sanskrit. Chennai.
Peterson, I. V. (1991). Poems to Shiva: The Hymns of the Tamil Saints. Delhi.
Sivathamby, K. (1981). Drama in Ancient Tamil Society. Madras.
Zvelebil, K. V. (1973). The Smile of Murugan: On the Tamil Literature of South
India. Leiden.

428