CHAPTER 1

OVERVIEW OF PRESERVATION
Preservation Defined
•[Preservation is a branch of library, archives and information science concerned with
maintaining or restoring access to artifacts, documents and records through the study,
diagnosis, treatment and prevention of decay and damage Preservation of information
resources encompasses series of activities associated with maintaining and keeping
documentary materials away from destruction in order to sustain their lifespan.It involves
actions that will ensure the longevity of these materials either in their original physical form
or in some other usable way.
Various scholars have also defined preservation differently to reflect varied points or
perspectives on this branch of library and archival studies. (The International Federation of
Library Association (IFLA) 'defines preservation as an activity that includes all managerial
and financial considerations including storage and accommodation provisions, staffing levels,
policies, techniques, and methods involved in preserving library and archival materials as
well as the information contained in them. Again, the 1992 glossary of the Society of
American Archivists (S.A.A) defines preservation as the totality of processes and operations
involved in the stabilization and protection of documents against damage or deterioration and
the treatment of damaged or deteriorated documents.
Susan Swartzburg has also defined preservation as the maintenance of objects in their
original condition through retention, proper care and if the object is damaged, restoration.
In addition, Patrick Ngulube defines preservation as a long-term access to information of
value. By access, he is referring to both the physical access and intellectual access. Physical
access is ensuring that the documentary materials are physically intact and in good state
whereas intellectual access involves facilitating the exploitation or use of its contents.
From the above, preservation is an important activity in information management.
Kinds of Preservation
There are basically (three major categories of preservation activities) These are:
• Preventive or Indirect Preservation
• Curative or Direct Preservation
• Substitution Preservation

Indirect Preservation
This is also known as Preventive preservation and it involves taking actions before damages
occur, or actions that are undertaken to ensure that no damage comes to documentary
materials. This approach has emerged as an important preservation activity in the field.
Indirect preservation is concerned with ensuring that the conditions under which
documentary materials/information resources are housed do not initiate or speed up the
deterioration of documentary materials. It seeks to reduce risks of damage to documentary
materials. This is usually accomplished by selecting good quality materials to contain the
information and by providing suitable storage environments as well as safe handling
procedures for documentary material.
Preventive measures are critical to good document care. They are sound investments in time
and money and are very economical. Preventive measures do not however address the highly
sophisticated technical or chemical concerns which affect the preservation of documentary
materials. Rather, preventive measures offer the key principles and 'best practice' actions to
information managers. This will better inform information managers on preservation issues
and help them to undertake important but simple steps aimed at protecting documentary
materials.

Steps in Indirect Preservation

There are several immediate steps that information managers can take to prolong the useful
life of their collections. These include the following:
1. Provide conducive building and storage equipment for documentary materials.
2. Provide congenial storage environment. This involves ensuring that appropriate
temperature and humidity levels are made available in storage area. It may also entail
cutting off pollution and excess light completely and not allowing insects to gain
direct entry into storage facility.
3. Ensure maximum security for the documents by making sure unauthorised access to
storage facility is disallowed, thereby preventing theft, and always ensuring the
integrity of the documents.
4. Ensure both custodians and clients/users adhere to proper document handling
procedures. This will involve educating custodians on how to handle documents
during processing and filing. It also includes educating users on how to handle
documentary materials.
These steps will help to prevent documents from deterioration and prolong the life span of
documents.
The best and most cost-effective way to protect information resources is to ensure good and
orderly physical and administrative management of the entire repository. Indirect
preservation, to a good measure is inexpensive, and every document in the repository benefits
from this activity. It is also by far less costly than having to send large proportions of the
materials for repair after they have undergone damage or deterioration
In summary, indirect preservation entails all activities undertaken to ensure that no mishap
comes to the documents at all.
Curative Preservation
This is also known as restoration, and it involves direct intervention in the lives of documents
with a view to restoring them as close to their original state as possible. The degree of
intervention depends on the nature of the materials, their condition, value, anticipated uses as
well as institutional resources. In other words, curative preservation is a means of identifying
and treating damaged materials with the aim of restoring users' access to the useful
information these documentary materials contain. However, in some cases, damaged
documents cannot be restored to their original form for use even with all the curative
preservation that may be applied to them. There are many different reasons which accounts
for the deterioration of documentary materials. Perhaps the most significant factor is the
nature of the materials that are used to produce the medium in which information is stored.
Many documentary materials are composed of a wide range of organic materials that undergo
natural aging processes resulting in their deterioration. These materials are inherently fragile
and prone to deterioration. It is therefore important to recognise the fragility of such
materials, especially those of paper-based records.
While measures can be taken to slow the natural aging process of these documents by
providing a sympathetic environment, it is impossible to halt the process altogether.
Direct/curative preservation therefore seeks to restore damaged materials to a form close to
their original state. This may involve sending documents to a laboratory for diagnosis after
which an appropriate treatment is prescribed. [Treatments may range from lamination,
through fumigation, de-acidification, leaf casting to re-binding or in some cases, a
combination of two or more treatment processes.
Restoration is very expensive. Given the cost involved in this process, restoration is often
reserved for documents of very high and intrinsic value. However, there are many instances
in which it becomes necessary to treat documents of low or moderate value to render them
usable.
It is important to note that remedying item-by-item is an exercise which requires the
participation of skilled and trained specialists. Moreover because of the extent of care that is
needed in the restoration process, many damaged documents are not able to be restored to
their original state. It could well be also that such documents become casualties in the
restoration process and may not come back to the shelve from the restorative unit.

Substitution Preservation
This involves the transfer of the intellectual content of a document from a medium which is
weak to a stronger medium to guarantee document longevity and to ensure continuous access
to these documents. This method is a valuable means of preserving documentary materials
that would otherwise have disintegrated and hence be lost or documentary materials that are
already deteriorated and are in fragile conditions.
In substitution preservation, documents that are chemically unstable are transferred before the
information they contain is lost and before by-products of their deterioration damages
adjacent materials. There are several methods and processes that fall in the ambit of
substitution preservation. These include photocopying, digitizing, microfilming, and
photographing.
Substitution can be undertaken for various reasons. These include enhancing access,
replacing unstable materials, and creating security copies of valuable and sensitive
documents.
The Best option
The three types of preservation form an integral part of the preservation process and it is
important that information managers have a holistic view and approach to the process of
preservation. For information managers in charge of documentary materials, it is important
that they establish a workable balance among all aspects of preservation to achieve longevity
and continuous access to documents of value. This notwithstanding, it is always preferable to
institute preventive measures rather than prescriptive or curative measures particularly in our
part of the world where acquiring documentary materials is expensive. In addition, the
following reasons come in handy:
1. Preventive measures are cheaper, easier to execute and implement.
2. Generally, preventive measures are more beneficial to all documents in the repository.
Some documentary materials could be lost through restoration and other process.

History of Preservation
Many preservation scholars believe that preservation is as old as human civilization. It is
considered to have come from the instinct of self-preservation common to all living things.
Since the invention of writing, documents of various forms have existed and it was natural for
man to attempt to preserve some, if not all of them, given the potential and assumed values
that man saw in these documentary materials. Since then, man has continued to conceive,
from time to time depending on the type of materials in use, various methods of preservation
of documentary materials.
Early Documentary materials
In the early stages of his existence, man used to write on materials such as
• stone
• metal
• tree barks
• clay tablets
• palm leaves
• leather
• parchment and
• papyrus
These materials were vulnerable to various environmental hazards. Clay for example was
prone to destruction by worms; (papyrus to insects and moisture; And leather and parchment
to rot and insects) Early man therefore adopted different methods to preserve these
documents.
Evidence of early preservation
Records have it that the Egyptians, the Greeks, and Italians/ Romans used scrolls for writing.
These scrolls were kept in cylindrical ivory or wooden boxes to protect them from insects,
humidity and dust. These scrolls were unrolled and dried after every rainy season to prevent
them from deteriorating. Those who used scrolls made from papyrus usually dried them and
applied special oils such as cedar wood oil and citrus leave oil to protect them.
The Indians were also known to have been using palm leaves to record information. They
protected these palm leaves against atmospheric pollutants by fastening them between strips
of wood and covering them with pieces of cloth called bastas.
Insecticides such as camphor, clove oil or oil of eucalyptus were used in ancient times as
protective adhesives of documentary materials. Leaves of aromatic flowers were also put in
manuscripts and books to scare insects to protect materials which contain useful information.
Records also indicate that people even invoked their gods to protect their documents from
damage.
Before the Middle Ages
Preservation before the Middle Ages did not constitute a major problem. This was because of
two major reasons. Firstly, it was because the quality of materials used for documents was of
good quality. Secondly, it was because only a few documents were available.
This comfortable situation however changed with the invention of paper and printing. The
demand for paper increased with a consequent increase in the quantum of documentation.
Paper is a fragile commodity and if not well preserved, it can easily deteriorate. There was
therefore the need for custodians to start thinking of alternative preservation methods.
Modern Preservation
Modern or scientific preservation started in the last decade of the 19th century. The first
attempt at modern preservation was made in 1898 by Cardinal Franz Ehrle, the Keeper of the
Vatican Library.
In 1900, the Society of Encouragement of Arts, Manufacturers and Commerce in England
charged a body to determine the causes of deterioration of leather bindings. In the same year,
the International Congress of Libraries met in Paris to consider the problem of preservation of
written records. Between 1908 and 1911, preservation problems became the themes for
several meetings which were held in Germany, Italy and in the USA.
This growing awareness culminated in a series of investigations and collaborative efforts
among individuals and institutions which were interested in document preservation What
have however become modern practices of preservation today gained grounds after the
Second World War. With The creation of United Nations Organization (UNO) and its
specialized bodies such as United Nations Educational. Scientific and Cultural Organization
(UNESCO), International Council on Archives (ICA), International Council on Museums
(ICOM) and International Federation of Libraries and Associations (IFLA) has and continue
to spearhead and coordinate research in preservation of documentary materials.
Today we can boast of the Barrow Research Institute and the National Bureau of Standards,
all in the USA as well as the British Museum Research Laboratory among others who are
engaged in research into the preservation of documentary materials. In addition, there has
been an increase in the number of professional associations and national institutes which are
involved in preservation activities.
All these institutions are involved in the following activities:
• Assessment of the efficiency of documentary materials.
• Setting standards and specifications and
• Studying the deterioration of documentary materials as well as the durability of the
various media of documentation.

Preservation in the 21" Century

Development in Information Communication Technology (ICT) is gradually changing the
way documents are preserved. The introduction of Information Communication Technologies
has brought about different formats and media of documentation, storage and access to
information. Two major issues are fundamental in this regard. For the first time, these
technologies have also brought to the fore the lifespan of most of these media as either too
short or hardly known.
Secondly, the high turnover of these technologies has made obsolescence of media and
equipment one of the headaches of preservatory, especially in ensuring long term access to
the intellectual contents of machine dependent- documents. This situation has triggered
research into digital preservation and the preservation of documents stored in multi-media
formats.
Importance of Preservation
Information resources are very important for every organization. They are very critical to the
day-to-day activities of the organization. They are also very vital to the very survival of the
organization. Because of this, information resources need to be always protected and for as
long as they remain valuable to the organisation. Physical protection alone is therefore not
enough. There is the need to ensure thar organizational information resources remain
accessible for as long as they are needed. A rigorous preservation programme is therefore
needed to ensure that information resources are always protected. This programme must
embrace the care and management of documentary materials and all other facilities
(buildings, equipment, staff etc) which ensure the longevity of and access to information.
No organisation can afford to spend a large part of their budget to create valuable information
materials and then allow them to disintegrate. Preservation of these information materials is
important for the following reason:
• It saves cost.
• It protects corporate memory.
• It ensures efficiency through ensuring the survival of useful and critical documents.
 • It promotes scholarly work.
• It protects a people's heritage.
• It prevents collective amnesia.

Preservation Management
A good preservation management practice is required in every organization. The best and
most cost-effective way to preserve documents is to ensure a good and orderly management
of the entire organisation, both physically and administratively.
Ensuring safe and congenial accommodation for the organization and training of staff and
customers in the handling of documents are very crucial. The selection of good quality
equipment for housing an organisation's documents will result in good service for the
organization and will minimize the level of damage done to documents.
To achieve this, organizations must employ preservators to protect and continue to preserve
documentary materials of the organizations. Such an individual in charge of organizational
preservation must be a professional who should be part of the organisation's senior
management team. He or she should set standards for preservation activities throughout the
organisation. He should also be part of the organization's policymaking team and he/she must
make sure that preservation is considered in the overall planning process of the organization.

Prioritization in Preservation Management

Prioritization is essential when developing a preservation policy or plan. This is because not
all materials require the same storage facilities and conditions. Environmental control may
thus be critical for the management of electronic record. but not for some other documents in
other media.
Again, priority setting is crucial when funds are limited, and one cannot spread ones fortunes
on all documents in a storage facility. In such situations, documents with high enduring value
should be given priority or attention over documents of less value.
Principles of Preservation
In undertaking preservation work, preservators follow some general guidelines and
principles. These include the following:
• Preservators work on macro scale to the benefit of majority of documents in storage.
• Preservators focus on preventive rather than curative approach to document
preservation.
• Preservators must insist on accurate diagnosis and solutions to ensure that any
preservation programme chosen is effective.
• Preservators must ensure that storage facilities and methods should not endanger the
life of the documents being preserved.
 • Preservators must also document fully all treatment of documentary materials.
• Preservators must validate new preservation techniques and technologies before using
them.
• Preservators must interfere with the document as little as possible.
• Finally, preservators must ensure that all repairs and treatments used on damaged
records are reversible.
Preservators must on the other hand ensure that they do not undertake any repair that.
• cannot be reversed if need be.
• will not last for a sufficiently long time.
• is harmful to people during the period of storage or use; and
• changes the physical characteristics of the document.

Steps in Preservation Planning

There are several steps one needs to follow when planning a preservation programme. These
include.
• conducting a preservation survey.
• identifying documents to be preserved.
• establishing priorities.
• determining conditions under which to store documents.
• •
• establishing prevention procedures.
• determining substitution procedures.
• establishing maintenance regimes and
• identifying disasters and preparing for them.

Preservation Plan
At the end of the preservation planning process, a preservation plan must be written. The plan
should outline the general and specific actions that will be followed. It should include
information about policies and procedures.
These policies ensure the:
• care and handling of materials.
• control of pest, insects, and rodents.
• restorative treatment.
• access and substitution and
• security
The documented preservation plan should include the following elements:
• Preservation objectives
• Status
 • Immediate priority actions
• Short term actions
• Medium term actions
• Long term actions
• Who will be responsible for what activity in the storage area?
• How the plan should be used
• How the plan can be updated

The mode of documentation

This involves capturing the information on the medium. There are various ways of capturing
information depending on the medium. These include long handwriting, typing on paper,
printing, photographing, magnetising and scanning from one medium to another.
It must be noted that the mode of documentation has serious implications for the preservation
and access to documentary material. For instance, an audio recording which is machine-
dependent has implications for preservation and access to its content in that without the
necessary equipment to access its content, it would be physically accessible, but its
intellectual content will remain inaccessible to its user.
Implications for preservation
Documentary materials, regardless of their media and format require protection throughout
their life span. Many institutions will have records in several different media with each of
these media requiring different storage and handling procedures.
Even though all information resources require basic care, some require more attention and
protection because they are difficult or impossible to replace when they get damaged. It is
therefore important that the information manager knows the structure and physical nature of
the documents in his custody so that he/she can provide these documents with appropriate
storage conditions.
Types of documents
There are two main types of documents that can be found in every information centre. These
are:
• Conventional Documents
• Non-conventional Documents.
Conventional documents
These are documents that are accessed directly without the use of any equipment. They are
eye-legible and usually in paper form. Once there is physical access, intellectual access is
guaranteed. These documents need to be secured in a lockable accommodation. Conventional
documents include paper records.
Characteristics of conventional document
Conventional documents have the following features. They are.
➢ not machine dependent.
➢ not very sensitive to environmental conditions; and
➢ are eye legible.

Non-conventional documents
These are documents that contain information which can only be created and accessed via the
use of equipment. They are machine-dependent documents. Examples of such documents
include microforms, audio-visual materials, and electronic documents. Without the
appropriate equipment, there could be physical access, but intellectual access cannot be
guaranteed Protection of non-conventional documents is at two levels: physical and
intellectual levels. For instance, an electronic document should be secured physically in a
lockable accommodation and intellectually with a password to avoid unauthorised access. In
addition, electronic documents should be protected against viruses and any unfavourable
storage conditions.

Due to their nature of being machine-dependent, non-conventional documents pose a real

challenge for users. Users may have trouble in accessing these documents if they have been
preserved for a long time. Electronic documents which are kept permanently may also suffer
from technological obsolescence which may not disturb physical access but may result in the
loss of intellectual access.

Characteristics of non-conventional documents

Non-conventional documents have the following features. They are.
• machine dependent.
• easily susceptible to loss of their integrity.
• very sensitive to the environment and for that matter demand more critical
environmental conditions of document structure for preservation.

Paper as a Medium of Documentation

What is paper?
Paper may be defined very simply as fibres that have been reduced to pulp, suspended in
water, and then matted into sheets. Paper manufacturing began rudimentarily in AD 105. It
was invented in China by Ts'ai Lun and is now the most common medium of documentation
found in library and archival collections globally.
Although a wide range of fibrous materials may be used to produce paper, it is primarily
made from plant fibres, such as cotton, wood, flax, straw and mulberry which are rich in
cellulose. Paper making was mainly a hand process until the invention in 1803 of the
Fourdrinier papermaking machine. There are two types of paper. These are handmade and
machine-made paper.
Handmade paper
This is paper made chiefly from rag and other natural materials such as fibres like cotton,
linen, hemp and mulberry. Papers made from these fibres are usually referred to as rag paper
and are of good quality.

The Manufacturing processes.

The following steps are involved in the manufacture or handmade paper.
1. Soak suitable fibres cooked in caustic soda and ash and often left to ferment in water.
2. These fibres are then macerated or beaten so that they flatten out into small hair-like
fibres.
3. Once the fibres are macerated to pulp, put the pulp in a large container filled with
water to form dilute slurry.
4. After this, the water will swell the pulp distributing them evenly in the suspension.
5. Dip a paper mould into the container, lift pulp out horizontally and shake them
vigorously to have an even layer of slurry on the porous screen of the mould.
6. Pass excess water through the screen. Remove additional water by pressing and air
drying of pulp.
7. Add sizing agent to allow the paper to accept writing and printing inks. Without
sizing, the paper behaves like a blotter and any ink which is applied to it will feather
and spread. Paper which is not sized is known as waterleaf. Traditionally, sizing
agents used included animal glue and gelatine.

Characteristics of handmade paper

• It usually neither tears nor folds more readily in one direction because it
does not have a dominant grain direction as fibres are aligned randomly.
• No two pieces are exactly alike or of uniform thickness since they are
formed individually.
• Handmade paper often contains watermarks, a symbol resulting from the
design of the grid attached to the mold. Watermarks are important
bibliographic tools in identifying and dating paper because it contains the
name of the papermaker as well as the date and place of manufacture.
Watermarks are the mark of the papermaker.
• Handmade paper contains no additives that have a deteriorating effect on
paper.
Handmade paper is strong because natural sizes and cotton cuttings are used as the base
materials in the manufacturing process. Also, the process is meticulously executed. This type
of paper is of good quality.
Machine-made paper
In the late eighteenth century, increased literacy and recordkeeping surpassed the availability
of rags for paper. As a result, other sources of plant fibres that would be both plentiful and
cheap were sought. The demand for paper increased, forcing greater mechanisation of
processes with the invention of the Fourdrinier paper making machine. The raw material. that
were introduced resulted in much poorer quality paper.
Experiments were made with a wide variety of fibres and by the middle of the nineteenth
century wood pulp was being used extensively to make paper. Wood pulp has become the
primary raw material for paper production today.
Types of Wood
There are two types of wood. These are soft- wood also known as coniferous wood. This type
is the best for paper making. Examples of softwood are fir and pine. The other type of wood
is hard wood also known as deciduous wood. This type is not good for paper manufacturing.
Whether deciduous or coniferous, wood has the following components: cellulose constitutes
45%, - hemicelluloses constitutes 20% of the wood content, lignin makes up 30%. and
minerals makes up 5% of the total wood content. The cellulose component is the best
component for paper manufacturing. The hemicellulose is second grade, but it can be used to
make paper. The lignin component is the most undesirable component and if not removed
from the raw material, it will decompose into acidic compounds and turn the paper brownish
as in the case of newsprints in the presence of light. The presence of mineral components in
paper can also react and cause damage.
Types of wood pulp
To be able to use the wood, the wood logs need to be converted into pulp or powder form.
There are two types of pulp. These are chemical wood pulp and mechanical wood pulp.
Chemical wood pulp
This is the best pulp for paper manufacturing. It is obtained by boiling the wood with
chemicals such as caustic soda, calcium bisulphate and sodium sulphide under high pressure
and temperature. By doing this, the lignin and hemicellulose components are reduced to the
minimum if not washed out completely. This process produces much longer fibre than those
of the mechanical wood pulping process. This is a contributing factor to the strength and
durability of paper produced from this pulp.
Mechanical wood pulp
This pulp is not treated at all. Wood is grounded into pulp without first boiling the wood. This
pulp therefore contains all the impurities and undesirable components of the wood pulp such
as lignin and hemicellulose. The paper that is produced is unstable because it contains all the
undesirable components. it is therefore not suitable for paper manufacturing, such paper is
usually used for newsprints and packing materials.
Manufacturing process
The process of making paper by machine is essentially the same as the simple hand process,
although this is done on a large scale and the steps involved in the process are mechanized.
Nevertheless, if the process is not meticulously followed, it can result in bad paper.
The following steps are involved in the manufacture of handmade paper.
• Boiling process: First boil the wood.
• Beating process: After boiling, beat the wood to pulp using a mechanized beater.
When beating the wood, the wear and tear of the metal blades falls off into the pulp
and thus introducing metals into the final paper.
• Bleaching process: After the beating process, the pulp goes through the bleaching
process where the pulp is bleached with chlorine to give it a white colour.
• Washing process: When bleaching is completed, wash the pulp with clean water to
drain the chlorine and other impurities out. If this process is not thoroughly done,
some remnants of chlorine will remain in the pulp (final paper) and in the presence of
water (moisture) the chlorine will react to form hydrochloric acid which makes paper
brittle and brownish.
• Sizing process: After the washing process, sizing agents are added to the pulp to
enhance the surface and writing quality of the paper. For machine-made paper, sizing
agents such as alum and rosin are used. These will have to be applied in the right
combination. If not properly applied in their right quantity, these sizing agents in the
presence of water will react to form sulphuric acid. The presence of this acid in the
pulp will slowly destroy the paper, making it brittle and brownish. While sizing,
additives such as dyes and kaolin can be added to give a desired quality. For instance,
dyes are added to provide the paper with colour while kaolin is added to provide the
paper with a glossy surface.
• Moulding process: The paper is then moulded into the desired shape.
• Cutting process: after moulding the paper to the desired shape, it is rolled and cut to
the required size.
Characteristics of machine-made paper
• Machine-made paper has a definite grain direction: This is because the fibres align
themselves in the direction of the moving screen. Such paper will therefore fold and
tear more easily with the grain than against it.
• Machine-made paper is formed in a continuous roll rather than as individual sheets.
• Because of the presence of additives, machine-made paper deteriorates more quickly
than handmade paper.

Quality of Paper
The period 1850 to present day has often been considered "the era of bad paper". Prior to that
time, paper making was primarily a hand process where cotton and linen rags were the main
raw material. These materials also contained large amounts of cellulose. Thus, the paper that
was produced was of good quality. In addition, no additives that had a deteriorating effect on
the paper were added to the pulp. Hence, paper that was produced was of high quality.
Paper making process today is a much more complex activity. Many substances in varying
combinations are added to the pulp to achieve desired results. All these have a direct bearing
on the chemical and physical properties of the paper. The quality of the paper progressively
declines because of the increased use of sizing agents such as alum and rosin as well as the
use of ground wood pulp. These two factors introduce and increase the degree of acidity in
paper.
Other sources of acid in paper today include residual bleaching chemicals, inks, sulphur
dioxide and other acid forming pollutants. In addition, there is also the issue of acid migration
which threatens the lifespan of paper. Acid migration 05 transfer refers to the ability of acid
to move from an acidic material to items of less or no acidity. Unlike the handmade paper
produced three hundred years ago, much of which is still in very usable condition, much of
the paper produced today has a life expectancy of less than fifty years. This is because the
chemical properties of paper have greatly affected its quality and potential for long-term
preservation.
The pH value of Paper
Paper has several characteristics that determine its quality. One is the acid components of the
paper which is the pH value. pH value refers to the level of acidity or alkalinity of a
substance or an object. It is the potency of hydrogen compounds in each solution or
substance. Acidity is the quality of being acid, or "sour". The opposite is alkalinity which is
the quality of being alkaline or "sweet". From manufacturing through storage, paper can
become acidic or alkaline. The presence of acid weakens other documents as well as paper-
based documents. Acidity and alkalinity levels are measured along a linear scale.
The pH scale is an arbitrary numerical scale ranging from 1 to 14 with 7.0 being the point of
neutrality. All numbers above 7.0 indicate increasing alkalinity, and all numbers below 7.0
indicate increasing acidity. The pH scale is logarithmic with each number representing a ten-
fold change in acidity or alkalinity levels. Thus, a pH of 5 is ten times more acidic than a pH
of 6, and a pH of 4 is one hundred times more acidic than a pH of 6.
Both high acidity and high alkalinity levels are destructive to documentary materials, but
acidity level of any degree is considered very damaging to documentary materials. Acidy
paper turns brownish and becomes very brittle. Paper with high alkalinity levels absorb
moisture more easily, making it fluffy and difficult to use.
How to test for acidity of paper
There are three methods that can be used to test the pH value of paper. These are:
• Indicator strip
• Archivist's Pen (U.N.O. Pen)
• pH Meter
The Indicator Strip
These are small strips of sensitive paper which change colour in response to levels of acidity.
To use this method, the indicator strip is placed on the paper to be tested and distilled water is
poured on the strip. The strip then registers the pH with changes in colour. The corresponding
value of the colour is read on a colour scale. The challenge to this method is that the colours
are not sharp enough to be distinguished easily.
The Archivist's Pen (U.N.O. Pen)
This is a felt-tipped pen which contains a chemical called bro Marsol green. This chemical is
sensitive to the levels of acidity and changes colour to correspond to levels of acidity in
documents. To use this, an insignificant part of the document has to be identified. The ink is
then pressed on this part of the document Within a few seconds, it changes colour
corresponding to the level of acidity. This is measured on a colour scale. The disadvantage
with this method is that it leaves a permanent mark on documents and is therefore not suitable
for testing original documentary materials.
The pH Meter.
This is the most up to date method and it works electronically. The pH meter is like a
weighing scale with an electronic cable fitted with a tube containing a sensitive solution at its
end. To use this, the meter is plugged into power source. The tube containing the solution is
placed on the paper. The arm of the meter then swings to indicate the level of acidity in the
document. This method provides the most accurate reading of acidic levels.

CHAPTER 3

DETERIORATION OF DOCUMENTS
Deterioration defined.
Deterioration can simply be defined as the degradation of the quality of documentary
materials. It can also be defined as any activity that results in the reduction in the quality of
documentary materials.
Information centres contain a wide range of documentary materials. Most of these materials
are made up of organic substances. Examples of such documentary materials are paper,
audio-visuals, etc. These organic substances undergo natural aging, and they will ultimately
deteriorate no matter the protection that is given to them. Natural aging is thus an inevitable
process. The rate of deterioration of documentary materials is however dependent on the
inherent stability of the material from which such documents are made, the various
environmental and storage conditions under which these documents are stored and the
procedures for handling documents.
Inherent stability refers to the quality of the medium and the method of documentation. Some
organic materials whose chemical makeup are inherently unstable age more quickly than
others with less volatile chemical makeup, even if they are Stored in the same environment.
Again, environmental conditions such as temperature and humidity levels, light. pollution,
and biological agents could hasten the deterioration process. In addition, handling procedures
that are present in the information centre may also affect the rate of deterioration.
While information managers can do little to alter the innate characteristics of documentary
materials such as the inherent stability due to their volatile chemical components, more can
be done to control the external elements such as environmental factors and handling
procedures that accelerate the aging process.
Environmental factors responsible for Deterioration
Some environmental factors contribute to the deterioration of documentary materials. These
factors are temperature and humidity levels, air pollution, and light. Independently, each of
these factors, if uncontrolled, can cause specific damage to record/documentary materials.
They also have distinct cumulative relationships to one another. A combination of these
factors present in a storage facility can speedily cause enormous damage. For example, the
rate of many chemical reactions is dependent upon both temperature and humidity levels.
When these environmental elements are controlled, the decay of materials can be greatly
retarded.
Deterioration caused by temperature levels.
Temperature can be defined as the level of heat or cold in a substance, body, or environment.
In the case of a storage facility, temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a storage
environment. High temperatures have been known to speed up chemical reaction in
documents whilst low temperatures slow down the rate of chemical reaction. This means that
more acid is introduced into documents at higher temperatures. It is estimated that the useful
life of paper is reduced by half for every 10 degrees Celsius increase in temperature levels
and is doubled for every 10 degrees Celsius decrease
Changes in temperature levels reflect in the physical changes of documents. Changes in
temperature level result in the expansion and contraction of different types of documents. At
high temperatures, there is a higher probability of propagation of insects that feed on some of
the documents. Also, film-based documents buckle at the edges whilst others crack
completely making the use of such record documents difficult and inaccessible.
There is no ideal temperature for documentary materials but the lowest level that can be kept
constant is the best. Fluctuations should be avoided. Fluctuations can be controlled using air
conditioners. In the absence of airconditioners, windows should be opened to allow air to
circulate. For paper documents, a temperature of 20 degrees Celsius +- 2 is acceptable and for
film and electronic documents 18 degrees Celsius +- 2 is acceptable.
Deterioration caused by humidity.
Humidity can be defined as the amount of water vapor or moisture in the air. There are three
types of humidity. These are:
• Absolute humidity
• Ambient humidity
• Relative humidity
Absolute Humidity
This is the amount of water vapor or moisture in a given volume of air at a given temperature
at a particular time.
Ambient humidity
This is the amount of moisture in the immediate vicinity of an object. This can also be
referred to as the localized moisture conditions within the storage facility. This can result
from peculiar or uneven effect of environmental conditions in the facility.
Because ambient conditions are unstable, the temperature level and moisture content of
collections are also bound to change. Ambient humidity has been known to be responsible for
variations in the levels of fungi attack within the same collection stored in the same
accommodation or facility.
Relative humidity (RH)
This is defined as the amount of water vapor in a volume of air expressed as a percentage of
the maximum amount that air can hold at the same temperature. Relative humidity is crucial
because of its relationship to chemical activity and the physical effects this chemical activity
has on organic materials. Relative humidity may also change due to some factors in the
environment. Thus, the warmer the air, the more water vapor the air holds. For instance, when
temperature levels increase, more moisture is admitted into the storage area thereby
increasing the rate of deterioration.
Moisture is nevertheless the deadliest of environmental factors as far as document
deterioration is concerned. This is because all chemical reactions in documents begin with the
presence of water. There is therefore the need to maintain acceptable levels of moisture in a
storage facility. The acceptable level of relative humidity level for paper documents is 45%
#2 and for film and electronic materials, 35% +2 is acceptable. These levels must be always
maintained.

Monitoring temperature and humidity levels

To achieve a moderate and controlled level, the temperature and humidity levels must
constantly be monitored. This is because when more materials are introduced into a storage
facility, the ambient humidity levels change. In an ideal environment, temperature and
humidity levels should be monitored regularly either daily or twice daily if possible and the
findings noted in a logbook or on a chart. These readings should also note the weather
conditions outside of the storage facility. This will make it possible to compare the external
environment with internal conditions in the storage facility.
Temperature and relative humidity levels can be measured using a thermometer and a
hygrometer respectively. One way to monitor temperature and relative humidity
simultaneously is to use a hygro-thermograph, an instrument that can record both temperature
and humidity levels as well as plot a graph corresponding to the readings made. This has now
become the usual practice. However, unless this equipment is regularly maintained by a
trained professional, it can give false results.
Another method is to use the newly available electronic testing equipment called Data
Logger. This method is however expensive.
A cost effective option for monitoring temperature and humidity levels is to use a whirling
hygrometer. This equipment usually offers sufficiently accurate reading. in addition, this
option is less expensive.
Controlling temperature and relative humidity
The ideal method of controlling temperature and relative humidity levels in a storage facility
is to use air conditioners. Air conditioners are able to stabilize temperature and humidity
levels in closed environments. Their use must however be monitored since their performance
change in response to changes in both the external and internal environment. In the absence
of air conditioners, the following steps can also be taken to control temperature and relative
humidity levels:
• Good ventilation should be ensured in the storage facility at all times by opening
windows and using ceiling fans and cotton curtains.
• Wooden furniture should be used in the storage facility as this absorbs excess
moisture while giving out moisture when necessary.
• Documents should not be packed too tightly into boxes, on shelves or in cabinets.
• Water dripping from air conditioners should be removed from the storage area.
• Humidifiers and de-humidifiers can be used Humidifiers are equipment’s or chemicals
which are used to inject moisture into the environment when there is no or less
moisture. A de-humidifier is an equipment or a chemical which is used to extract
excess moisture from the environment. An example of a chemical dehumidifier is
silica gel.
Deterioration caused by Light.
Light can be defined as radiant energy from either a natural source or from artificial sources.
The natural source of light is sunlight which comes from the sun. Several sources of artificial
light include fluorescent light, incandescent light, candles, torchlight, etc.
Light or radiant energy has been known to be a major cause of deterioration of documentary
materials. It usually affects the longevity of documentary materials. All organic materials,
including paper, leather and pigments are susceptible to photochemical damage at a particular
trigger point. Light, though inimical to documentary materials remains important in any
storage facility. It is generally needed in information centers for as long as materials need to
be processed and accessed both physically and intellectually.

However, light is equally dangerous because it speeds up the process of oxidation (the
combination of oxygen with another clement to promote deterioration, such as disintegrating
of paper or rising of metal) of documentary materials particularly paper documents. This
process, when it occurs in storage facility, ultimately reduces the chemical holding capacity
of documents resulting in their (documents) Loss or strength and ultimate break down.
Composition of Light
Light is made up of two major components. These are:
• Ultra - violet rays
• Infra - red rays

Ultra-violet Rays
All light is damaging, but ultra-violet rays, which cannot be seen is the most active and most
damaging component of light. It is responsible for photochemical deterioration of paper
documents. The ultra-violet rays break up the bond-to-bond holding capacity of the document
and ultimately causes its breakdown or deterioration.
Primary sources of ultra-violet rays are sunlight and fluorescent lights. Sunlight may account
for about 40% of ultra-violet rays while fluorescent lights bulbs may emit. Between 1-12% of
ultra-violet rays depending on the wattage of the fluorescent bulb being used.
Infra-red Rays
This is the component of light which generates heat. These rays are dangerous to documents.
Infra-red radiation causes temperature levels to raise causing materials to become heated and
this can accelerate the rate of chemical activity in documents. The presence of infra-red rays
can also lower the relative humidity level in the storage area.
The major sources of infra-red rays are sunlight and incandescent bulbs. Incandescent bulbs
depending on their wattage provide a high degree of heat.
Damages caused by light.
Damages caused by light can be classified into two categories. These are:
• Visible damages
• Invisible damages
Visible Damages
These are damages that can be seen. Some of the visible damages caused by light include
bleaching which causes colored papers and inks to whiten or fade. In addition, on exposure to
light, lignin reacts with other components in paper, resulting in the introduction of acid into
paper, thereby causing paper to turn brownish. For instance, newsprint left outdoors for a day
or two provide graphic evidence of this effect.
Invisible Damages
These are damages that cannot be seen. Ultra-violet rays spark off chemical reactions which
result in the weakening and breakdown of paper documents. Light speeds up the oxidation
process causing materials to deteriorate faster. Damage caused by light is cumulative. Hence,
even a brief exposure of documentary materials to light under relatively high intensity can be
just as damaging as an extended exposure of the same documents under low intensity.
Chemical reactions initiated by exposure to light continue even after the light source is
removed and materials/records are put into dark storage.
Monitoring light levels
It is possible to measure the level of light in a storage area. Measuring light does require
some specialized equipment. Light is measured using a photometer and UV monitors. It is
measured in two units:
• Lux.
• Foot candles.
The acceptable level of light in reading rooms for reading purposes is 30-60 Foot candles or
300-600 Lux. For the storage area, 20-40 Foot Candles or 200-400 Lux is acceptable. For
ultra-violet radiation, any level above 75 microwatts per lumen (a measure of the total
"amount" of visible light emitted by a source) is dangerous and therefore needs to be filtered.
Controlling Light
Ideally, records and archives should not be exposed to any light, if they are in an environment
with controlled temperature and relative humidity levels. In practice, this is however
impossible. Nevertheless, it is possible to reduce significantly document exposure to light by
turning out lights in the repository and in the storage environment when they are not in use.
As much as possible, direct inflow of natural light to information centers should be blocked
and this can be done through the following:
• Keep all materials covered or boxed when they are not in use and provide only the
minimum amount of light necessary for any required task involving documentary
materials.
• Site window directions in such a way as not to readily admit natural light.
• Provide windows with shades. Alternatively the glasses of windows without shades
should be specially treated to prevent ultra-violet rays from the sun from penetrating
them and getting into the storage area.
• In the absence of ultra-violet filters, fluorescent lights should be replaced by
incandescent lighting whenever possible because incandescent lighting does not emit
high levels of ultra-violet rays
• Special filters such as plastic sleeves can be purchased to cover fluorescent lighting.
This will drastically reduce ultra-violet rays emission levels in the storage
• area.
• Special paint known as Titanium Dioxide which absorbs ultra-violet rays from the
environment can be used within the storage area to refract the direction of ultra-violet
rays away from storage facility.
However, if the environment is humid, it is useful to keep some lights on to absorb excess
moisture. Again, some light will help raise the temperature levels and perhaps reduce the
level of relative humidity in the storage area. This is because a completely dark and humid
environment is a breeding ground for mold, insects and rodents.
Atmospheric Pollution as a factor of Deterioration
Atmospheric pollution refers to impurities either in gaseous form or in form of particles
found in the atmosphere which are dangerous to documentary materials. These impurities can
initiate or hasten the rate of deterioration of documents. There are two categories of pollutants
or impurities. These are:
• gaseous pollutants
• particulate pollutants.

Gaseous pollutants
• These are toxic gases present in the atmosphere which under favorable conditions and in
the presence of moisture and high temperatures readily hasten chemical deterioration of
documents. Gaseous pollutants include Sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, hydrogen sulphide
and carbon monoxide. The major source of these gases is the burning of fossil fuel such as
coal, petroleum, kerosene, diesel, etc.
A result of gaseous pollutants in the atmosphere is air pollution. This can be a serious hazard
to records and archival materials, particularly records in urbanized or industrialized areas
where there are factories, power stations and high concentrations of automobiles. Industrial
gases that cause air pollution come from chemicals which are used in manufacturing goods,
fumes from car exhaust and other toxins that are emitted into the atmosphere.
The Ozone is another gaseous pollutant which contains strong oxidizing agents that causes
severe damage to organic materials. It is generated from automobile exhaust fumes,
electronic filtering systems which are found in some air conditioners as well as from
electrostatic photocopy machines.

Effects of gaseous pollutants on documents

These gases on their own and in their natural state are not less dangerous to organic materials
such as paper. They however become dangerous when they react with water to tom dangerous
acids that are inimical to the life of documentary materials. Examples of such gases when
they react with water are.
• Sulphur Dioxide reacting with water becomes Sulphuric acid.
• Nitrogen Dioxide reacting with water becomes Nitric acid.
• Hydrogen Sulphide reacting with water becomes Sulphuric acid.
• Carbon Monoxide reacting with water becomes Carbonic acid.
Some of these acids are strong and corrosive. When they come in contact with documentary
materials (paper and other record materials), they could have deteriorative effects on them by
turning paper brownish and brittle. This can result in a final loss of the physical form and the
intellectual content of such documents.
Particulate pollutants
These are impurities in the atmosphere that are not gases but particles. As particulates, they
absorb moisture and become agems for harntil chemical reactions. These particulates can be
dust, soot, tar, and other solid particles that could cause permanent damage through abrasive
actions to documentary materials.
Types of particulate pollutants
Dust
Dust is made up of fine particles of sand floating in the atmosphere. It is mostly concentrated
in rural areas where there are many untarred roads. Dust can also be found in some urban
areas. Dust poses a danger to documents in two ways. First, it is abrasive hence when it
settles on documents; it could cause scratches to parts of the document when one decides to
wipe it.
Second, dust forms nuclei around which water collates. Because they are particulate, they
absorb moisture and become mud which may stain documents. They may introduce moisture
directly into documents and hence triggering off chemical reaction to form acidic compounds.
Smoke and soot
Smoke and soot result from incomplete combustion. Smoke is not actually dangerous to
documentary materials but to human health. It can cause suffocation. Soot is oily and black
and can easily stain and disfigure documents. Also, it is difficult to remove from documents
once they settle on them.

Effects of particulate pollutants on documents

Particulate pollutants pose the following threats to documentary materials:
• Particulates often contain traces of metal such as iron which can catalyze degradation.
• Over time, the particles can become imbedded in paper fibers causing them to
weaken.
• Dust, dirt, and other particles can absorb gaseous pollutants, which can penetrate
materials causing chemical as well as physical deterioration.
Monitoring pollution
To retard the deterioration process, it is important to monitor the presence of substances that
may pollute the storage area, causing documentary materials to deteriorate. Monitoring is
however an expensive exercise which involves using expensive equipment. Most information
centers and archival institutions therefore rely on national agencies for their monitoring
needs. In Ghana, there is the Environmental Protection Agency (E.P.A.), a government
institution which offers monitoring services to information centers.
Controlling pollution
It is difficult to control pollution, especially if an information Centre is sited in an urban area,
Ideally, pollutants should be filtered out using pollutant extractors which are usually fitted to
air conditioning facilities.
chemical extractors can also be used to control pollution. These are chemicals put in the
storage environment to extract and absorb pollutants in the storage environment. Again,
Double Door Chambers can be used to filter air before the air enters the storage environment.
These methods are often not possible because they are expensive.
• Alternative strategies for controlling the effects of pollution include:
• Storing records in boxes, containers, or file cabinet to keep them from dust and dirt.
• Placing photocopiers in well-ventilated areas away from record storage.
• Prohibiting smoking, eating, or cooking near records or archives.
• Dusting and cleaning regularly and thoroughly to keep dust particles at a minimum.
• Storing records and archives away from engines, machinery, exhaust fans or other
pollution-generating equipment’s.

CHAPTER 4
CURATIVE MEASURES FOR CHEMICAL DETERIORATION
Introduction
While information managers are fighting with manufacturers. ensure that better materials are
used for the different media o documentation, they must simultaneously also cope with the
vast majority of materials in their collections that are deteriorating rapidly. Some percentages
of the deteriorating documents are at advanced states of deterioration while other need to be
replaced since they are beyond redemption Damaged documents that are rare and have
special value however need to be repaired. These materials require curative measures. There
are several curative measures depending on the type of damage that occurs on documents.
These curative measures include deacidification, fumigation, lamination, stain removal,
encapsulation, leaf casting etc.
Deacidification
The interplay of internal factors such as chemical composition of materials and external
factors such as the presence of moisture, unstable temperature and humidity levels, and
pollutants lead to the disintegration and eventual sucking out of hydrogen from paper
documents. This will make them brittle and brownish. Acidity is the primary cause of paper
deterioration. The aging reaction caused by acids in paper is responsible for most of the
deterioration of documentary materials. The only way to arrest the rising levels of acid
content in document materials is through the process of deacidification. Deacidification can
simply be defined as the removal of acid from paper. It is basically the process of neutralizing
the acidic content of documents by injecting basic or alkaline compounds into the documents.
Several deacidification procedures have been developed to bring paper from an acidic state to
a neutral level. These include neutralizing the acids present in paper and depositing alkaline
buffer or reserve that will inhibit the document's return to its acidic state.
The approach to deacidification depends on the type of documentary material in question.
Documents which are candidates for this treatment are examined, beginning with surface pH
readings. The paper and all associated media are tested for solubility and color changes to
ensure that the deacidification solution will not adversely affect the document in the long
term. If all the pre acidification tests are found to be appropriate, the deacidification treatment
will then begin on an item-by-item or small batch basis, depending on the technique
employed.

Types of deacidification
Deacidification processes are classified according to the method by which the neutralizing
and buffering agents an introduced. There are two categories of deacidification aqueous and
non-aqueous deacidification processes. Each type has its peculiar advantages and
disadvantages.
Aqueous Deacidification
This process makes use of water or liquid to affect the deacidification. It uses a solution of
calcium and magnesium bicarbonate dissolved in water with carbon dioxide bubbling through
it.
Method of Aqueous Deacidification
• Bicarbonate consisting of calcium and magnesium is prepared and sieved to remove
un-dissolved particles. This solution is then poured into a basin.
• The document to be deacidified is then dipped into the solution for a few minutes. The
color of the solution will immediately turn brownish to indicate the washing off of
acid. When the color changes, the solution needs to be changed and the process
repeated. Finally, the document is dried in the open air. Before the deacidification
process commences, the solubility of the ink which is used to write the document
must be determined. This can be done by dipping a swab of white cotton wool into
distilled water and pressing it on an insignificant part of the document for about five
minutes. The soaked cotton swab is then removed and viewed under a magnifying
glass for any sign of stain. Evidence of a stain indicates solubility of ink. On the other
hand, no stain means the ink is insoluble and the deacidification process can therefore
continue.
If the ink is found to be soluble, then the document needs to be sealed before the
deacidification process. This can be done by sealing the document with an organic solvent.
Silver compound can be used as a sealing agent, but the most popular type is Calatan which is
dissolved in methylated spirit. This solution is sprayed on the surface of the document and
allowed to dry. It dries almost instantly, and the ink is then sealed. This will prevent the ink
from running in any solution.
The aqueous deacidification method must be done carefully. It requires special knowledge
and skill. When properly carried out, it is very effective. This method is expensive and
relatively labor- intensive. It has its advantages and disadvantages.

Advantages of Aqueous Deacidification

• It leaves a buffer on the document which prevent reacidification.
• It’s able to dissolve some stains and coloration from the document.
• It is the most effective method since the document soaked in the solution for some
time.
Disadvantages of Aqueous Deacidification
• Only loose sheets may be treated using this method. Bound materials must be
dismembered, treated and then rebound, all of which add considerably to the time and
expense of treatment.
• Because aqueous treatments are not appropriate for items containing water-soluble
inks, pigments and dyes, all media must be tested for solubility before treatment and
this adds additional cost to the treatment.
• Weak and fragile materials can be lost to the water, particularly during handling.
• Aqueous deacidification can result in discoloration of documents.
Non-aqueous Deacidification
Non-aqueous deacidification methods use organic solvents rather than water as the carrier of
the alkaline buffering agent.
It permits the treatment of many documents that contain water-soluble inks and other media.
Non-aqueous deacidification solutions are quick drying which limits the exposure of media to
solvents and minimize drying times for paper-based documents. In addition, these solutions
may be used to deacidify bound materials. There are three types of non-aqueous
deacidification methods: the solvent method, the vapour phase method, and the gaseous
method.
The Solvent Method
This method uses calcium and magnesium carbonates which Are dissolved in an organic
solvent other than water solvent These compounds dissolve completely in methylated spirit or
any other solution which vaporizes quickly. The solution is then brushed or sprayed on the
document. The neutralization process then begins, and the acidification process will be
arrested with time.
Advantages of the Solvent Method
• The solution base vaporizes quickly so there is no fear of solubility of ink.
• Bound materials can easily be deacidified.
Disadvantages of the Solvent Method
• The acidification process is only arrested, and the acid deposit is not drained
completely from the paper.
• It does not leave any buffer; there is therefore a high probability of reacidification.

The Vapor Phase Method

This is also a dry method which makes use of an alkaline paste called Cyclohexylamines
Carbonate popularly, known C.H, S. This method appears attractive because of its ease and
simplicity of application and the fact that it can be caried on a mass scale with less cost in
terms of equipment
The vapor phase process entails interleaving bound volume, and boxed documents with
special tissue papers containing Cyclohexylamine paste (CHIC. paste) from which alkaline
vapor evaporates. The tissue papers can be inserted in every 25 pages of the bound or boxed
document. After this, the documents are placed in an airtight container, sealed completely and
left for about 20 hours. The neutralization or the acidic content would have been affected
after 20 hours This CHC paste in the tissue papers raises the pH levels in the paper to an
acceptable level, thereby retarding the acidification process underway in the document. This
retards the aging/deterioration process. The C.H.C. will after a while vaporize and diffuse
through the entire total collection/bound volume. The tissue papers are then removed, and the
documents are cleaned.
Advantages of the Vapor Phase Method
• There is no concern of solubility of ink since it is a dry
• process.
• Bound and single volumes can easily be deacidified.
Disadvantages of the Vapor Phase Method
• . It is time consuming and not very appropriate for large collections.
• It does not leave any buffer and therefore does not leave a permanent effect on paper
in addition, it does not leave an alkaline reserve on the collection.
• The acidic contents are not completely drained out of documents.
• The use of vapour phase method poses a health hazard/risk to the preservator.
The Gaseous method
This method is also known as mass deacidification process. This method employs a liquefied
gas. This has proven successful on some printed bound volumes. In applying this method, the
stack area or the repository is converted into a fumigation chamber. An appropriate amount of
ammonia gas is then injected into the gas chamber and the documents are left in the gas
chamber for between 24 to 36 hours depending on the size of the repository. It is assumed
that after 36 hours, the neutralization would have taken place and the acidic content reduced
to the barest minimum in documentary materials.
Advantages of the Gaseous Method
• It is the cheapest of the three methods. This is because large number of documents can
be treated within a short time.

Disadvantages of the gaseous method

• It is not as effective as the aqueous method.
• No buffer is left.
• The acidic components are not washed out.
Efforts are however being made to perfect a mass deacidification using diethyl zinc. With this
method inks do not have to be pre tested prior to treatment. The process leaves a residue that
is nontoxic, slightly alkaline and one that inhibits mold growth. This method is nevertheless,
dangerous because the chemical used is extremely volatile and should be done by skilled
personnel under the strictest safety conditions. Given the complexity and potential hazards of
coking with a chemical such as diethyl zine and its specialized handling requirements, the
gaseous method will n be appropriate for use in individual repositories. Coupled with its
impractical for library use, it is also expensive; hence this process can only be undertaken at a
nominal cost by a group of libraries.
While the specific limiting factors of the various deacidification processes differ, the primary
problems include toxicity of the chemicals employed, residual odour, residual surface
deposits, unacceptable effects on paper and media (including colour changes), complexity of
the process and equipment, the inability to achieve the desired alkaline reserve and cost.
Strengthening paper
Even when paper has been deacidified, it will still be very fragile because the deacidification
process cannot undo damage already caused by the acid or other impurities in the paper. It
may therefore be necessary to strengthen the sheets of paper.
Paper strengthening involves techniques or procedures designed to return damaged or weak
paper to a usable state, or to a condition of increased strength relative to its pre-treatment
state. Historically, many techniques have been employed to return paper to a strong and
flexible condition. Resizing has sometimes been used as a treatment step to give paper
improved physical characteristics, including flexibility. Today, there are various methods for
strengthening paper. These include lamination, encapsulation, and leaf-casting.
Lamination
This is a process of strengthening weak, fragile, and brittle paper documents by sandwiching
them in between plies of tissue paper and acetate film materials and fusing them together
using heat or organic solvents to form a laminate which is the end-product of the process.
This process is also called silking because originally a fine chiffon fabric was used.
Lamination is a technique that should only be used when the over-all treatment. Paper-based
documents must be deacidified before lamination is done on them to avoid their deterioration.
Early examples of laminated paper that was not deacidified have been knownto exhibit
evidence of accelerated deterioration as a result of the heat that was involved in the
lamination process.
There are two types of laminations: heat lamination and hand or solvent lamination.
Heat lamination
This is a process whereby the fusion of the sandwich is effected through the use of very high
temperature ranging from 180 degrees to 250 degrees Celsius there are two types of this
method; Hydraulic press method and roller press method

Hydraulic Press Method

In this method, water is primarily the main ingredient. In this method, the temperature level
of the water which is used is raised, causing vapour. This vapour is then made to heat the
hydraulic plate causing a fusion.

Roller Press Method

With this method, the temperature level of a metal roller is raised, and the heat effects the
fusion.
For both methods, heat is forced through an acetate film and tissue paper, causing the acetate
film and tissue paper to fuse to become one. After this fusing process, the tissue paper cannot
be peeled off from the acetate film unless the lamination process is reversed.
The advantage of heat lamination is that the end product is very smooth and effective. On the
other hand, the disadvantage is that the heat involved in the process can cause further damage
to paper. However, the exposure time is so brief that very little real damage is done to the
object.
Hand Lamination/ Solvent/Indian Process
This was invented by the Indian National Archive, hence the name Indian process. With this
method, fusion is affected using organic solvents such as acetone or methylated spirit instead
of heat or high temperature levels.
This process involves placing the sandwiched document on a glass top table. The sandwiched
document is then brushed with acetone solution. For solvent lamination, the sandwich is
reversed. The document is then placed on top of the acetate film allowing the acetone
solution to pass through the paper, dissolving the acetate film. This is then smoothened using
the back of a human hand or glass rollers. The advantage of this method is that there is no
heat involved. The disadvantage nevertheless is that the sealing is not completely
consummated, and the acetate serves more as an adhesive rather than a fusion.
Advantages of Lamination
• A laminated document is mechanically well protected.
• It is the only viable cost-effective solution when brittle paper becomes very fragile
and for that matter is beyond traditional mending or even preservation photocopying.
 • When judiciously used, lamination can provide protection for the safe handling of
fragile materials for a reasonable period of time.
Disadvantages of Lamination
• Reversing lamination is difficult and sometimes impossible. The solvents required
may be damaging to paper and inks, and the time required is often so enormous that
the process is rendered quite impractical for many records.
• Once laminated, examination of the physical and chemical characteristics of the paper
is greatly inhibited if not impossible Paper fibres and inks cannot be examined and
watermarks are also somewhat obscured.
• It is not recommended for use on materials of high value, for items of artistic merit
containing coloured media or where the paper surface and texture are integral to the
object. In instances where the authenticity of the records is in doubt and is possibly
the subject of an examination, lamination is not appropriate.
• The equipment needed for the process is costly.

CHAPTER 5
BIOLOGICAL DETERIORATION
Deterioration Caused by fungi.
Fungus is the most dangerous micro-organism as far as Documentary materials, particularly
paper-bused and film based materials are concerned Mould and mildew are two common
forms which causes documents to deteriorate. Fungi are propagated by spores.
These spores are numerous and subsist on organic matter. The spores or "seeds" that cause
mould to grow are present in the atmosphere and can never be eliminated completely from
any storage environment. Mould needs nutrients to grow, and these nutrients are found on
paper, leather, glues, and adhesives. A mould's access to these nutrients cannot be restricted.
Therefore, the growth of mould can be inhibited by controlling the environment.
The spores remain dominant or latent in their dry state but they begin propagation when
environmental conditions become favorable conditions that encourage mold growth includes
warm humid conditions darkness and little air circulation. mould can also grow at low
temperatures with elevated relative humidity as commonly seen in home refrigeration. When
temperatures and relative humidity levels is 24 degrees Celsius and 65% respectively, mould
growth is encouraged. Again, probability of fungus infestation is higher in an environment
where there had been an earlier infestation which was not well treated.
Symptoms of Infestation
Fungus infestation is manifested by a musty odour and yellowish, greenish and brownish
spots dotted on the documents, particularly on the spine of bound volumes. This is because
they are attracted to starchy materials and most of the starchy materials which hold the
document together can be found at the spine of documents.
Damages caused.
• Fungi can cause several damages to documentary materials: They are living
organisms which survive by feeding on the nutrients in the documents. They are
actively responsible for the decomposition of cellulose, which is a basic component of
most paper. These fungi feed on cellulose, starchy components of the document,
adhesives used to hold the documents together, and the sizing components, resulting
in the weakening and ultimate breakdown of the documentary materials.
• They can stain documents permanently or temporarily. Permanent stains known as
foxing include rust-brown measles-like spots that are frequently found on paper, and
in older books and prints Foxing is evidence that fungi have been at work but are no
longer active. Foxing stains can only be removed by bleaching, a hazardous operation
which can easily damage the entire book if it is not expertly done. Foxing is therefore
an unpleasantness best ignored.
Preventive measures
There are several preventive measures for fungal infection. The best prevention however is to
practise good housekeeping procedures. In addition to this several steps can be taken:
• Monitor collections to identify problems in the early stages before they worsen.
Records should be stored in areas where there is free circulation of air. Temperature
and relative humidity should be controlled as close to ideal levels as possible. While it
is best to limit light levels, some lights should be kept on in environments with high
relative humidity. In such situations, light can dry out the air, thereby reducing relative
humidity and inhibiting mould growth. Documents should not be shelved too tightly.
• Water leakage should be avoided within or around the immediate vicinity of the
storage area, Wooden furniture and heavy cotton curtains should be used for the
storage area. Electronic and chemical dehumidifiers could also be used to control the
humidity levels in the storage area.
Curative measures
Fungi infestation in storage areas can occur at a local or a global level.
Localised Infestation
This is where a few materials in the storage arca are infested. This could be for instance part
of a shelf or some selected areas within the storage area.
Universal Infestation
With this type of infestation, almost all the documentary materials and resources in the
storage facility are infested including the shelves, tables, and chairs.
Fumigation
One way to remove fungi infestation is by fumigation. This is a process of exposing infested
documents and records to a toxic chemical, in gaseous form, to kill the mould. This process is
a complex one and usually requires special equipment, chemicals, and a level of expertise. It
is a controversial process, as the chemicals used can sometimes damage the documentary
materials themselves or may be harmful to humans, There are a number of steps to follow in
treating fungi infested documents.

• The first thing to do is to reduce the temperature and humidity levels in the storage
area.
• For localised infestation, the affected materials must be moved into a fumigation
chamber for fumigation. A fumigation chamber is hermetically sealed equipment with
shelves in which infested materials can be placed.
• After placing infested materials in the chamber, inject the chamber with a fungicide.
Depending on the type of fungicide being used, the chamber is sealed for a certain
period. Several fungicides such as acetone, thymol, formaldehyde and santrobite can
be used. Afterwards remove the documents clean and return them to the storage area.
If a fumigation chamber is not available, books can be stabilized by interleaving every ten
pages of the book with sheets containing 10% of Thymol in alcohol or Topane W.S. in water
solution.
For universal infestation however, the appropriate action to take is to convert the entire
storage area into a fumigation chamber. During this process, make sure a hermetical
environment is created by closing all the windows in the storage facility. In addition, block all
holes and access points in the storage facility through which air can enter or escape.
Afterwards, inject fungicide into the fumigation chamber and seal it for as long time as it is
required.
After the required period, open all the windows in the storage facility to allow air to circulate
to expel the remnants of the fume. Clean the storage area and afterwards open for use. For
universal treatment, it is advisable to use fungicides of low toxicity which are not water-based
but solvent-based in order not to stain the documents.
It is strongly advised that a professional conservator is consulted to get advice on the best
course of action in case of extreme mould growth. However, if mouldy materials cannot be
salvaged, they can be photocopied or microfilmed and originals which are infested destroyed.

Deterioration Caused by Insects

Macro-organisms are another group of living organisms that can cause great damage to
documentary materials. These organisms include insects and rodents.
Insects
Insects are of considerable concern to information centres. This is because their damage can
result in a total loss of collection. Their damage can also cause huge financial loss due to cost
of repairs and equipment. In addition, their damage can constitute health hazard as well as
psychological revulsion for staff and clients who use the information centre.
There are two categories of insects. These are the occasional and habitual insects. Occasional
insects only visit the storage area, accomplish their aim, and return to their place of abode.
Examples include termites, cockroaches, and mud wasps. Habitual insects on the other hand
are permanently in the storage area or on the premises. They are born on books, and they feed
and die on books. These insects are totally dependent on documentary materials for their
survival. Examples include silver fish, booklice, and bookworms.
Favourable Conditions
Insects are attracted to nutrients found in paper-based documents, particularly cellulose,
adhesive and starches. They thrive under the following favourable conditions: damp, dark,
warm, and dirty locations. When the temperature is above 24 degrees Celsius and relative
humidity is above 65%, a conducive environment is created for insects to cause damage.
Long periods of darkness, still environment and areas of minimal use and inspection
encourage insect infestation.
How Insects enter the storage environment
There are several ways through which insects enter the storage area. They can enter the
storage area:
• by flying into the storage area through doors, windows, etc.
• through new acquisitions or accessions and returned borrowed documents.
• through cracks and sewage lines in the storage area.
• through new and donated furniture.
• through archival boxes or pamphlet boxes.
• through poor housekeeping practices.
Damages caused.
Insects are usually active at night when people are not present, and the damage they cause is
irreversible. Some of the damages are as follows:
• They can cause partial or destruction. Example is termites.
• They can cause permanent stains to documents.
• They can deface documents by scratching.
• Structural damage can result if a maze of holes or perforations is left in sheets of
paper or throughout an entire binding.
Protection against Insects
Considering the damage insects can cause to documentary materials, it is necessary to protect
these materials by preventing them from insects. A few measures can be taken:
• Food and drink should be prohibited in the storage area.

• Temperature and relative humidity levels should be controlled.

 • Building meant for storage of documentary materials must be insect proof. Screens
should be placed on windows and exterior doors and where possible, all cracks on
floors, walls and holes around pipes should be sealed to limit the entrance of insects
into storage area from outside the facility.
• All new materials should be inspected before documentary materials are brought into
the building.
• All vegetation around the storage area should be removed completely or kept at the
lowest level.
• Ideally, there should be no live plants or flowers near storage areas as plants can carry
insects which can nest in the storage areas, leading to document infestations..
• Insect traps can be used to catch flying insects.
• It is essential that storage areas are cleaned on a regular basis, particularly behind the
shelves and dark areas in the storage area.

Extermination of Insects
There are various methods of exterminating insects. One method is to fumigate the entire
repository. It is advised that extermination should be done by a pest control expert or a
professional conservator because of the toxicity of the insecticides. To fumigate an insect
infested storage area, one should follow these steps:
• determine the type of insect and the extent of the infestation.
• convert the entire storage or repository into a fumigation chamber and apply
appropriate insecticide in its right dose for a period.
• open all windows to allow air to circulate. Afterwards, clean documents and open the
place for business.
It is important to practice double or triple stage fumigation as most insecticides are unable to
kill the eggs of these insects, but only the larvae and the imago insects. There should
therefore be re-fumigation three weeks after the first fumigation has been done and another
after the following third week. By re-fumigation, all eggs, larvae, and live insects which
survived the first or second fumigation processes will be exterminated. Examples of effective
insecticides which can be used to fumigate a storage facility are Paradichlobenzene,
Naphthalene, and Ethylene oxide.
The most modern and the best method for exterminating insects both at the micro and macro
level is Deep Freezing. It kills the insects, larvae, and the insect eggs. With this method,
infested documents are bagged in polythene bags under room temperature of 21 degrees
Celsius and relative humidity of 50% and dropped in a freezing compartment. The
temperature is brought to minus 20 degrees Celsius and left for three days. After three days,
the polythene containing the document is removed but not opened immediately otherwise it
will result in cracking of document. The document is then placed in a room with anormal
temperature of 21 degrees Celsius the eggs and insects would have been dead temperature
level. The books are removed and cleaned. While deep freezing the documents, it is necessary
to fumigate the shelves and other resources. This method however is time consuming because
a few documents can be treated at a time.
Common Insects
Some of the common insects that damage documentary materials include silver fish,
bookworm, book louse and termites.
Silverfish
Silverfish feed on mould and starchy materials that are found on paper. These are small grey
insects (approximately 12mm in length). They have a scaly appearance and are generally
found in dark, cool and moist environments such as basements. Evidence of silverfish
damage is visible as an abraded, rough surface on paper materials.
Book louse
This is generally found in heated buildings. It feeds on mould spores that are found on paper
and cardboard. Direct feeding by this insect does not cause visible damage to paper; however,
its squashed body can cause staining. Book louse prefers high humidity levels above 60% and
they reproduce at warm temperatures above 25 degrees Celsius.
Bookworm
This is the larvae of any of the 160 different species of beetle. Eggs are laid on the edges of
books and when the larvae hatch their eggs, burrow into the books, eat their way through the
leaves, leaving little tunnels. The bookworm feeds on anything that is cellulosic in content.
When it matures into a beetle, it stays on the cover of the book to feed since it can no longer
penetrate the books.
Cockroaches
There are numerous species of cockroaches. They lay their eggs in dark corners allowing
them to hatch after a few days. The young ones and the females have no wings. Cockroaches
eat everything except concrete and metal. They are attracted by food crumps, organic filth
and all kinds of dead things. Once in an information centre, they feed on documentary
materials They cause considerable damage to documents. In addition, they are suspected of
spreading diseases such as leprosy, cholera, and typhoid fever. They leave behind scratches
on the spine of document. They also stain document by secreting brown liquids on them.
Termites
They are also known as white ants. They are the most dangerous of all the insects and are
very difficult to dislodge. There are two types of termites: the wood dwelling termites and the
earth dwelling termites.
Wood Dwelling Termites
Wood dwelling termites are always looking for organic materials. They feed rapidly and can
cause great havoc within a week or less. They hate light even though they are not nocturnal.
Most fires, they are difficult to detect because they hide under wood and any sign is hardly
seen. Vigilance is therefore the only way to catch them.
To destroy them, preservators must identify the hiding place of the termites. These places
should then be exposed to light to kill any termites inhabiting there, Conservators can also
use glue to trap these termites. The only permanent method in handling termite presence in
any information centre however is by termite proofing.

Earth Dwelling Termites

Earth dwelling termites normally live in nests called an anthill. They usually come from
fields or nests far away. They move through tunnels and enter storage areas through cracks in
the foundation of building, walls, or ceiling of a storage facility. They travel long distances in
search of food or organic matter to feed on. Once they get to a source of food, the place
becomes their source of attraction. In the case of a storage facility, termites enter a storage
area, take the food available to them there and they return to their place of abode. Termites
have also been known to inhabit along sewage lines and tunnels on walls or floors of the
storage area.
To destroy termites, identify their place of abode and fumigate this place to destroy them.
DDT can be also used to spray inside these nests or places of abode. This is most effective
because when some of the termites die, others feed on the dead termites causing them to also
die. Termites can also be exterminated by digging round the building as deep as 2 feet and
disinfecting the trench round. The trench is filled with insecticides. Depending on the type of
chemical used, this can prevent termites from entering a storage area for several years.
Deterioration caused by Rodents.
Rodents are small warm-blooded animals, some of which are edible. It is said that in our
major cities, the rodent population is more than the human population. However, because
they are rarely seen, it is difficult to realize that rodents are so abundant. Some common types
of rodents are rats, mice, and squirrels. Their attack on paper poses one of the most difficult
problems for preservators. Research has shown that rodent damage could account for as much
as 20% of the total world's books deterioration. Once rodents settle in a building, they are
difficult to dislodge from such environment.
Rodents are attracted to warm, dark environments and places where there is an accumulation
of waste and dead matter. They gain easy access to storage environment through passageways
such as cracks, holes in walls in the storage areas. They are also attracted by the presence of
spilt food particles and pools of water Rodents travel at a maximum distance of 30 feet radius
in search of new habitats mostly for their activities.

Symptoms/ Indications of their Presence

Chewed or damage paper or boxes indicate the presence of rodents in a storage area. These
rodents do not however feed on the paper or boxes that contain documentary materials; they
use them for their nests. Another way in which the presence of rodents can be seen is through
their droppings found in the corners of the storage area. Nibbled materials may also be on the
floor or the shelves and sometimes, noises can be heard from rodents nesting or moving about
in the storage area.Rodents do not take in paper documents
Damages Caused
Rodents can Cause great damage to documentary materials.Some of the damages include the
following.

• They can nibble at documents, chew and break them into pieces or even carry them
away thereby destroying the document.
• Rodents such as rats and mice can eat archival materials and use papers to build nests.
• They also chew on electrical insulations, which can result in short circuits and
fires.These faulty electrical insulations can catch fire which can cause total
destruction of the entire repository.
• Their droppings are abrasive and corrosive and can cause scratches on documents,
thereby defacing them and causing the documents to be intellectually and physically
inaccessible.
• Their urine can stain documents and also introduce uric acid directly into the
documents thereby causing acidification of the document.
Preventive Measures
• The best protection against rodents is to deny them access to storage facilities. This
can be done by employing sound building construction measures, introducing tight
screens, and sealing all holes in the foundation walls of the storage building,
particularly those which are cited around water and sewer pipes as well as around gas
mains. Fortunately, new library buildings, due to care in construction, are not as
vulnerable to rodent infestation as older library buildings.
• Conditions which encourage procreation of rodents should be eliminated. Conditions
such as dark, damp basements, pools of water, accumulations of waste and debris, as
well as spilled food particles in eating areas are all conditions that attract these pests
and they should not be encouraged in and around storage areas.
• Inspect the building and storage areas thoroughly for possible entrance points and
close or seal these off
• Tight screens should be placed over windows and doors, if possible, to reduce entry of
rodents and pests.
• Good housekeeping practices should be followed.
• Periodical fumigation should be done to prevent these pests from inhabiting in storage
area.
• A library cat or mouse scares can serve as a deterrent.
Extermination of Rodents
Once infestation is discovered, an exterminator must be called in to examine the degree of
infestation and undertake an extermination exercise. The chemicals used to kill rodents are
particularly poisonous and must be handled only by trained personnel. The most powerful
rodenticides are the Cyanide Dust and Flake of Naphtitalene.
Since rodents do not chew the documents, the rodenticides are usually mixed with food to
attract them. Once they eat the food and it gets into their digestive system, they die. Apar
from using the capsule rodenticides, baited traps can also be used to control rodents.
If there are rodents in a storage area, the best way to catch them is to use traps. Poisons will
kill rodents, but if the dead rodent cannot be found, the rotten carcass can attract other
rodents, and this can worsen the problem. It will be necessary to close a rodent-infested
library for a period of time to affect the extermination treatment has been completed.

CHAPTER 6
DETERIORATION CAUSED BY HUMAN BEINGS
Introduction
Damage caused by humans or what is usually referred to as physical or mechanical
deterioration is any deterioration resulting from intentional or accidental actions of
humankind. Research has shown that people pose the most constant and serious threat to
documentary materials. These include improper handling of documents which can lead to the
loss of valuable information. Most of the activities of humankind relate to the activities of
custodians who process or file, store, retrieve or transport documents from one point to the
other. Custodians are themselves guilty of treating their collections too casually. Research has
shown that custodians are the worst offenders when it comes to physical deterioration.
Document deterioration by humans comes also from patrons whose abusive actions on
documents can cause them to deteriorate.
Abuse of documents, whether imposed by custodians or researchers, intentional or not,
results in the same damage, loss of material and information. There are two causes of
physical damages: direct or wilful and indirect or normal wear and tear.
Direct damage
Direct damage results from deliberate actions. The list of abusive actions which are willfully
done to documentary materials includes the following:
• Tearing or folding documents by both custodians and patrons.
• Acts of vandalism resulting from demonstrations, wars, mob actions by patrons, etc.
• Indiscriminate use of documents by patrons such as licking or wetting fingers before
turning pages. Wilful defacing of documents by both custodians and patrons.
• Handling of documents with dirty hands by both custodians and patrons.
• Improper handling and inappropriate storage of oversized materials.
• Mutilation of documents by patrons due to inadequate number of documentary
materials in stock.
Indirect damage
This type of damage results from the normal use of documents without any intent of causing
any damage. Of course, we cannot overlook the fact that there are bound to be the normal
wear and tear so long as documents are being used. Indirect damage of documents can come
about through the following ways:
• excessive photocopying which exposes the document to light and heat. In the process
of photocopying, the spine of the book is constantly being opened and pressed,
putting excessive pressure on the bindings and folders of the document. This results in
premature tearing and slow disintegration of the document.
• . Use of inappropriate storage equipment can cause damage to documents such as
inappropriate stacking or boxing of documents such as maps and microforms can
damage documents.
• Poor shelving or filing and improper retrieval practices cause materials/documents to
be torn or damaged. For instance when users and patrons retrieve documents which
are tightly shelved, these documents may tear causing the documents to be damaged.
• Placing materials on permanent exhibitions exposes them to extreme conditions which
can cause serious damage.
• In addition, using faulty or inappropriate equipment for transporting materials from
place to place can result in the documents' gradual degradation.
• Inappropriate restoration treatments or mending work carried out by unqualified
personnel can also cause damages to documents. For instance, mending documents
with milk bush and other unacceptable adhesives can cause more damage to the
already damaged document.

Prevention of physical damage

For as long as documents remain in use, there is bound to be deterioration. Measures should
therefore be taken to reduce or prevent some of the physical damages that are caused to them.
Some of these preventive measures are as follows:
• Education - The most important preventive measure is education of both staff and patrons.
It is important to ensure that staff, researchers, or patrons handle documents carefully. Staff
can be educated formally and informally on appropriate handling procedures when
processing documents. This can be an on-the-job training programme. Users through
orientation programmes should also be aware of how to handle materials. This orientation
programme could be organized for users when they use the information centre for the first
time. Brochures and flyers educating users on the need to handle documents carefully should
be made available to users.
• In the storage and reading area, staff should display reading room practice and notices to
remind readers and users on the dos and don'ts in the facility. This will reduce to a large
extent physical damage that could be caused by users. Notices such as "Stop mutilationnow!
someone is watching you" when placed at places in the information centre will scare
perpetrators from engaging in such acts. In addition mutilated materials can be displaced to
show users the cost involved both physically and financially to repair documentary materials
every time they cause damage to them.
• Excessive photocopying should be avoided.
• In situations where there is pressure on valuable documents, surrogate copies should
be provided and the original withdrawn to reserve stock.
• Additional copies of books which are on high demand should be provided to boost
circulation.
• Unauthorised mending of documents should be avoided.
• Manuscripts and rare books require more special care than a general circulation
collection. Pens should not be permitted for use by patrons working with these
collections because ink can cause great damage to documentary materials. Patrons
should also wash their hands before handling documentary materials.
• Food and drink should be prohibited in the storage area as they can cause considerable
damage to them. Smoking should also be prohibited, because of the potential fire
hazard. ln addition, the fumes from smoking can be harmful to books.
• . There must be rigid supervision in the reading areas to prevent any deviant
behaviour. Security cameras can be used to achieve this.
• Good storage practices should be adopted. Bound materials should stand firmly on
their spine and extra large materials should be stored flat. Unbound volumes should
be stored in boxes and heavy materials should not be piled on lighter ones. Rare and
out-of-print collections should be well secured in pamphlet boxes and placed in secure
rooms. Also, metal fasteners should be removed from documents before permanent
storage.
• Exhibitions of documents should also be carried out with care. If possible, original
materials should not be put on display at all. Rather, surrogate copies should be used
for all exhibitions purposes. Documents selected for exhibitions also need to be
protected especially when in transit in the case where an exhibition centre is outside
the information centre.

Curative Measures for Physical Deterioration

These are measures which are undertaken after a document has been found to be
deteriorating. There are various types of curative measures available when deterioration has
set in a document. These include encapsulation, leaf casting and stain removal.
Encapsulation
This is the process of closing a weak paper document between two pieces of clear polythene
materials and sealing the edges of the polythene using heat or chemicals as a mess of
supporting such a weak paper. The document is then removed easily by cutting the edges. The
purpose of encapsulation is to protect the document from improper handling & dust, oil. etc
Encapsulation provides physical support but does not improve the chemical stability of the
paper. Since paper will continue to deteriorate after encapsulation, it should first be
deacidified. However deacidification is not possible, it is important to ensure that the edges of
the polythene material is not completely scaled as this would increase the acid concentration
and speed up the deterioration of the item. Another option is to insert a piece of alkaline paper
behind a one-sided document that cannot he deacedified.
Advantages of Encapsulation
• It provides physical support and protection for brittle, heavily used or valuable
documents even if deacidification is not feasible.
• It is a stable and easily reversed method which introduces no harmful products,
• It is best used for highly valuable items of great intrinsic value, or of items that are
handled in their original form on a regular basis.
Disadvantages of encapsulation
• Documents protected by encapsulation remain vulnerable to damage even when they
are handled roughly or inappropriately.
• Encapsulation gives users and patrons a false sense of strength and invulnerability that
damage can indeed occur after the process had been done on documents.

Leaf Casting
This is a recent technological development. It is one of the methods of repairing physical
damage caused to documents by insects, human beings, etc. Leaf casting is the process of
using paper pulp to fill holes caused by cockroaches or spaces in paper documents.
This method makes use of a leaf casting machine which has, grid pattern. When leaf casting,
a basin is filled with Water and adhesives, and the pulp or paper fibres are dumped into it.
The machine is then switched on, causing the pulp to bubble up.
The leaf casting machine then goes all over the paper filling the holes with the pulp. The pulp
in the slurry fills the holes, missing corners, worn edges and other damaged areas. The
machine will not deposit particles on the undamaged portion to obscure the text. The machine
does it so neatly that the difference can hardly be seen.
Advantages of Leaf Casting
• It takes about three minutes to make this repair and it is superior to the hand repairs of
even the most skilled conservator.
• It saves time as several sheets can be treated at a time.
Disadvantages of Leaf Casting
• It is an expensive method,
• Even though the holes are sealed, the content in that portion is lost.
Removal of stains
Documents can get stained by oil, coffee, ete. These stains can disfigure documents, obscure
text and image areas, sometimes rendering them illegal. Depending on a variety of factors,
such as the nature of the stain and the type of paper, some stains can cause permanent damage
to documents. However, it is good news if stains can be removed without any adverse effect
on the document.
To remove stains, lay a clean white cotton material on a glass top table. The document is
placed facing downward so that the stain is directly on the cotton material. A swab of cotton
wool is dipped into an organie solvent like methylated spirit which can dissolve synthetic
stains. This soaked cotton is gently dabbed on the document from behind and the solvent is
allowed to soak from the back of the stain. The solvent will start to dissolve the stain on the
cotton material. Stains should however never be cleaned on the surface but rather from
behind any stained material.
More research on the long-term effect of both strengthening techniques and deacidification
process on different types of papers, as well as about the effects of these treatments when
carried out solely and in combination with other treatments will prove helpful for
preservation activities.
Also, information centres must cooperate to share the cost of the restoration required to save
valuable artefacts. This way, if individual information centres cannot repair their damaged
books at their own cost, through their cooperation could be channelled to create special
centres which will be fully funded to provide skilled conservators to offer preservation
services to all those information centres which are in the cooperative.

CHAPTER 7
DISASTERS
Introduction
A disaster can be defined as the tragedy of a natural or human-made hazard that negatively
affects society or environment. It can also be defined as any occurrence which comes with
suffering to humankind or results in the disruption of the normal way of doing things,
whether natural or artificial, predictable, or otherwise.
Disasters have been defined variously. It has been described by some authors as any tragic
event that may involve at least one victim of circumstance, such as an accident, fire, terrorist
attack, or explosion. The league of Red Cross also defines disaster as a catastrophic situation
in which the day-to-day patterns of life are suddenly disrupted and people plunged into
helplessness and suffering.
By deduction, disasters have the characteristics of being sudden, and they come with
significant destruction, adverse consequences, and suffering. In recent times, disasters have
been seen as the consequences of inappropriately managed risks. These risks are the product
of hazards and vulnerabilities.
Hazards that strike in areas with low vulnerability and uninhabited regions are however not
considered disasters, there are many kinds of disasters. One of such kind is information
disaster. Generally, information disaster is any happening those results in the destruction of
information resources. Alegbeleye (1993) defines information disaster as any event that
results in the denial of access to information,
The best protection against disasters of all kinds is prevention. This involves adequate
purposeful construction, a well-trained staff, and good housekeeping procedures.
Types of disasters
Disasters can be broadly classified into two types:
• Natural disasters
• Artificial disasters
Natural disasters
A natural disaster can be defined as the consequences when a natural hazard affects humans.
Examples of such natural hazard include volcanic eruption and earthquake. These natural
disasters are caused by natural phenomenon, and they cannot be prevented, even though with
development in technology, they can be precisely predicted. The resulting loss from their
damage depends on our capacity to support or resist the disaster. This is aptly captured in the
statement; "disasters occur when hazards meet vulnerability”.
A natural hazard will hence result in a natural disaster in areas without vulnerability. Thus,
strong earthquake in uninhibited Areas do not create a sense of vulnerability to anyone
because there is no one inhibiting the place of the disaster. The term natural has consequently
been disputed because the events that bring about these disasters are simply hazards or
disasters that do not affect human beings. Hence, so far as an event brings destruction but
these destructions do not affect humans, these events cannot be considered a disaster.
Artificial disasters
Human-made or artificial disasters are those that are caused by human action, negligence,
error, or any event that involves the failure of a system. These disasters are caused either
through wilful or intended activities by humans.
Artificial or human-induced disasters can be categorised as either technological or
sociological. Technological disaster are the results of failure of technology, such as
engineering failures, transport disasters, or environmental disasters.
Sociological disasters on the other hand have a strong human motive such as criminal acts,
stampedes, riots, conflicts, or wars. Many scholars are of the common opinion that all
disasters are human made. Their reasoning is that human actions can prevent any event from
developing into a disaster before the event strikes. All disasters, according to them are hence
the result of human failure to introduce appropriate disaster management measures. With
such a viewpoint, it is assumed that artificial disasters of any kind can be prevented from
occurring at all.

Categories of disasters
Disasters can be categorized into two depending on the geographical location of occurrence.
These are.
• Universal disasters and
• Peculiar disasters
Universal Disasters
This type of disaster can occur anywhere in the world. Thus, they are universal; their causes
are common, and they can happen at any time. Examples of such disasters are fire outbreak
caused by man and flooding due to man's negligence. Most universal disasters are man-made
because they result from the willful negligence of human beings.
Peculiar Disasters
Peculiar or specific disasters are disasters which occur at specific geographical regions. Their
occurrences are confined to specific geographical areas. Some of the natural occurrence’s hat
cause these peculiar disasters are tectonic activities, climatic factors, topography, etc.
Examples of peculiar disasters include earthquake, landslides, floods, fire, snow cover, and
volcanoes.
Two Common Disasters in Ghana.in Ghana the most common disasters which mostly occur
here are:
• Fire
• Flood
Fire disaster
This is the most devastating disasters, particularly to libraries and archives, because most
information resources are highly combustible. Paper for instance burns quickly in the
presence of fire.
Causes of fire
Several things may account for outbreak of fire in information centres. These include the
following
• . Faulty electrical wiring
• Leaving heat generating appliances such as hot plates unattended to
• Electrical short circuits
• Lightening

• Careless smoking habits

 • Faulty and subserviced equipment such as air-conditioners
• Arson
Damage caused by fire
Fire is a serious threat to documentary materials. If documents get lost in a fire, they are lost
forever. Apart from total document loss, fire can cause the following damages:
• Fire generates heat which can be dangerous to documentary materials. Soot that is
generated from fire fumes can stain documents causing permanent damage and
making such documentary materials intellectually inaccessible.
• Smoke that is generated from fire is dangerous to the health of custodians and patrons.
Documents get discoloured
• The presence of fire requires water. The best way to bring fire under control is to put
it out using water. This can result in water damage to documentary materials.

Preventive measures
Every effort should be made to reduce the threat of fire. The important factor to consider
when preventing the loss of documentary materials through fire is to develop a good fire
prevention programme. In addition, the following steps can reduce the threat of fire :
• Major sources of fire such as heating and electrical systems should be properly
installed and checked frequently.
• Hazardous and highly flammable materials such as chemicals, paints and solvents
should be removed from storage areas.
• If possible, documentary materials should not be stored in attics or basements since
these areas are highly susceptible to fire.
• Smoking should be prohibited in storage areas or book stacks. If it is allowed,
smoking should be restricted only to designated safe areas or it should be done far
away from storage materials as much as possible.
• Frequent inspection of storage environment should be made by staff to detect unsafe
conditions that may cause fire eruption.
• Combustible supplies should be located in areas that are of minimal hazard to
information resources if they ignite. Also, portable extinguishers should be located
nearby in the storage areas.
• Information centers should be built with fireproof or non-combustible materials. For
instance, the use of metal shelves and doors instead of wooden materials offers a
maximum protection of information centre from fire occurrences.
• All valuable documents should be boxed, if possible, to serve as a barrier between any
fire outburst and documents
• Buildings should be properly designed and constructed.
• Adequate number of firefighting equipment’s like fire extinguishers, fire blankets,
heat and smoke detectors and automatic fire suppressors should be available and on
hand at the information Centre at all times.
Flood disaster
Flooding occurs when water forces its way into an area that is not expected causing
destruction to life and property. While all other forms of disaster can destroy documentary
materials, water causes the greatest damage.
Causes of flood
Flood can be caused naturally or artificially. Natural causes come from rainstorm which could
cause flood and rip off roofs of information storage buildings. Artificial causes of flood are
through leaking taps, worn out taps not turned off. Artificial flood can also result from
overflowing drains, broken sewage lines, overflowing river banks, hosing, broken pipe lines
etc.
Damage caused by flood
• Water is most damaging to documentary materials. It causes the following damage to
documentary materials:
• Paper documents absorb water which swells up the document causing it to become
physically inaccessible.
• Flood waters cause short circuits which could cause fire outburst. This outburst will
then require water to bring it under control thereby causing greater damage to
documentary materials.
• When an information centre gets flooded, the emulsion layer of film-based documents
softens causing them to be stuck to one another.
• Soluble inks and dyes smudge or run when they come into contact with water, making
the documents difficult to use.
• Staining or discolouration of documents can occur as a result of floods.
• Micro-biological infestation can easily set in when documentary centres become
flooded.
Preventive measures
It is possible to protect or reduce the effects of water on records. The following measures can
be taken:
• It is important to consider the location when citing an information centre. Swampy
areas, water logged areas and areas liable to flooding should be avoided.
• The building that houses an information centre should be surveyed for leaks, soft
spots in walls or roof, weak pipes, or any signs of potential or actual water damage. If
there are leaks anywhere in the building. These must be quickly mended.
• Air-conditioners, dehumidifiers or other equipment that are used to check
environmental factors should be monitored regularly as faults in them can cause them
to leak, generate heat and for that matter cause damage.
• Ensure efficient and adequate drainage at all times.
• Basements should be avoided because they are susceptible to flooding
• Shelves and storage equipment must be raised between 6" and 12" above ground level
in the storage facility.
 • No taps should be allowed in the storage area and if there are some in the area, they
must be turned off whenever they are not in use.
• Water detectors or alarms, and sensitive devices, should be installed in the storage
area to raise alarm whenever there is water in the storage area.
How to treat flood damaged documents
When an information centre is struck by flood, atmospheric conditions become a critical
factor in determining the immediate course of action to take. If the weather is cold, more time
will be needed to plan to salvage operations and experiment with various drying procedures.
Hot and humid weather would require that damage control is initiated with minimum delay to
prevent fungal infestation.
Stabilizing the document
The first most important measure to take when documents cannot be treated within 24 hours
is to stabilize them. The accepted method today of stabilizing water-damaged materials is by
freezing. Io do this, the documents are placed in a freezing compartment part the temperature
level lowered to about -30 degrees Celsius. The documents are left in the freezing
compartments until treatments commences
Stabilizing offers conservators many advantages. It allows for lime to plan and coordinate
drying operations. It also gives the restorer time to dry and work with individual items
properly with the restorer knowing that each object will be in the same condition after it had
thawed and thus the water in between the leaves will only freeze and any ink in the
documents will not run or smudge.
Treatment after stabilization
After stabilizing, the documents are allowed to thaw and then a treatment process begins.
There are two methods by which documents can be dried:
• Open air drying
• Vacuum freeze drying
Open air drying
This is a process of drying wet documents in on airy environment where there is free
circulation of air but no sunlight. Open air drying involves pressing the document gently to
expel all possible water. After this a white cotton material is used to dub the edges of the
document and the cover removed to prevent many stains and dirt as possible getting onto the
document. After this stage, there are two options available to restorers when they want to
apply the open-air drying method. These are:
• The string method or
• The tabletop method
The string method
In the string method, stands/lines are mounted in a room using nylon cords drawn across. The
documents are then opened at a finger size and hanged on the nylon cord lines. For big
volumes, several cords can be drawn in order to open about three points of the documents at a
time. Positions in the document are changed continually until the document is completely dry.
For single sheets, pegs can be used to fasten them. Windows are then opened to allow free
circulation of air.
The Table Top Method
This method makes use of very long mounted tables which are covered with white cotton
material. Water-damaged documents are then opened and stood on the tables. For huge books
and paper-back documents that cannot stand, these can be opened gently and left to dry whilst
changing the paged periodically until all the pages are dried. After drying, warped documents
should be sent to the press and documents with damaged covers should be sent for binding.
Vacuum freeze drying
This is the most modern of drying water damaged documents. Vacuum freeze drying is a
process of drying wet documents using a vacuum freeze dryer, a machine with a freezer and a
drying compartment. Wet documents are placed in the freezing compartment of the vacuum
freezer to get frozen. These documents after a while are then moved into a virtual vacuum
compartment where there is high temperature and high pressure. Here, the ice of the frozen
document is completely converted into vapour and expelled from the compartment to give a
dry document. This method is also called the sublimation method. The advantage of this
method is that documents dry very quickly and much of the document is not lost, unlike the
open air method. This process is however an expensive method.
Some disasters in history
• 1966 - Florence flood in Italy.
• 1966 - Fire outbreak at the Jewish Theological Seminary Library in Jerusalem.
• 1986 - Fire outbreak in Los Angeles Central Public Library.
• 1988 - Fire outbreak at the USSR Academy of Sciences Library.
• 1988 - Arson by students in Sierra Leone which destroyed documents at the National
Records Centre at Bo.
• 1990 - Rainstorm destroying documents in the Nigerian National Library.
• 1939 - Earthquake in Ghana destroying the beginning of the Central Library, then
Aglionby Library.
• 1984 - Fire outbreak at the Agricultural Development Bank head office resulting in
the destruction of records, Accra, Ghana.
• 1989 - Fire outbreak at the GBC Film Archives and Library, Accra, Ghana.
• •1990 - Fire outbreak at GHACEM headquarters, Accra, Ghana.
• 2006 - Fire outbreak at the VAT office in Kumasi,Ghana.
• 2009 - Fire outbreak at the Electricity Company of Ghana, Achimota sub-station,
Accra, Ghana.
• 2009 - Fire outbreak at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs Headquarters, Accra, Ghana.
• 2010 - Fire outbreak at the residence of Former President J.J. Rawlings. Accra,
Ghana.
Disaster Management
Whether brought on through human error or natural events, disasters pose the ultimate threat
to collection. Their effects are immediate, calamitous and dramatic, unlike the slow and
gradual process of deterioration that can take place in filing cabinets and boxes. Disasters can
destroy few items in a collection or can cause the destruction of entire collections.
Some disasters cannot be prevented but others can. It is therefore necessary to take measures
to prevent those that can be stopped from occurring at all. In the case of those which cannot
be prevented, efforts should be made to reduce their adverse effects when they occur.
A disaster plan is the result of a disaster planning process. If is the most important factor
when dealing with disasters. Before a disaster strikes, one needs to be drawn up and be ready
to be put into action.
A disaster plan can be defined as a document which contains series of activities or
programme to be followed to prevent disasters that are preventable, to protect information
resources from disasters and to a large extent reduce the adverse consequences of non-
preventable disasters.
Prompt action is required to prevent irreparable damage, and this is difficult to provide in a
general emergency situation when an information disaster occur. A disaster plan therefore
allows for plans to be made, priorities established and available options weighed under a
certain circumstance.
It is noted that most institutions including information resources organizations still do not
make plans until they have been struck by disaster. Information managers are aware of the
need for planning; yet other immediate needs of users cloud the planning process thereby
postponing the implementation of a disaster plan. More importantly, most people simply do
not believe that they will ever be involved in a disaster. Prepared custodians are however able
to do much to save valuable collections by immediately implementing a disaster plan when
one strikes.
Studies on the need for a preparedness plan for disaster came to the fore following the
disastrous floods in 1966 at Florence, where all manuscripts of the Central Library of Italy
got destroyed. It was not until the 1970's however that real action on disaster planning began.
It was agreed that information disaster planning should be part of total information
management process of information centres.
The need for Information Disaster Preparedness Planning
Several factors account for the need for information disaster planning. These factors include
the following:
• Information is a valuable resource because of its cultural, fiscal. Scholastic, research
and administrative value. Custodians should therefore do anything possible to ensure
its longevity.
• Information resource centres have scarce financial resources. Information centres are
faced with financial constraints because they are considered as a luxury and are thus
allocated very little money. It is therefore necessary that some amount from this little
 money is put aside to provide protection to the information centres when disasters
strike.
• It is important to plan ahead of disasters because there will be no time for planning
when they occur.
• Information resource staff should be trained to control or unify the response of
individuals in information centres during disaster.
Obiectives of Information Disaster Planning
• To lessen potential loss.
• . To establish normal conditions promptly and efficiently after a disaster has occurred.
• To lessen the chances of recurrence of disasters by taking advantage of experience
gained through the implementation of a preparedness plan.
• . To provide adequate orientation and training to staff on
• a continuing basis.
• To ensure frequent inspection of information centres by appropriate agencies in order
to detect threats that can lead to disasters
The bottom-line is to reduce the adverse impact or consequences when they occur.
Requirements of a disaster plan
A disaster plan is the end product of disaster planning. A disaster plan needs the following to
be complete:
• It must be written in clear and simple language.
• It must be realistic in terms of goals and must be implementable.
• It must be approved by management in order to make it an official document.
• It must be dynamic and should always be updated.
• It must be periodically tested.

How to draw a disaster plan

Once the initiative to have a disaster plan comes into existence, there is the need to decide on
the team that will oversee its development. Normally, there are two approaches. These
are:
• To develop the plan in-house or
• To engage a consultant (where there is no expert within the organization)
Where there is enough expertise in the organization, the plan can be written in house.
Depending on the size and complexity of the institution, a one-man approach or a committee
approach may be used.
For a small organization, the one-man approach may be suitable. This person must be
knowledgeable in that area and must know a lot about the organization. He/She should also
be able to identify all the valuable records and critical procedures in the organization.
For a big and complex organization, the committee approach may be suitable. This involves a
team with one coordinator, preferably the risk manager or information manager. Once the
committee is set up, the following steps should be taken:
• Education - first, there is the need to educate members of the committee on exactly
what is expected. This could be through a series of lectures and film show on disaster
planning. Thereafter the other members of the institution should be educated about the
programme
• Definition of scope - The parameters within which the plan is being drawn should be
defined. This should show whether the plan would cover all information resources.,
only document, patrons etc. and also whether it is a universal or peculiar plan. The
definition of the scope is influenced by the following:
I. The nature of the institution.
II. The size and complexity of the organization.
III. The geographical location of the organization and
IV. The resources and services at the organization's disposal.
• Set the time frame - A time frame which shows goals and schedules for the
completion of the plan.
• Collection Assessment - the collection should then be assessed and evaluated through
a collection survey which can be conducted to determine the varying degree of values
of the collection. At the end of the assessment, documents should be prioritized
according to their monetary value, rareness and uniqueness and importance. This is
because not every document can be saved at the same time. After prioritizing, the list
should be reduced into a diagrammatic form using colours to represent the various
priorities. For instance, red can be used to indicate that a set of collection is rare or top
priority documents.

• Risk assessment - After the survey, risks assessment should be conducted to determine
potential hazards. Here, there are two types of assessment: internal survey
concentrates on potential risks within the organization and external survey looks at the
external environment where the information centre is located
• Preventive and protective measures - After determining the constituent parts of the
collection and probable hazards, the risk manager/ information manager needs to
determine preventive and protective measures. In doing this, he/she can seek expert
advice.
• Writing out the plan - The plan should now be written out. For a one-man approach,
the developer writes the plan and circulates it to all members in the organization for
feedback. With the committee approach, one person from the team is commissioned to
write the plan. The plan is then sent for authorization from all the other members in
the committee. After authorization, the plan is then translated into local languages for
the people who may not necessarily understand it in English. If possible, it should
further be broken down into simple dos and don'ts, As well, practical representations
can be displayed at various places in the institution to remind and educate staff on
what to do when there is a disaster
 • . After drawing the plan, the next step will be to create awareness of its existence for
people to know and use.
• The plan is then tested periodically by undertaking mock disasters to observe the
reaction of people and to determine the effectiveness of the plan in terms of its
implementation.
Information, and for that matter documentary materials are vital resources. As such, all efforts
must be made to ensure their safety, physical integrity, and longevity.

CHAPTER 8
REPROGRAPHICS
Definition and Types of Reprographics
Reprographics is the process of reproducing graphical information by using mechanical or
electrical means such as photography or xerography. The term is used basically to describe a
wide variety of processes and technologies involved in the replication of documents.
Reprography embraces the control and management of copying machines, practices and
procedures
For the purposes of preservation, we can identify three main types of reprographic process.
These are:
• Photocopying
• Microfilming and
• Digitising

Photocopying
Photocopying is a process that utilizes a photocopier to produce facsimile images of original
documents through the power of light or heat and pressure.
Types of Photocopying
There are different types of photocopying systems. The systems are classified according to
the type of paper used, the processes involved, and the technology used. There are ordinary or
plain-paper copying systems which reproduce information on ordinary bond paper, preferably
acid-free paper. These are relatively less expensive systems of reproduction. An example of
such system is the Electrostatic copying system (Xerox).
There are other copying systems which reproduce information only on sensitive paper
because such paper is sensitive to the copy process being used. Such copying systems depend
on the capabilities of heat or light to effect reproduction. Examples of such systems include
thermographic copying systems. Other systems which depend on the capabilities of light to
reproduce copies of original documents are termed Photostatic copying systems.
Photocopying is an excellent way of protecting originals although the high levels of light and
heat generated by the copiers could be sources of worry, particularly when fragile and
delicate items are involved.

Guiding Principles
When undertaking preservation photocopying, a number of issues need to be considered.
These are:
• Usually, only single items or small groups of documents should be copied for
preservation. If a large volume of documents are involved, then it is more economical
to microfilm them instead of photocopying.
• If many copies of a popular or fragile item are needed, then a master copy and
additional copies should be made and stored for use. This reduces the need to expose
the original to high levels of heat and light
• Acid-free paper should be used for preservation of photocopies in order to ensure that
the document remain stable and last for as long as possible.
• Newspaper clippings could be copied and preserved in place of originals since they
will last longer. However, it will be more cost-effective to microfilm whole
newspapers.
• When copying bound volumes, extra care should be taken not to bend or damage the
spine of such documents.
• All reproductions should be marked "copy" in order to distinguish them from their
originals.
• Black and white copies made of coloured items should clearly indicate that the copy
does not represent the full spectrum of colours found in the originals.
• It must be remembered that photocopying as a means of preservation does not reduce
storage space, but rather takes up more space.
Photo Reproduction
Photographic reproduction is one way to compliment photocopying This process is used to
reproduce original photographs. In photo reproduction, copy negatives or prints are made and
used in place of the original photograph, thus ensuring that fhe original document remains
secure. Master negatives could also be made for original photographs. These reproductions
generally require stringent quality control measures. a high degree of photographic skills and
a range of specialist equipment.
Microfilming
Microfilming is the process of reproducing graphical documents in minute form on film base
or on photographic paper in such a form that the reproduced document cannot be read with
the naked eye except through the aid of an optical device. Microfilming is a photographic
process which depends on cameras to effect reproduction.
Microfilming as a reprographic process generates different products in varying formats. The
different products of the microfilming process are referred to as microforms, micro texts,
micro images or miero reproductions. These terms are used interchangeably to mean one and
the same thing.
Types of Microforms
There are different products of the microfilming process. These are:
• Microfilm
• Microfiche
• Micro-cards and .
• Aperture cards
The roll microfilm is a long reel of film, much like a moving picture film, used to store large
amounts of information.Storage and retrieval of information on microfilms are sequential in
nature. The microfiche on the other hand is a sheet of film onto which images are reproduced.
Storage and retrieval of information on microfiche are random. Micro-cards on the other hand
are micrographic images stored on photographic cards instead of film. Also, aperture cards
hold single frames of film which contain utilized documents in micro formats.
Advantages of Microfilms
As a preservation medium or tool, microfilming of documents has several advantages. These
are discussed below:
• Microfilming reduces up to 90% the space required for keeping paper documents in a
storage facility.
• Microforms are easy to replicate and less expensive to disseminate.
• Microfilming provides preservation administrators with multiple copies, thereby
reducing the risk of damage to originals.
• Microfilming ensures safe preservation of information resources through the
provision of security copies of documents.
Disadvantages of Microfilms
There are several challenges to the use of microfilming as a means of preserving information.
Some of these are:
• Microform copies which are not produced by approved standards are not acceptable
or admissible in court as substitutes for originals.
• Microforms are black and white media which makes it difficult to copy colour
originals effectively.
• Microfilming and their products are machine dependent.
• Microfilming requires high technical standards to ensure their authenticity, integrity
and admissibility.
• Microfilming is costly because the initial outlay is costly and machine dependent.
 • Users prefer to access documents in comfort and hate sitting behind pieces of
hardware straining their eyes to read them. In addition, it is time consuming and
labour intensive.

Storage and Preservation

The appropriate storage and preservation of microform is very critical to any microfilming
programme. Microforms could be created by an organization, or it can be acquired or
purchased.
First microforms should be stored at a temperature level of 18 degrees celcius +_2 and a
relative humidity of 35%+_2%
Second, storing microforms in total darkness is ideal. As much as possible sources of direct
light on microforms should be minimised. In addition, microforms should be stored in dust-
free environments such as in boxes or in cans. Again, microforms need to be handled gently
by touching the edges without touching the surface. Also, Microfiches should be stored in
acid-free envelopes in a conducive environment.
Furthermore, microforms should be protected against heat, water, fire and theft. Finally,
microforms should be periodically inspected and screened for any signs of deterioration.
When any sign of deterioration is detected, the affected film containing the information
should be migrated unto a new film.
Accees to Microforms
Microform technology depends on microform readers to grant nellectual access to its
products. While microfilm and microfiche readers grant access to microfilms and microfiches
respectively, reader-printers enable hard copies to be printed from microforms. It is important
to stress that all microform relayed equipment must be well maintained and kept continuously
functional.
Computer Output Microfilming
Micrographic systems can be enhanced by using Computer Assisted Retrieval Systems
(CAR) and Computer Output Microfilming (COM). The COM system converts computer
generated information directly from machine-readable form to formats on microform.
Usually, products of COM come in the form of microfiches An organization which intends to
preserve clectronic information in the long term may want to take advantage of the COM
system. The unfortunate thing is that COM equipment is quite expensive and only very large
and well endowed institutions patronize the COM technology.
Digitization
Digitization is the conversion of analogue documents into electronic format. It is the process
of using scanning and imaging technologies to make exact images of traditional documents.
The process is mostly referred to as Document Image Processing (DIP) Systems.DIP systems
use scanning and imaging technologies to convert materials from paper or other forms (e.g.
microforms) to machine-readable form, stores them and allows them to be viewed
electronically.
Components of a DIP system
Document image processing systems are made up of five components. These are:
• Input Subsystem
• Control Subsystem
• Storage Subsystem
• Retrieval Subsystem
• Communication Subsystem
The Process
A document imaging system captures the image of the document to be copied by means of a
scanner. The scanner "reads" each page of the document and converts the information into a
video image which it instantly digitizes and stores. The image is normally composed of dots,
known as pixels. The greater the number of pixels, the higher the resolution of the image and
for that matter the higher the quality of the image. The image created by scanning is not
automatically computer readable. An optical character recognition (OCR) device is needed to
convert the characters into standard computer character codes and thus making the
information readable electronically.

Digitization and Document Preservation

Digitized documents could easily be stored on magnetic media such as tapes, disks, etc.
However, the quantity of data or information that could be generated from DIP system is such
that more compact media are preferred. Digitization Systems are most often used in office
environments, more purposely to satisfy the needs of users for faster and complex access to
huge volumes of records. It is also used more to promote multiple access to documents in
multi-user environments.
The role of digitization in preservation has for a long time been accepted with mixed feeling
by most preservation administrators. This fear genuinely derives from the fact that the storage
media for digitized documents seem to be losing them overtime if they are to serve archival
purposes.
Nevertheless, there is enough evidence to prove that whilst digitization improves multiple
access and use of documents in organizations electronically, the original document are not
touched, they are left intact and for that matter the role of wear and tear as a major factor in
the deterioration of documents is edged to the background. By implication, the longevity of
paper document is assured. Secondly, digitizing offers preservation administrators a greater
capacity to ensure the security of valuable documents in their custody.
Reprographics and Preservation
Reprographics is a set of techniques that serve as a preservation tool for preservation
administrators. They could be used as tools for the management of other aspects of
information management such as reference services, loan services, dissemination services,
etc. for our purpose, we will be looking at reprographics from the viewpoint of its role in
preservation administration. When documentary information resources are extremely fragile
due it heavy use, or are deteriorating due to other factors but are still valuable, it is prudent to
reproduce.Reproduction of documents preserves documents in two ways. First by making one
or more copies of the original, one is able to multiply access, thereby increasing the
circulation whiles reducing the pressure on the original document. Secondly, reproduction
can motivate the information manager to restrict access to the use of the original document,
thereby saving it from wear and tear. It must be noted that all the various methods of
reprographics serve some preservation purposes.

CHAPTER 9
PRESERVATION OF ELECTRONIC DOCUMENTS
Electronic Document defined
An electronic document is a document that is created, generated, received, acquired, stored
and disseminated by electronic means through the use of computer technology.
Electronic documents are traditionally:
• recorded in binary codes/language
• written on magnetic or optical media and
• accessed using computer hardware and software
Attributes of Electronic Documents
Electronic documents have three major attributes. These are:
• Content - the intellectual component of the document or what the document says
• Structure - the appearance, the arrangement or the format of the content of the
document and the
• Context - the background information that helps explain the meaning of the document
(creator, purpose of creation, creating agency etc.)
Nature of Electronic Documents
Essentially, electronic documents are made up of zeros and ones which form a byte. Mostly, a
byte is made up of eight (8) bits-a total combination of eight zeros and ones. Electronic
documents are made up of bits, which are digital representations, and an observable product
either visible (text document) or audible (sound recording) generated by the bits.
For an electronic document to exist and be used, neither the digital representation nor the
visible product at any time can be separated. To be able to use an electronic document in
future, it is necessary to preserve the digital representation that instantaneously generates the
visible or perceptible end product in a stable and secure form.
Preserving an electronic document is not only a matter of prolonging the life of a document
as in the case of paper documents. Rather it is the software's ability to create the observable
product again and again. The software used to create the documents is not part of the
document but is only a tool. However, access and the continuous functionality of the software
is critical to access and use of the information that the document contains.
Consequently, preserving electronic documents involve the management of the software that
is used to create it and ensuring continuous access to the document by any other means.

Format of Electronic Documents

Electronic documents can be created, generated, or acquired in different formats. This is one
of the advantages that electronic documents offer. This gives these documents the advantage
of their presentation in varied forms. Electronic documents have different formats. They
come in the form of data, text-based documents, multi-dimensional format and multi-media
format.
Electronic Documents as Data
Electronic documents can take the form of a group of related records organized as a unit.
Most often, these data sets are created, managed, and used as a database.
Electronic Documents as Text-based documents
These are basically electronic documents which contain words with few non-word materials
such as graphics, sound, etc imported into them. These can be read and edited using word
processing softwares such as Excel and slides from Power Point which are embedded in word
processed documents.
Electronic Document in Multi-Dimensional format
These are electronic documents which can be represented in more than one format on the
screen and on print page. An example could be a Power Point presentation consisting of a set
of slides and notes displayed in different forms.
Electronic Documents in Multi-media format
These are electronic documents composed of different elements which interact with one
another to put forward or display meaningful information. They could be documents that
could contain graphical image, moving image, sound and text components. They are
displayed differently at different times in response to different situations.
Components of Electronic Document
Every electronic document is made up of separate parts called components or elements called
digital components. Digital components are stored in different parts of a computer system or
network. They are brought together as a "virtual" document and presented to users in different
forms for varying uses. An electronic document component or element is defined as "any
component of information created electronically that forms part of an electronic document
and that is usually stored separately within the digital file making up the electronic document
as a whole".
Every electronic document is made up of at least one digital component or element such as
bits of data that come together to form a word-processed document. Some electronic
document however may contain several different elements.
In an organization for example, an annual report may be made up of images, photographs,
slides, spreadsheet pages, an extract from a database and probably some sound recording.
These individual formats may contain different elements that are needed to make the
document functional. Each component or element of a complex electronic document may
also have different requirements for storage and use. It is therefore critical when preserving
an electronic document to ensure that mechanisms are put in place for access to every
element within the document.
Multiplicity of Electronic Documents
This is a situation where there is the tendency in most organizations to generate multiple
copies of electronic documents for various uses and purposes. When considering the
preservation of electronic documents, it is important to note that it is easier to create multiple
copies of such documents as compared with paper documents.
The challenge for preservation administrators will be on how to determine what evidence to
keep and for how long, since so much data and information can be generated using a digital
system. It is only then that appropriate resources will be directed at preserving important
electronic documents that have long term value.
Characterizations of Electronic Document
One of the key steps in preserving electronic documents is to be able to identify the precise
characteristics of the document, including all the components that make up the document.
This process is known as "characterization."
Characterization offers the preservation administrator the opportunity to understand the
technical properties of any digital document so that the properties can be preserved. It is
impossible to preserve an electronic document in an accessible and authentic form if the
technical qualities are not well understood. Characterization thus involves identifying and
validating the document as well as extracting critical Metadata of the document.
Identifying the Electronic Document
This involves identifying and documenting the computer file format and version of the
document to be preserved. It also entails naming the version of software used and the title of
the document. The Preservation Administrator needs to know the type of file, whether it is a
TIFF, JPEG, MP2, MP3 or MP4 format etc. This will enable proper preservation procedures
to be put in place to preserve their characteristics.
Validating electronic documents
The preservation administrator need to ensure that the digital document continue to retain its
properties that is acquired when it was first created,any change along in the constituent part
of the document must be noted and taken into consideration when preserving it.
Extracting electronic document metadata
It is important to extract and store metadata (data about data) information of a digital
document. Information such as the date of capture, the name of the creator, the activity the
documents relates to and all other documents that are associated with it are all critical to its
preservation and access.
Electronic document characterizing can be a daunting task, The good news however is that a
number of characterization software’s have been developed which can be used to perform this
task more easily, Examples of such software are DROID (Digital Record Object
Identification), PRONOM, JOVE and NLNZ

Unique Identifiers
A very crucial concept in digital preservation is the idea of "Unique Identifier". A unique
identifier is a code that is assigned to a digital document that can be used in perpetuity to
refer to and retrieve that particular document.Several initiatives are underway in this regard.
These are in the development of the following:
• The Uniform Resource Name (URN)
• . The persistent Uniform Resource Locator (PURL)
• National Bibliographic Numbers (NBNs)
• The Archival Resource Key (ARK)
A well established, functional, persistent or unique identifier or code is attached to the
documents descriptive metadata, and this becomes the unique identifier for finding and
retrieving that record/document over time.

Digital Preservation
Definition
Digital preservation is defined as the long-term storage of digital information to ensure its
retrieval and interpretation for all the period that the information in the document is needed.
Digital preservation can also be defined as the ability to keep digital documents and files
available for time periods that can transcend technological advances without concern for the
alteration or loss of readability of the document.
Digital information is at a grave risk of loss due to technological obsolescence. This situation
is because of the rapidly shrinking time between the creation of digital documents and their
preservation. Digital preservation is gradually moving to the time of acquisition or even
creation of digital resources.
Types of Digital Preservation
There are two categories of approaches to the preservation of digital information resources.
These are:
• Passive Preservation and
 • Active Preservation.
Passive Preservation
These are sets of preservation processes which ensure the continuous integrity and controlled
access to digital documents while preserving their associated metadata characteristics.
Essentially, passive preservation aims at keeping the original digital document intact without
any interference in the technologies that are used to store, process and access them.
Passive preservation procedures are used mostly as short-term measures for preserving
electronic documents during their active use in an organization. There are two ways or
procedures that passive preservation can be carried out. These are
• Refreshing Data
• Replicating Data
Refreshing Data
Refreshing is the process of copying data from one medium to another of the same type. The
process of refreshing does not result in the change of the bits and bytes of the data and the
copy can easily be accessed using the same software with less difficulty.
Refreshing is necessary because the storage media is frequently unstable and can easily
deteriorate. In addition, the hardware needed to access and use the data may also change,
making it impossible for the storage media to be used. For example the change from 5¼ disks
to 3½ disks and then to CD drives on computers made certain digital documents inaccessible
intellectually.
The need to periodically refresh electronic documents is inevitable because of the continuous
changes in electronic storage media. This situation can however be minimized by selecting
the best and highest quality media of storage.
Refreshed data must always be verified and validated to ascertain if there is content
consistency, corruption or loss.

Data Replication
Replication, a means of preserving digital information, is similar to the process of refreshing.
The distinguishing difference is that the storage location of replicated document is not the
same as the original document. Replication works on the principle that data existing in only
one location-the hardware and software-could fail and that someone could alter the content,
delete or adulterate the file. In some cases, there could be fire, flood, etc.
Replication is also different from a backup since the process may involve copying only
specific electronic documents, whereas a backup process reproduces usually the entire system
including software. Accessing replicated documents requires knowledge of the software and
hardware that was used to create it. This makes it crucial for the preservation of the Metadata.
Replication can also pose problems to organizations particularly if there are too many
replicated copies available.This could pose difficulties in terms of monitoring and
determining the version that was used, its migration history and its access. The solution is to
keep detailed information about what has been replicated; storage location and frequency of
use should be updated.

Active Preservation of Digital Information

Active preservation is a process that ensures the continuous and long-term access of
electronic documents by actively intervening in how the documents are stored and managed.
It also involves moving the document into a new storage platform. This may depend on new
technologies that were not in existence when the document was originally created and used.
The process does not alter or corrupt the content of the document. It only moves the
document from one system to another. Active preservation is often carried out through the
process of migration.
Data Migration
Migration is one of the most effective means of active digital preservation. It is the process of
transferring data from one computer format to another format in order to ensure that the
document survives and users can access the document using new or changed computing
technologies. It needs to be pointed out that during migration, the bits of data may change and
thus compromise the integrity of the document. This calls for strict verification of the
authenticity and integrity of the document.
One very basic example of a migration process is the "SAVE AS" option that Microsoft Word
provides users. This option allows users to save a word-processed document in a format other
than the one in which the document was originally created.
There are three categories or types of migration. These are:
• Migration by normalization
• Migration at obsolescence and
• Migration on demand
Migration by normalization
Normalization is the process of migrating digital information from original software into an
open source, standard-based format so that it can be accessed without having to rely on the
original software that was used to create it. Open source software is a software package in
which the source code is freely and always available to everybody. Normalization seeks to
minimize the frequency and complexity of future migration by converting documents to open
source format. It must be noted that a normalized document is not an original document and
that some information may be lost during the process of migration.
The goal of migration is to ensure that the normalized document performs as much as
possible like the original without depending on the original technology that was used to
create it. Normalization is a cost-effective digital preservation procedure which requires
fewer resources, financially and technologically.
.
Migration at Obsolescence
Migration at obsolescence may be seen as the opposite of normalization. It is sometimes
referred to as the "Just in time? migration. Proponents of this approach advocate that
electronic documents should be migrated or transferred to other systems only when the
technology they depend on is on the verge of becoming obsolete, bringing about an apparent
risk of the document becoming inaccessible.The document could be migrated to new formats
or to a new current version of the old format, or to an open source format.
The major disadvantage of this process is that the documents may have become damaged or it
may have been reduced in quality during the long period of storage within the computer
system at the time of migration and use.

Migration on Demand
This approach involves storing and maintaining digital objects in their original format. These
documents can only be migrated unto current or new formats upon the request of a user or a
prospective user. This is an adhoc measure which depends strictly on the "demand and
supply" principle. It is only when a particular document or aspect of the document is being
requested that migration is undertaken. The migration as far as possible may be tied to the
format requested by the user.
Passive and active digital preservation approaches could both be used in one organization to
solve problems of access to electronic documents.
It should however be noted that refreshing and replication (Passive preservation methods) are
only used as short-term measures for preserving electronic documents during their active life
in organizations, while migration is the more common approach to preserving documents for
long-term purposes.

Basic Digital Preservation Practices

Preservation of electronic documents should be seen as an ongoing process. There is no end
to it unless the digital document ceases to be considered worthy of preservation. For an
effective preservation programme, preservation actions must begin early in the life of the
digital document. Otherwise, it might not be possible to preserve the document or restore it
soon. Protecting the authenticity of the electronic document involves performing several
activities. Some of these activities are:
• Assessing record-keeping requirements;
• Establishing Security and access control;
• Ensuring the integrity of documents;
• Managing metadata;
• Managing storage media;
• Monitoring technology change; and
• Planning for emergencies.
Assessing Record Keeping Needs
One of the first activities to be undertaken by the preservation administrator is to establish the
information needs of the organization to identify valuable and vulnerable documentary
evidence that needs to be preserved. This can be done through a records survey. Through an
electronic records survey, the administrator will be equipped with a deeper understanding of
the nature and scope of all the electronic documents within the organization. From this
survey, he or she would be able to set priorities for electronic document preservation
programme and the actions that need to be taken.
The records survey would also offer preservators an opportunity to identify risks, documents
which are at risk as well as technological risks.

Establishing security and access control

The establishment of security controls and limitations or restrictions on user access to
computer systems as well as the control over the physical storage of electronic documents is
critical actions that need to be taken to ensure the survival of an electronic document. This
ensures the long-term authenticity and integrity of the documents. These controls ensure only
authorized access, non-corruption and safety from adulteration.
The degree and nature of control will vary depending on the nature and the peculiar needs of
the organization. Nevertheless, the following concerns need to be addressed
• Physical Infrastructure
• Information Technology Systems
• Access and Permission
Physical Infrastructure
The infrastructure needed to store, manage and access the documents need to be protected
against accidental or willful damage. There is therefore the need to put in place a range of
controls including:
• physical access controls;
• intruder detection system;
• fire detection and suppression systems; and
• uninterrupted power supply systems.
Information Technology Systems
Computer Systems on which the life cycle of the electronic documents depend must be
protected from intrusions by unauthorized external and internal users. They must also be
forms of software designed to infiles and wisek the spuds system such as viruses and worms,
'The following measures may be put in place
• Password control
• Firewalls
• Anti-virus software
Access and permission control
The preservation programme must ensure that anyone using the system internally or from an
external location has appropriate access authorization. Of particular importance is the access
authorization to alter, delete or migrate digital information which is stored in a digital
repository. There must be in place a system of authenticating the access right of users. There
should also be an audit trail to capture all the activities of any authorized person who uses the
system.

Ensuring the Integrity of Documents

Digital preservation is all about the retention of electronic documents as they were originally
created. This can be done by ensuring that possible threats to their integrity from accidental
corruption, deliberate alteration, alteration due to virus attacks and many others are removed
or kept at the minimum. Stringent and consistent procedures must therefore be put in place to
monitor and verify on continual basis, the integrity of content, context and structure of all
electronic documents in the system. Special software such as JHOVE, DROID, and
Checksum can be used for the purpose.
Managing Metadata
As discussed earlier, general metadata needs to be maintained at the time of creation of an
electronic document. However, for long-term preservation purpose, preservation of metadata
should go beyond the general. Metadata needs to be maintained to provide an up-to-date
history of the document over time.
To digital preservation, a preservation metadata must focus on the following measures:
• Identify provenance
• Confirm authenticity
• Describe the technical environment in which the document was created and
• Track preservation activities
Preservation of metadata as a matter of necessity should be linked with the digital document
that they describe. This must always be updated, and this link must never be broken.

Preserving Storage Media

The media on which electronic documents as well as the metadata is stored need to be
preserved. It must be pointed out that no electronic or computer storage medium is
considered archival or permanent. They are either unstable and therefore deteriorate very
quickly or they require new technology to access them because the technology that was used
to create them originally has become obsolete. The physical medium of storage will also have
to be refreshed or changed over time.
Preserving storage media is also essential because the storage system needs to be backed up
and multiple copies of electronic documents stored at different geographical locations. If
possible 3 copies of backup should be made on at least two different media. For example
information created on the hard drive can be backed up on a tape drive and as well on a CD.
There must also be clear statements on how backups must be created and preserved. All back
up procedures must therefore be documented.
Electronic or digital storage media should be stored an handled in accordance with the
following best practices:
• Store media in correct cases and always in the containers when they are not in use.
• Do not leave storage media in computer drives for long periods since this exposes
them to unnecessary heat and mechanical damage.
• Media should not be allowed to come into contact with liquids, dust or smoke or
direct sunlight.
• All media types should be stored vertically and in appropriate lockable fire resistant
safes.
• Magnetic media should be stored away from magnetic fields and other electrical
resources
• Media must be stored in conducive and climatically controlled environments
• Computer drives in which media are used must always be kept clean to avoid damage.

Monitoring Technological Change

For effective preservation and continuous access to electronic documents, there is the need to
track and monitor changes in the technology and technological support that are available for
digital documents. Should there be any technological change or support for a particular
software cease, access to some electronic documents will become difficult. Similarly if a
particular piece of hardware becomes obsolete, then mechanisms should be quickly put in
place to transfer the documents to a suitable storage environment. Monitoring changes in
technology and software support allows organizations to maintain high quality and current
preservation strategies and avoid costly data recovery activities.
Planning Emergencies
A preservation administrator must ensure that all digital storage systems under his custody
are protected against disasters whether natural or human-induced. This can be done using a
comprehensive disaster preparedness plan or a business continuity plan. The continuity plan
is supposed to contain instructions and guidelines that need to be followed to restore
operational service in the event of disaster. The emergency plan should include the following:
• Instructions for staff to follow in the event of disasters
• Contact details of key staff to provide emergency service
• Instruction for content restoration of digital documents from backup copies
• Instruction as to where to find crucial documentation relating to the system e.g.
Manuals procedures etc.
Preserving electronic documents in trusted digital repository
A trusted digital repository is an institution designed to provide long term access to digital
resources. It is set up to ensure the reliability, trustworthiness and accuracy of electronic
records.There are three types of trusted repositories. These are
• Centralized Repositories
• Decentralized Repositories
• Networked Digital Repositories

Centralized Digital Repository

This is the system where an organization creates or establishes its own repository where it
preserves its own electronic records. It could for instance be a national archival institution
which establishes a digital repository to house government electronic records or a university's
electronic records.The benefits of a centralized repository management include:
➢ Complete control over the preservation process
➢ Limited risk of loss or damage
➢ Ability to establish and oversee a complete life-cycle approach
The few drawbacks include:
➢ Difficulty in sustaining the repository if the organization is small and the
➢ Need for high level expertise

Decentralized or use of service providers

Under this approach, organizations engage the services of external agencies to establish and
manage on their behalf their digital repository.The external agencies could be other archival
institutions or commercial service providers.It is always essential that the service provider
shows a proven track record and must, on continuous basis provide evidence that the agency
continues to meet set standards and requirements of the creating agencies.
Networked Repository
In a networked repository, a group of like-minded organizations pull their resources together
to promote the preservation of their electronic records. They combine resources to provide
infrastructure, technological support and expertise for the management of their records.
Essentially, the aim of this approach is to establish a network of repositories and to maximize
resources. Networked repository involves establishing "Mirror Sites" where copies of digital
documents will be maintained. Should there be a difficulty in accessing a document in the
organization; the mirror site could be used.The network approach is considered the most cost-
effective and most practical.
Requirements for a Trusted Digital Repository
There are a number of requirements which a digital repository must meet to quality as a
trusted repository. Some of the requirements are discussed below:
Requirements of Standards and Guidelines
All trusted digital repositories must meet the standards set by the Open Archival Information
System (OAIS). This has become the de facto standard by which all trusted repositories are
measured. The OAIS requirements and Standards make for consistency of practice. It also
allows for the standardization of bology and concepts used to describe records.
Administrative and financial Sustainability
Organizations must provide committed and continuous support for the repository in terms of
➢ Finance
➢ Policies
➢ Staff
➢ Infrastructure and
➢ Contingency plans

Technological Sustainability
Digital repositories need to continuously sustain the technologies on which they thrive. The
following should be high on their agenda.
➢ A range of preservation strategies
➢ Regular and timely upgrades and replacement of hardware and software
➢ System audit to ensure quality
➢ Flexibility of storage system and
➢ Appropriate Security features
Legal and Organizational Framework
Caretakers of digital repositories must be conscious of legal requirements such as copyright
laws, privacy laws, evidence laws, national legislations, acts of incorporation, etc. that may
impinge on the records that they preserve.

Preparing digital Documents for Preservation

Digital documents need to be prepared before they are transferred to the trusted digital
repository for preservation. Under normal circumstance, preservation actions relate to classes
of documents and not individual documents in an organizations server, except in special
cases. This approach holds tree on the assumption that electronic documents are well
oreanined, well classified and well captured while in current use. The following practices
need to be followed.
Ensuring the Authenticity of Incoming Documents
You need to ascertain the authenticity and integrity of digital objocts being transferred into
the repository. You can do this by
➢ Finding out if records have been created in a controlled environment with unbroken
custody
➢ Finding out whether there were security controls in place to ensure that the documents
have not been altered.
Before documents are ultimately moved to the repository, the following need to be captured
• Date of creation
• Name of person or organization transferring the document
• Metadata of document and
• Information about contact, content and access.
In doing this, one should make sure that
• The transferred documents have unique identifiers,
• All transferred documents are scanned for viruses and other undesirable codes; and
• Backups are made for all transferred digital document.

Destroying Original Source Documents

After a reliable and successful transfer and admission of digital document into the trusted
repository, the transferring organization can consider destroying the original records.
Such a decision should however depend on the retention and disposal policies of the
organization. The final decision must be consistent with the organization's overall
preservation strategy.
Monitoring and evaluating the status of the Preservation Programme
The integrity of documents preserved in trusted digital repositories need to be periodically
monitored to ensure their stability. This enables the preservation administrator to identify
appropriate treatment and other problems that need to be fixed.
Staying Current
Any organization using the digital repository approach to preserve its digital documents must
ensure that it always stays current and abreast with new technological trends and with
changes in standards. The electronic environment is dynamic and as such the preservation
administrator needs to be constantly abreast with and should be capable of responding to
changes in technology.
Challenges of the Digital Resource Preservation
Conceptual Challenges
One of the most challenging issues in digital preservation is the boundaries of digital
resources. The traditional notion of preservation practice assumes that physical possession of
the document must be the sole right of the preserving institution.
This issue of physical possession is substantially however challenged in the digital world.
Physical ownership of digital resources is no longer the preserve of heritage institutions.
One clear example is the case where libraries subscribe to or are granted licenses to access
electronic journals. The subscription is for access and not necessarily ownership or
possession. The ownership is retained by the publisher. This poses a problem for preservation
if the library ceases subscription or when the license or subscription expires. This is not the
best as the publisher most often does not have the responsibility for long-term preservation
and access that a library or archives may have. This poses a serious challenge in the light of
the numerous "accidental publishers" on the market.
Challenges to Professional Practice
Digital resources and their long term preservation create challenges for professional
preservators and heritage managers.The procedures and methods to deal with physical
documents are well established. In the digital environment, things are different. Some of the
challenges are discussed below:
Preservation Techniques
The frail nature of digital resources coupled with the continuous attention to hardware and
software dependencies from the time of creation has moved the role of preservation from the
tail end of the life of the document to an integral part of collection management or records
management, from the point of creation or acquisition to the end of the life of the document.
Digital preservation requirement is no longer the preserve of only the heritage institutions. It
has become an actively on-going practice for creators and users of digital documents.
Content of Digital Resources
In the digital world content is now being separated from "containers". Re-use or repackaging
of information content has now become paramount because the form of digital information is
not static. Emphasis is now shifting to the context of meaningful interpretation of content for
both short and long term. There is the need for the preservation administrator to take on the
additional responsibility of context documentation.
Physical custody
Another changing role of the preservation administrator is that he/she may not need to have
physical custody of digital resources before making them available to users as it is done in
traditional preservation practice. The world of networked computing overrides the
requirement of housing resources in one single place. The implication however is that the
preservation administrator must have to negotiate access to digital resources in the long term,
regardless of where they are located and this role must be performed in collaboration with the
creators.
Quality Metadata
Quality metadata is becoming very critical to most preservation strategies. The old
"cataloguing" mindset related to manual metadata has changed in the digital world. Much of
the metadata is being created somewhere and it is only inherited with the electronic resources
by the preservation administrator.The administrator needs to be proactive to ensure good
quality metadata right from the point of creation or acquisition.
It is very clear that the preservation of digitally born resources Poses significant challenges
for cultural heritage institutions and preservation administrators. The hope however lies in the
broadening of the stakeholder base. What is needed is for the preservator to be at the forefront
of advocating broader agenda of maintenance of digital resources for the long term.

Technological Challenges in Digital Preservation

The physical nature and characteristics of digital resources introduces a number of challenges
in relation to their long-term preservation. These include:
• Technological Obsolescence
• Instability of storage media
• Risks to authenticity
• Loss of security and privacy
Technological Obsolescence
Rapid changes in hardware and software technology have led to technological obsolescence.
Old systems become outdated and can be no longer supported by the computer industry. This
puts digital resources generated by the obsolete technology at risk. Long term access and use
becomes difficult. This has implications for preservation. Overcoming technological
obsolescence often requires frequent and considerable investment in financial, human and
technological resources. The provision of these resources must be guaranteed for a successful
digital preservation.
Instability of Storage Media
Electronic storage media, whether optical or magnetic are very unstable, hence it is difficult
to establish the life span of most of the products. This poses a great challenge to digital
preservation administrators. In addition to the instability of these external storage devices, the
harsh environmental conditions under which computer storage media are sometimes stored
contribute to their quick deterioration. Magnetic and optical media will quickly deteriorate
when they are exposed to high temperatures and humidity levels as well as other
contaminants. This results in the partial or complete loss of electronic data. Effective backing
up systems is the solutions.
Risk to Authenticity
As indicated earlier, changes in computer systems require the migration of information to
new technologies to ensure continuous accessibility. The process of migration can affect the
authenticity and reliability of the information because the content or structure of the
document may change in the migration process. Constant validation for content authenticity
must therefore be carried out after every migration exercise.
Loss of Security and Privacy
Electronic or digital documents and recovers are maintained in large and complex. databases
and access to them is often done electronically. Without proper security protections however,
the information can be accessed by unauthorized people and this can threaten the privacy of
the owners. In an electronic environment, the right to privacy can be violated either
intentionally or by accident. All necessary resources , from thus use of passwords to the
establishment of appropriate legislation, should therefore be employed. Also, security
measures must be put in place to protect digital information against the transfer of computer
viruses or other malicious software.