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EARTH SCIENCE QUARTER 2 REVIEWER

BENJ BERNARD V. LOZANO

CHRISTIAN OWEL L. OLAN
SOFIA HANNAH MARTINE J. PENGSON

Proponents
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CHAPTER I: WEATHERING

INTRODUCTION TO WEATHERING

WEATHERING - Earth’s landforms and terrains are constantly being carved by natural
geologic processes. All rock, no matter how hard it is, is prone to change and degradation.
Examples of these geologic processes that helped shape the Earth’s surface are weathering and
erosion. These two processes always go side-by-side with one another.

According to the National Geographic, weathering is a process wherein rocks and minerals are
broken down and dissolved on the Earth’s surface. This process is aided by natural forces called
agents of weathering such as water, ice, acids, salts, plants, animals and even changes in the
temperature.

The process of weathering includes disintegration and decomposition. Disintegration is a process

that describes how large masses of rocks and mechanically broken down into smaller chunks or
fragments. Decomposition, on the other hand, is a process that describes changes in the chemical
composition of rocks to form new products. The weathered rocks and other products of
weathering such as clasts (broken fragments of rocks) are transported elsewhere in a process
called erosion.

DEFINITION OF TERMS

DISINTEGRATION - Also known as mechanical weathering, is a process that describes how

large masses of rocks and mechanically broken down into smaller chunks or fragments.
DECOMPOSITION - Also known as chemical weathering, is a process that describes changes
in the chemical composition of rocks to form new products.

EROSION - is the process by which natural forces or human activities wear away and move
soil, rock, and other materials, such as nutrients and pollutants.

CLASTS - is the product of weathering, a fragment of rock mineral that breaks off from another
rock through weathering.
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TYPES OF WEATHERING

MECHANICAL WEATHERING - also known as physical weathering and disaggregation, is

weathering that involves the disintegration of rocks causing it to break while retaining its
chemical properties.

CHEMICAL WEATHERING - is a type of weathering caused by changes in the chemical

properties of minerals and rocks. Changes in the chemical composition of rocks and minerals
may also help break down rocks. The products of chemical weathering are commonly stable at
the Earth’s surface (just like metamorphic rocks, rocks formed through extreme heat and
pressure). Chemical weathering are most commonly catalysed by agents such as water, carbon
dioxide and oxygen.

BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING - a type of weathering that is caused by living organisms, can

fall to both mechanical and chemical weathering.

TYPES OF MECHANICAL WEATHERING

UNLOADING - The type of mechanical weathering caused by the expansion of the upper
portion of a block intrusive igneous rock. The expansion was caused by the differential pressure
from the bottom of the block and the exposed strata. It is common for granitic rocks and rocks
that lack internal bedding. The exposed layer continues to weather, allowing the successive
removal of outer rock sheets, a process called exfoliation.

THERMAL EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION - High temperature causes rock to expand

while low temperature causes rocks to contract (just like the direct proportionality between
temperature and volume in Charles’ Law). The variation between temperatures can cause rocks
to crack. This type of weathering is common for places that experience extreme swings in daily
temperatures just like in deserts.

FREEZE - THAW WEATHERING - Also called ice wedging, this is a type of mechanical
weathering that happens when water penetrates into rock cracks. As temperature drops, the water
freezes and expands causing the widening of cracks. Continuous freezing and thawing will cause
the crevices to expand larger which will further lead to breaking the rock.
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SALT CRYSTAL GROWTH - This type of weathering is quite similar to freeze-thaw. In this
type of weathering, water that contains dissolved salt penetrates into cracks and crevices. As
temperature rise, water will evaporate leaving the salt inside it. The crystal salt inside the
crevices will exert pressure and will cause the larger wedges. This commonly happens in place
experiencing high temperature and evaporation rate and even in rocks near seawater.

HYDRATION - In weathering by hydration, water molecules will attach to the crystalline

structure of minerals. Water can join the host through hydration causing the mineral to expand
leave through dehydration causing the mineral to shrink.

TYPES OF CHEMICAL WEATHERING

OXIDATION - A process where oxygen (from water) bonds with other elements from rock
forming minerals forming other substances that are more stable, lower malleability, larger
volume and more distinct color. It commonly occurs to metals present in rocks such as aluminum
and iron. Oxygen bonds with these metals forming aluminum and iron oxides.

SOLUTION - is the chemical process of dissolving rock-forming minerals in water. In this

reaction, mineral-forming ions are dissociated and are carried away in the water. Some rocks
containing mineral that are insoluble or slightly insoluble undergoes solution process when water
is acidic. Lichens and mosses aid in the solution process of such types of rocks by secreting
acidic substances that readily mix with water from precipitation.

CARBONATION - is the chemical weathering process that decomposes rocks through the aid of
water and carbon dioxide. This process is common to rocks containing carbonates (CO3) such as
limestone.

HYDROLYSIS - In this process molecules alone, rather than oxygen and carbon dioxide in it,
react with the components of rock-forming minerals. This is commonly aided by the dissociation
of th hydronium ion (H+) and hydroxyl (OH-) binding with other elements and compounds in
rocks. This process is different from the process of hydration. In hydration, water moves in and
out of the mineral causing the rock to shrink, swell and break without changing its chemical
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properties. In hydrolysis, ions from water combine with other elements/compounds forming new
products. Hydrolysis

VARIABILITY IN WEATHERING: FACTORS AFFECTING

THE RATE, EXTENT AND TYPE OF WEATHERING

CLIMATE - Areas that are cold and dry tend to have slow rates of chemical weathering and
weathering is mostly physical; chemical weathering is most active in areas with high temperature
and rainfall.

ROCK TYPE - Rock susceptibility on weathering is also dependent on the rock type. Some
rocks contain minerals that are highly susceptible to weathering while there are rocks that
contain minerals that are highly resistant to weathering. In the Bowen’s reaction series, minerals
that crystallize first are more susceptible and minerals that crystallize last are more resistant.

ROCK STRUCTURE - The rate of weathering is affected by the presence of joints, folds,
faults, bedding planes through which agents of weathering enter a rock mass. Highly
jointed/fractured rocks disintegrate faster than a solid mass of rock of the same dimension.

TOPOGRAPHY - Physical weathering occurs more quickly to highly elevated areas with steep
slope due to the help of gravity. In areas with gentle slopes, water may stay longer on the surface
which causes chemical weathering to occur more quickly.

TIME - The length of exposure to agents of weathering affects the rate of erosion. Parts of rock
boulders that are exposed are more susceptible to weathering because of its exposure to water, air
and other agents of weathering. Also, some rocks submerged in water (both freshwater and
seawater) or are commonly in contact with water are more prone to weathering processes such as
hydration and hydrolysis.
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DIFFERENTIAL WEATHERING

If a landscape contains a variety of rocks, some rocks are more susceptible to weathering and
some are more resistant. In this case, more susceptible rocks undergo weathering faster and rock
fragments are transported through the process of erosion. This variability in the rate of
weathering in rocks in a landform is called differential weathering. The effects of differential
weathering is highly visible to some landforms. Highly resistant rocks tend to withstand
weathering leading to themformation of high-rise landforms such as cliffs and mountains.
Susceptible rocks are easily eroded and transported leading to the formation of gentler slopes,
valleys and even subdued hills.

ROCK AND MINERAL CONSERVATION : WAYS OF CONSERVING

AND PROTECTING THE ROCK AND MINERAL RESOURCES

1. Recycling was one of the most efficient conservation method. Products produced from
mineral and rock resources can be recycled and reused. Recycling will reduce the need
for new mineral and rock-obtained products. For example is the use of scrap metal for
other purposes.
2. People can conserve rock and mineral resources by tapping substitute renewable sources
such hydroelectric and solar energy. By using such, we can reduce the use of mineral
resources such as coal. Still, minimizing energy use will also be of great help.
3. Promoting proper mining methods will prevent resources from exhaustion and will
reduce, if it is not possible to totally eradicate, the harmful effects of mining to the
environment.
4. Training for miners and the use of new technological mining methods will be of great
help in conservation. Training for miners will be very helpful because it will reduce
wastage during mining.
5. Lastly, you must be aware of the importance of these resources and the risk of losing
them.
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CHAPTER II: MAGMATISM

MAGMA - composed of semi-liquid hot molten rocks located beneath the Earth, specifically in
the melted mantle rock and oceanic plate.

- is fluid—it has the ability to flow.

- Because liquid magma is less dense than surrounding solid rock, and obviously more
mobile, magma, once formed, rises toward the surface.
- VISCOSITY - ability to flow.

COMPOSITION OF MAGMA

The composition of magmas and lavas is controlled by the most abundant elements in the
Earth—Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Mg, Na, K, H, and O. It has a wide range of compositions, but silica
(SiO2) always dominates the mixture.

GASSES DISSOLVED IN MAGMA - The principal gas is water vapor, which, together with
carbon dioxide, accounts for more than 98 percent of all gases emitted from volcanoes.

TEMPERATURE OF MAGMAS AND LAVAS - Magma temperatures range from 1000

degrees celsius to 1200 degrees celcius , but it can reach 1400 degrees celcius under some
conditions.

VISCOSITY OF MAGMAS AND LAVAS- Viscosity of a magma depends on temperature and

composition (especially the silica and dissolved-gas contents).

TYPES OF MAGMAS

Based on their classification as how they are formed, their characteristics and the kind of rocks
they are composed of.

BASALTIC MAGMAS - formed by the dry partial melting of the mantle, normally found in
oceanic volcanoes.

- Magma from Hawaiian volcanoes such as Kilauea and Mauna Loa is basaltic.
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ANDESITIC MAGMA - is formed through wet partial melting of the mantle, the mantles under
the ocean has contact with water.

- Magma from Mount St. Helens in Washington State and Krakatau in Indonesia is usually
andesitic.

RHYOLITIC MAGMA - forms because of wet melting of the continental crust.

- is famous for creating mounds and lava domes.

- Magmas erupted from volcanoes that once were active at Yellowstone Park are mostly
rhyolitic.

TYPES OF MAGMA

Being identified based from the amount of silica they contain, correlated to gas content,
viscosity, and temperature.

FELSIC MAGMA - has the highest Silica content

- has the highest gas content and viscosity

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- has the lowest average temperature.
- Thick, viscous felsic magma can trap gas bubbles in the chamber of a volcano.

INTERMEDIATE MAGMA - higher silica content than that of mafic magma.

- has higher gas content and higher viscosity.

MAFIC MAGMA - has relatively low silica content but has high iron and magnesium content.

- This magma both has low gas content and viscosity.

- It has high average temperature which results to its low viscosity. Low viscosity means
that this type of magma is the most fluid

ULTRAMAFIC MAGMA - the hottest and most viscous magma.

MAGMATISM

MAGMATISM - is a process under the earth’s crust where formation and movement of magma
occurs.

HOW IS MAGMA FORMED?

The magma present in the lower crust and upper mantle of the Earth is formed or generated
through the process ofpartial melting. Another factor being considered in this process is the
addition of volatile materials such as water and carbon dioxide.

1. PARTIAL MELTING THRU HEAT TRANSFER - Heat transfer in the Convergent

Boundary.
2. DECREASE OF PRESSURE/DECOMPRESSION - Melting in Mid-Ocean ridge.
3. ADDITION OF VOLATILES - Flux melting in Subduction Zone.
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CHAPTER III: FORMATION OF EARTH’S CRUST

DEFORMATION

It refers to the changes in volume and or shape of rocks as they are squeezed by
compressional forces or stretched by the tensional forces. Stress is the force per unit area
applied on the rock while strain is the change in shape or volume of the rock that experienced
stress.

(Thus: Stress = cause | Strain = effect)

THREE TYPES OF PLATE BOUNDARIES

1. Convergent Plate Boundaries

2. Divergent Plate Boundaries
3. Transform Fault Boundaries

CONTINENTAL AND OCEANIC PLATES

● Continental To Continental
● Continental To Oceanic
● Oceanic To Oceanic

TYPES OF STRESS AND RESULTING STRAIN

TENSIONAL STRESS - involves forces pulling in opposite directions, which results

in strain that stretches into thin rocks

COMPRESSIONAL STRESS - involves forces pushing together or the stress that

results from the shortening in one dimension of an elastic body due to oppositely directed
collinear forces tends to crush it.

SHEAR STRESS - involves transverse forces that result in deformation of material

by slippage along a plane of planes parallel to the imposed stress or regions of material moving
past each other.
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Figure 1.

Comparison of different types of stress

ASSOCIATED ASSOCIATED
RESULTING
TYPE OF STRESS TYPE OF PLATE FAULT AND
STRAIN
BOUNDARY OFFSET TYPES

Stretching and
TENSIONAL Divergent Normal
Thinning

Shortening and
COMPRESSIONAL Convergent Reverse
Thickening

SHEAR Transform Tearing Strike-slip

STRESS AND STRAIN

The resulting strain in rocks can be classified into elastic, ductile or brittle depending on
the stress applied in the material. Elastic deformation is a strain that is reversible after stress
is released, while ductile deformation occurs when enough stress is applied to the material
that causes changes in shape and no longer be able to return to its original shape.

Yield point is the point at which elastic deformation is surpassed and strain becomes
permanent. Brittle deformation materials respond to stress by breaking and fracturing.

FRACTURES AND FOLDS

Rocks that are subjected to forces may deform in two ways. First is fracture (break) that
happens in the uppermost part of the crust which tends to break when subjected to
compressional or tensional forces. Two types of fractures are faults that break along when
there is considerable movement while joints are those breaks where there is little or no
movement. Second is fold (bend) happens deep within the crust and the rocks do not break
the way they do at the earth’s surface. Rocks bend and go out of shape. A hanging wall is a
block of rocks resting on the fault plane. Footwall is a block below the fault plane.
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TYPES OF FAULTS

DIP-SLIP FAULTING - Dip-Slip Faulting involves the movement of blocks of rocks

mainly in vertical direction, move up and down.

Types of Dip-Slip Faulting

- Normal fault - formed when the crust is stretched or pulled apart by forces in
opposing directions and when the hanging wall moves down with respect to the footwall.
- Reverse fault - when the crust is squeezed or compressed, the hanging moves up
relative to the footwall

STRIKE-SLIP FAULTING - involves movement chiefly in the horizontal direction (

sideways or laterally).

Types of Dip-Slip Faulting

- Right-Lateral Strike-Slip Fault - sideways movement of fault to the right.

Example: San Andreas Fault in California U.S.A.
- Left-Lateral Strike-Slip Fault - if the other block moved to your left
Example: Philippine Fault

PHILIPPINE FAULT

Philippine Fault is an example of Strike-Slip Fault. In reality, the Philippine Fault

consists of several faults parallel to one another and it is called Philippine Fault Zone. The fault
extends from Luzon through the eastern part of the Visayas, down to eastern Mindanao.
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CHAPTER IV: CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY

DEVELOPMENT OF THE CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY

As a young scientist, Wegener was curious about Earth’s continents. In 1910, Wegener
formed a hypothesis which stated that 250 million years ago, all the continents were once joined
together in a giant landmass. He named this landmass PANGAEA.

This giant supercontinent was surrounded by a single giant sea known as the
Panthalassa. According to Wegener, Pangaea split up into smaller continents, Laurasia and
Gondwanaland.

Theory of Continental Drift, Which states that parts of the Earth’s crust slowly drift atop
a liquid core. The giant landmass, Pangaea, dirfted apart and formed the seven known continents
today.
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SOURCES OF EVIDENCES FOR THE CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY

EVIDENCE FROM LANDFORMS - The shapes of the continents seemesd to fit

together. Mountain ranges and other features also lined up.

- South America and Africa fit together.

- India, Antartica and Australia match one another.
- Eurasia and North America completed the puzzle in the North.

EVIDENCE FROM FOSSILS - Fossils from one continent matched fossils from another
continents. Wegener used both plant and animal fossils.

- Fossilized leaves of an extinct plant Glossopteris were found on a 250 million years old
rocks. These fossils were located in the continents of South Africa, Australia, India and
Antarctica which are now separated to each other by wide oceans.
- Fossilized leaves of an extinct plant Glossopteris were found on a 250 million years old
rocks. These fossils were located in the continents of South Africa, Australia, India and
Antarctica which are now separated to each other by wide oceans.
- Mesosaurus: a freshwaterswimming reptile found in Africa and South Ameria.
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EVIDENCE FROM CLIMATE - Wegener looked at certain areas on Earth and their
climates. He noted that the fossils he found on certain sections of Earth did not match the current
climate.

- Glacier scratches in South Africa

At first nobody believed Alfred Wegener’s Theorybevause he could not prove how or why the
continents move.

SEAFLOOR SPREADING - The mechanism that operates along the ocean ridge system to
create new floor is called seafloor spreading.

- Harry Hess, an American geologist together with Robert Dietz presented this hypothesis
and he proposed that the seafloor is not permanent but is continuously being renewed.
- Hess theorized that the ocean ridges are located above upwelling convection cells in the
mantle.
- The theory of the seafloor spreading provided the mechanism for the continental drift.
- Rocks are younger at the mid-ocean ridge.
- Sediments are thinner at the ridge.
- Rocks at the ocean floor are younger than those at the continents.
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CHAPTER V: GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE

GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE

The chronology of events from the past that was shown in the Earth’s timeline. It is said
that the Earth is approximately 4.6 billion years old. This figure is based on the radioisotopic
dating of meteorites. Radioisotopic dating also called radiometric dating, is a method of
determining the age of fossils and rocks by comparing the ratio of radioactive isotopes present in
it to its decay product, also taking into consideration the half-life value (time required for an
isotope to lose half of its radioactivity) of the isotope. Some ‘events’ do not leave a record or are
not preserved. Some of the rock record may have also been lost through the recycling of rocks
(rock cycle).

KNOWING THE GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

divided into different time intervals:

● eon (largest)
● era
● period
● epoch
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Figure 2.
Geological Time Scale

NICHOLAS STENO

★ one of the first to recognize the correspondence between rocks and time.

★ steno principles (principles of superposition, original horizontality, lateral continuity and

cross-cutting relationships) - foundation of stratigraphy

○ Law of Superposition - within a sequence of layers of sedimentary rock, the oldest
layer is at the base and that the layers are progressively younger with ascending
order in the sequence
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○ Law of Original Horizontality - layers of sediment are originally deposited
horizontally under the action of gravity.

○ Law of Lateral Continuity - layers of sediment initially extend laterally in all

directions; in other words, they are laterally continuous. As a result, rocks that are
otherwise similar, but are now separated by a valley or other erosional feature, can
be assumed to be originally continuous.

○ Cross-cutting Relationship - the geologic feature which cuts another is the

younger of the two features.
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ABRAHAM GOTTLOB WERNER

★ Father of German Geology and is the proponent of Neptunism

○ Neptunism - an idea stating that all of the Earth’s rocks were formed from an
all-encompassing ocean.

★ made one of the earliest attempts to subdivide the rock record into units of time

★ applied the Principle of Superposition and was able to divide rock record into rock-time
units namely primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary arranged from oldest to
youngest

WILLIAM ‘STRATA’ SMITH

★ While working in a coal mine, he observed that each layer or strata of sedimentary rock
contains a distinct assemblage of fossils, which can be used to establish equivalence
(correlation) between rock units separated by long distances.
★ observed that these fossils succeed each other vertically in a definite order.

CHARLES LYELL (1797-1875)

★ a British lawyer and geologist, recognized the utility of fossils in subdividing geologic
time on the basis of fossils
★ able to subdivide the tertiary by examining the proportion of living vs. extinct fossils in
the rocks.

GEOLOGIC TIME SUBDIVISIONS

❖ PRE-CAMBRIAN TIME - Cryptozoic Era sometimes called the eon of hidden life due to
lack of records showing life.
➢ The Earth’s primitive atmosphere contains traces of oxygen only but is rich with
water vapor.
■ Gases from the primitive atmosphere were brought by volcanic eruptions.
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■ Photosynthetic microorganisms helped slowly increase oxygen
concentration in the atmosphere and led to the formation of the protective
ozone layer, thus providing a more favorable condition for living.
➢ For Eons under this time : Hadean Eon
Archean Eon
Proterozoic Eon
Phanerozoic Eon
● Hadean Eon
◆ From “Haedes”, Greek god of the underworld
◆ Chaotic time because of several meteorite bombardment
◆ Atmosphere reduction (methane, ammonia, carbon dioxide)
◆ Start of the hydrologic cycle and the formation of the world
oceans
◆ Life emerged in this “hostile” environment
● Archean Eon
◆ Anaerobic (lack of oxygen)
◆ No ozone
◆ Photosynthetic prokaryotes (blue green algae) emerged and
started releasing oxygen to the atmosphere.
◆ Life forms are still limited to single-celled organisms
without nuclei (prokaryotes) until 2.7 Ga when Eukaryotes
emerged.
● Phanerozoic Eon
◆ Oxygen level reaches ~3% of the atmosphere
◆ Rise of multicellular organisms represented by the Vendian
fauna
◆ Formation of the protective ozone layer
● Phanerozoic Eon
◆ Eon of “visible life”
◆ Diversification of life
◆ Many life forms are represented in fossil records (with
preservable hard parts).
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❖ PALEOZOIC ERA (540 - 245 Ma) - “age of the ancient life”. This era lasted for about
300 million years.
➢ The flourishing of marine life began. It is divided into six major periods.
➢ In this period a variety of marine organisms came into existence.
➢ development of organisms having the ability to form shells through the secretion
of calcium carbonate and calcium phosphate.
■ Cambrian Period - the development of organisms having the ability to
form shells through the secretion of calcium carbonate and calcium
phosphate.
■ Ordovician Period- best known for its marine invertebrates.
● This period also marks the earliest appearance of the jawless fish
known as the agnatha. It is also marked by the appearance of first
vertebrates.
■ Silurian Period- This period brought about the emergence of terrestrial
life.
● This period is also known for the development of plants with
well-structured vascular system.
● air-breathing scorpions and millipedes.
■ Devonian Period - “age of fishes”.
● a time of extensive reef building in the shallow water.
● Cartilaginous fish such as sharks and rays were common
● Amphibians made their appearance
■ Carboniferous Period - The climate during this period was described to be
tropical and humid.
● The plant life during this period resembles the plants that live in
tropical and mildly temperate areas today.
● Rapid evolution and diversification of insects begun leading to the
appearance of giant cockroaches and dragonflies
● Diversification - the process by which organisms develop
increasing genetic independence, leading to new types of species,
either in conjunction or in replacement of old species.
■ Permian Period - The environment during this period was well-suited for
reptiles.
● During this period the two groups of reptiles dominated the earth.
● These are the diapsids (a group of amniote tetrapods reptiles that
gave rise to dinosaurs) and
● Synapsids (a group of large terrestrial vertebrates which is the
major group of reptiles that gave rise to mammals).
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❖ MESOZOIC ERA (245 - 65 Ma) - During the Mesozoic, or "Middle Life" Era, life
diversified rapidly and giant reptiles, dinosaurs and other monstrous beasts roamed the
Earth. The period, which spans from about 252 million years ago to about 66 million
years ago, was also known as the age of reptiles or the age of dinosaurs. It is divided into
three major periods namely; Jurassic, Triassic and Cretaceous.
➢ A famous Jurassic deposit is the Morrison Formation. It is a distinctive sequence
of Upper Jurassic sedimentary rock found in the western United States which has
been the most fertile source of dinosaur fossils in North America.
➢ This period also marks the rapid spread of true pines and redwoods. The
appearance of flowering plants during this period hastens the evolution of insects.
➢ Other significant events during this period includes:
■ ¨Pangaea starts to break-apart by 200 MA
■ ¨Early mammals (220 Ma)
■ ¨First birds (150 Ma)
■ ¨First flowering plants (130 Ma)
■ ¨Mass extinction at the end of the Cretaceous (65 Ma)
❖ CENOZOIC ERA (65 Ma - present) - This era is divided into two periods and seven
epochs.
➢ The first period is the Tertiary Period which is divided into five epochs namely;
■ Palaeocene,
■ Eocene,
■ Oligocene,
■ Miocene and
■ Pliocene.
➢ The other period is called the Quaternary period and is divided into two epochs,
the
■ Pleistocene and
■ Holocene.
➢ Temperature during this era dropped leading to the ice age.
➢ sea water level lowered resulting to the formation of land bridges that enabled
human migration.
➢ Other significant events during this period includes:
■ ¨ Radiation of modern birds
■ ¨ Early primates (60 Ma)
■ ¨ Continents near present-day positions (40 Ma)
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■ ¨ First hominids (5.2 Ma)
■ ¨ Modern humans (0.2 Ma)
■ ¨ Global ice ages begin (2 Ma)