ME302 FLUID MECHANICS II

In ME301 Fluid Mechanics I course, we developed the basic equations in integral form for a
control volume. The integral equations are particularly useful when we are interested in the
gross behavior of a flow and its effect on various devices. However, the integral approach does
not enable to us to obtain detailed point by point knowledge of the flow field.

To obtain this detailed knowledge, we must apply the equations of fluid motion in differential
form.

CONSERVATION OF MASS (CONTINUITY EQUATION)

The application of the principle of conservation of mass to a fluid flow yields an equation which
is referred as the continuity equation. We shall derive the differential equation for mass in
rectangular and in cylindrical coordinates.

Rectangular Coordinate System

The differential form of the continuity equation may

be obtained by applying the principle of conservation
of mass to an infinitesimal control volume.

The sides of the control volume are dx, dy, and dz. The density at the center, O, of the control
volume is and the velocity is . The values of the mass fluxes at each of six
faces of the control surface may be obtained by using a Taylor series expansion of the mass
fluxes about point O. For example, at the right face,

Neglecting higher order terms, we can write

and similarly,

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The corresponding terms at the left face are

A word statement of conservation of mass is

To evaluate the first term in this equation, we must evaluate . The mass flux

through each of six faces are shown in Table below.

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Table. Mass flux through the control surface of a rectangular differential control volume

The net rate of mass out through control surface is

The rate of change of mass inside the control volume is given by

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Therefore, the continuity equation in rectangular coordinate is

Since, the vector operator, , in rectangular coordinates is given by

Two special cases, the continuity equation may be simplified.

1) For an incompressible flow, the density is constant, the continuity equation becomes,

2) For a steady flow, the partial derivatives with respect to time are zero, that is .
Then,

Example: For a fluid flow in xy plane, the velocity component in the y direction is given by
.

a) Determine a possible velocity component in the x direction for steady flow of an

incompressible fluid. How many possible x components are there?
b) Is the determined velocity component in the x direction also valid for unsteady flow of
an incompressible fluid?

Basic equation:

a) For steady incompressible flow

For two-dimensional flow

or

u v
2y 2
x y

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Integrating the equation with respect to x yields,

Since, any function f(y) is allowable, the number of expressions for u to satisfy the differential
continuity equation under given conditions is infinity.

b) Whether the flow is steady or not, the continuity equation for incompressible flow is
. Therefore, the velocity component in the x direction is also valid for
unsteady flow of an incompressible fluid.

Example: A compressible flow field is described by

Determine the rate of change of the density at point x = 3 m, y = 2 m and z = 2 m for t = 0.

Basic equation:

Cylindrical Coordinate System

In cylindrical coordinates, a suitable differential control volume is shown in the figure. The
density at the center, O, is and the velocity there is .

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 Figure. Differential control volume in cylindrical coordinates

To evaluate we must consider the mass flux through each of the six faces of the

control surface. The properties at each of the six faces of the control surface are obtained from
Taylor series expansion about point O.

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Table. Mass flux through the control surface of a cylindrical differential control volume

The net rate of mass flux out through the control surface is given by

The rate of change of mass inside the control volume is given by

In cylindrical coordinates the continuity equation becomes

Dividing by r gives,

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or

In cylindrical coordinates the vector operator is given by

Then the continuity equation can be written in vector notation as

Two special cases, the continuity equation may be simplified.

1) For an incompressible flow, the density is constant, i.e.,

2) For a steady flow,

Example: Consider one-dimensional radial flow in the r plane, characterized by vr = f(r)

and v = 0. Determine the conditions on f(r) required for incompressible flow.

For incompressible flow V 0

in the r plane.

For the given velocity field,

Integrating with respect to r gives

C
Thus, Vr f (r ) for one-dimensional radial flow of an incompressible fluid.
r
STREAM FUNCTION FOR TWO-DIMENSIONAL

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 INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW

For a two-dimensional flow in the xy plane of the cartesian coordinate systems, the continuity
equation for an incompressible fluid reduces to

If a continuous function , called stream function, is defined such that

then the continuity equation is satisfied exactly, since

Since streamlines are tangent to the direction of flow at every point in the flow field. Thus, if
is an element of length along a streamline, the equation of streamline is given by

then

Substituting for velocity components u and v, in terms of the stream function,

(A)

At a certain instant of time, t0, the stream function may be expressed as . At

this instant, the stream function

(B)

Comparing Equations (A) and (B), we see that along an instantaneous streamline

and Constant along a streamline.

In the flow field, , depends only on the end points of integration, since the differential
of is exact.

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Now, consider the two-dimensional flow
of an incompressible fluid between two
instantaneous streamlines, as shown in the
Figure. The volumetric flow rate across
areas AB, BC, DE, and DF must be equal,
since there can be no flow across a
streamline.

For a unit depth, the flow rate across AB is

Along AB, x = constant and . Therefore,

For a unit depth, the flow rate across BC is

Along BC, y = constant and . Therefore,

Thus, the volumetric flow rate per unit depth between any two streamlines, can be expressed as
the difference between constant values of defining the two streamlines.

In r plane of the cylindrical coordinate system, the incompressible continuity equation

reduces to

The stream function then is defined such that

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Example: Consider the stream function given by = xy. Find the corresponding velocity
components and show that they satisfy the differential continuity equation. Then sketch a few
streamlines and suggest any practical applications of the resulting flow field.

Given: = xy

Find: u =?, v = ?, Do u and v satisfy continuity equation? Sketch few streamlines and suggest
practical applications.

Assumptions: - Two-dimensional flow

- Incompressible flow
- Steady flow

The continuity equation for incompressible two-dimensional flow

We could conclude that those streamlines might model the flow near the stagnation point on
the nose of a blunt body. If we consider only the upper right quarter-plane, the streamlines
might model flow in a 90 corner.

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 MOTION OF A FLUID ELEMENT (KINEMATICS)

Before formulating the effects of forces on fluid motion (dynamics), let us consider first the
motion (kinematics) of a fluid in a flow field. When a fluid element moves in a flow field, it
may under go translation, linear deformation, rotation, and angular deformation as a
consequence of spatial variations in the velocity.

Figure. Pictorial representation of the components of fluid motion.

ACCELERATION OF A FLUID PARTICLE IN A VELOCITY FIELD

Figure. Motion of a particle in a flow field.

Consider a particle moving in a velocity field. At time t, the particle is at a position x, y, z and
has a velocity .

At time t+dt, the particle has moved to a new position, with coordinates x+dx, y+dy, z+dz,
and has a velocity given by

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The change in the velocity of the particle in moving from location to , is given by

The total acceleration of the particle is given by

since

then

Acceleration of a fluid particle in a velocity field requires a special derivative, it is given the

symbol .

Thus,

It is called the substantial, the material or particle derivative.

The significance of the terms,

The convective acceleration may be written as a single vector expression using the vector
gradient operator, .

Thus,

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It is possible to express above equation in terms of three scalar equations as

The components of acceleration in cylindrical coordinates may be obtained by utilizing the

appropriate expression for the vector operator . Thus

Example: The velocity field for a fluid flow is given by

Determine
a) the acceleration vector,
b) the acceleration of the fluid particle at point P(1,2,3) and at time t = 1 sec.

a) The components of the velocity vector are . The

components of the acceleration vector

Therefore,

b) The acceleration of the fluid particle at point P(1,2,3) and at time t = 1 sec is

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 FLUID ROTATION

The rotation, , of a fluid particle is defined as the average angular velocity of any two
mutually perpendicular line elements of the particle in each orthogonal plane. A particle may
rotate about three coordinate axes. Thus, in general,

Figure. Rectangular fluid particle with two instantaneous perpendicular lines AA and BB ;
velocities perpendicular to AA and BB are also shown.

The figure shows a fluid particle with two lines AA and BB . By definition

where

By considering the rotation of pairs perpendicular lines in the yz and xz planes, one can show
that

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then

We recognize the term in the square brackets as

Then, in vector notation, we can write

can be eliminated in above equation by defining a quantity called the vorticity,

, to be twice the rotation,

The vorticity is the measure of the rotation of a fluid element as it moves in the flow field. In
cylindrical coordinates the vorticity is

The circulation, , is defined as the line integral of the tangential velocity component about a
closed curve fixed in the flow,

where, is an elemental vector, of the length ds, tangent to curve; a positive sense corresponds
to a counterclockwise path of integration around the curve.

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For Oa line

For the closed curve Oacb,

Thus, the circulation around a closed contour is the total vorticity enclosed within it.

Example: Consider flow fields with purely tangential motion (circular streamlines): Vr = 0 and
V = f(r). Evaluate the rotation, vorticity, and circulation for rigid-
f(r) so that the flow is irro

Basic Equation:

For motion in r plane, the only components of rotation and vorticity are in the z-direction

Since

a) For rigid body rotation,

Then, and

The circulation is

b) For irrotational flow . Integrating,

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 For this flow, the origin is a singular point where .

The circulation for any contour enclosing the origin is

The circulation around any contour not enclosing the singular point at the origin is zero.

FLUID DEFORMATION
Angular deformation of a fluid element involves changes in the angle between two mutually
perpendicular lines in the fluid. The rate of angular momentum is given by

a
a

x
Figure. Angular deformation of a fluid element in a two dimensional flow field.

Now,

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and

Consequently, the rate of the angular deformation in the xy plane is

The shear stress is related to the rate of angular deformation through the fluid viscosity.

MOMENTUM EQUATION

to an infinitesimal fluid particle of mass dm.

where the linear momentum, , of the system is given by

Forces Acting on a Fluid Particle

The forces acting on a fluid element may be classified as body forces and surface forces.
Surface forces include both normal forces and tangential (shear) forces.

Stresses acting on a differential fluid element in the x-direction are shown in the figure.

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 Figure. Stresses in the x direction on an element of fluid.

To obtain the net surface force in the x direction, , we must sum the forces in the x direction.

By simplifying, we obtain

When the force of gravity is the only body force acting, then the body force per unit mass in
x-direction is given by . Then the total net force in x direction can be expressed as

One can derive similar expressions for the force components in the y and z directions.

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 Differential Momentum Equation

We have now formulated expressions for the components, , and , of the force
, acting on the element of mass dm. If we substitute these expressions for the force components
into x, y, and z components of equation, we obtain differential equations of motion.

These three equations are the differential equations of motion for any fluid satisfying the
continuum assumption. Before hte equations can be used to solve problems, suitable
expressions for the stresses must be obtained in terms of the velocity and pressure fields.

Newtonian Fluid: Navier-Stokes Equations

For a Newtonian fluid the viscous stress is proportional to the rate of shearing strain (angular
deformation rate). The stresses may be expressed in terms of velocity gradients and fluid
properties in rectangular coordinates as follows:

where p is the local thermodynamic pressure.

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If these expressions are introduced into the differential equations of motion, we obtain

These equations of motion are called the Navier-Stokes equations. The equations are greatly
simplified when applied to incompressible flow with constant viscosity. Under these
conditions the equations reduce to

The Navier-Stokes equations in cylindrical coordinates, for constant density and viscosity, are
given in the course textbook.

For the case of frictionless flow ( = 0)

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 INTERNAL INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW
Flows completely bounded by solid surfaces are called internal flows. Internal flows may be
laminar or turbulent. Some laminar flow cases may be solved analytically. In the case of
turbulent flow, analytical solutions are not possible and we must rely heavily on semi-empirical
theories or experimental data.

One can demonstrate the qualitative difference between the nature of laminar and turbulent flow
by classical Reynolds experiment. The experimental set up consists of a constant diameter
transparent pipe which is connected to a larger reservoir of water. A thin filament of dye, which
is injected at the centerline of the pipe, allows visual observation of the flow.

Figure.

points should be kept in mind.

a) The density and viscosity of the dye and water must be the same,
b) The water and dye levels in both reservoirs must be the same.

At the low flow rates, the dye injected into the flow remains in single filament; there is little
dispersion of dye because the flow is laminar. A laminar flow is one in which the fluid flow in
laminae, or layers.

As the flow rate through the tube is increased, the dye filament becomes wavy. This is known
as transient flow.

At high flow rates, the dye filament becomes unstable and breaks up into a random motion.
This behavior of turbulent flow is due to small, high-frequency velocity fluctuations
superimposed on the mean motion of turbulent flow.

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Under normal engineering applications, the transition from the laminar flow to turbulent flow
in pipes occurs at Reynolds numbers of 2000 to 3000. However, in carefully controlled
experiments, it is possible to obtain laminar flow up to a Reynolds number of 60000. Usually,
the critical Reynolds number is taken to be 2300.

Developing a Fully Developed Flow

Consider the flow of an incompressible fluid through a long pipe of constant diameter. At the
entrance of the pipe has not been subjected to the action of viscosity, so that the velocity profile
is constant.

Figure. Development of viscous laminar flow in a pipe.

As soon as the fluid comes in contact with circumference of pipe, its velocity reduces to zero,
and it satisfies no-slip condition. A boundary layer develops along the walls of the channel.
The solid surface exerts a retarding force on the flow, thus the speed of the fluid in the
neighborhood of the surface is reduced. Sufficiently far from the pipe entrance, the boundary
layer reaches the pipe centerline and the flow becomes entirely viscous. After this point, the
velocity profile will no longer change with the distance along the pipe. This region is known as
the fully developed region.

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For laminar flow, the entrance length, L, is a function of Reynolds number

For turbulent flow, the entrance length, L, is about 25 to 40 pipe diameters.

FULLY DEVELOPED LAMINAR FLOW

FULLY DEVELOPED LAMINAR FLOW BETWEEN INFINITE

PARALLEL PLATES

Let us consider the fully developed laminar flow between infinite parallel plates.

Assumptions:
1. Steady flow
2. Fully developed flow ( )
3. Incompressible flow
4. Plates are infinite in the z direction ( )

5. Body forces in x direction is negligible ( )

Find:
a) Velocity profile
b) Shear stress distribution
c) Volume flow rate
d) Average velocity
e) Point of maximum velocity

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a) Velocity profile:
Velocity distribution can be found by applying integral momentum equations or differential
momentum equations.

For our analysis we select a differential control volume of size, and apply x component of
momentum equation

For fully developed flow, the net momentum flux through the control surface is zero. (The
momentum flux through the right face of the control surface is equal in magnitude but opposite
in sign to the momentum flux through the left face.)

There are two types of forces which act to the surface of control volume. Those are:
1. Pressure forces (normal forces)
2. Shear forces (tangential forces)

If the pressure and the shear stress at the center of fluid element are p, and yx, respectively.

By arranging,

For yx, we used the total derivative, since yx is only function of y.

[u = u(y)]
or

The left hand side of this equation is the function of y, but, the right hand side of the equation
is the function of x. Therefore, in order to be this equation valid, it should be equal to a constant.

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Integrating this equation, we obtain

which indicates that the shear stress varies linearly with y. Since for Newtonian fluid

then

and

To evaluate constants C1 and C2, we must apply the boundary conditions.

at y = 0 u=0 consequently C2 = 0

at y = a u=0

and hence

or

b) Shear Stress Distribution:

The shear stress distribution is given by

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c) Volume Flow Rate:
The volume flow rate is given by

For a depth l in the z direction

or

Thus, the volume flow rate per unit depth l is given by

Flow rate as a function of Pressure Drop

Since is constant, the pressure varies linearly with x,

Substituting into the expression for volume flow rate gives

d) Average Velocity:
The average velocity is given by

e) Point of Maximum Velocity:

To find the point of maximum velocity, we set equal to zero and solve for corresponding

y.

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 UPPER PLATE MOVING WITH CONSTANT SPEED, U

Second laminar flow case of practical importance is flow in a journal bearing. In such a bearing,
an inner cylinder, the journal rotates inside a stationary member. It can be considered as flow
between infinite parallel plates.

Assumptions:
1. Steady flow
2. Fully developed flow ( i.e. )
3. Laminar flow
4. Incompressible flow
5. Plates are infinite in the z direction ( )
6. Body forces in x direction is negligible

Find:
a) Velocity distribution
b) Shear stress distribution
c) Volume flow rate
d) Average velocity
e) Point of maximum velocity

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Boundary Conditions:
u = 0 at y = 0
u = U at y = a

a) Velocity profile:
Since only the boundary conditions have changed, thus the velocity distribution is given by

Integral constants C1 and C2 can be found by using boundary conditions

at y = 0 u = 0 consequently C2 = 0

at y = a u=U

Thus,

and

For the various values of , the dimensionless velocity profile is plotted in the figure.

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b) Shear Stress Distribution:
The shear stress distribution is given by

c) Volume Flow Rate:

The volume flow rate is given by . For a depth l in the z direction

The volume flow rate per unit depth l is

d) Average Velocity:
The average velocity, , is given by

e) Point of Maximum Velocity:

To find the point of maximum velocity, we set equal to zero and solve for corresponding y.

II. Method: By using Differential Momentum Equation (Navier-Stokes equation), to find

velocity distribution.

x - component of the momentum equation:

by utilizing assumptions, above equation simplifies to

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 since

or

Integrating twice we find that:

Integral constants C1 and C2

FULLY DEVELOPED LAMINAR FLOW IN A PIPE

Let us consider fully developed laminar flow in a pipe. Here the flow is axisymmetric.
Consequently, it is the most convenient to work in cylindrical coordinates. The control volume
will be chosen a differential annulus.

Assumptions:
1. Fully developed flow ( )
2. Steady flow
3. Laminar flow
4. Incompressible flow
5. There is no property change in - direction.
6. Radial velocity component is zero.
6. Neglect body forces

Find:
a) Velocity distribution
b) Shear stress distribution
c) Volume flow rate
d) Average velocity

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e) Point of maximum velocity

Boundary conditions
at r = 0 the velocity must be finite (from physical consideration)
at r = R u = 0 (no slip condition)

a) Velocity profile:
Velocity distribution can be found by using the integral or differential form of the momentum
equation. We will find the velocity distribution by using both methods.

If we apply the x - component of momentum equation for the control volume shown in the
figure.

For fully developed flow, the net momentum flux through the control surface is zero.

The normal (pressure) force and the tangential (shear) forces act to the control volume. The
surface forces acting on the differential fluid element in x direction are

For fully developed flow, the net momentum flux through the control surface is zero.

The normal (pressure) force and the tangential (shear) forces act to the control volume. The
surface forces acting on the differential fluid element in x direction are

By simplifying

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Dividing this equation by , and solving for gives

The left hand side of the equation is only the function of x, but the right hand side of the equation
is only the function of r. Then this equation holds only if each side of the equation is constant.

or

Integrating this equation, we obtain

or

Since

then

and

By using the boundary conditions, integral constant C1 and C2 can be found.

Boundary conditions
From the first boundary condition (at r = 0 the velocity must be finite)

From the second boundary condition at (r = R u = 0)

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and hence

or

II. Method: By using the differential form of momentum equation in x-direction.

Note: By replacing x z and uz u, and simplifying the above differential equation

or

By integrating twice,

This equation is the same as the equation found by using integral momentum equation.

b) Shear Stress Distribution:

The shear stress is given by

c) Volume Flow Rate:

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For fully developed flow

for laminar flow in a horizontal pipe.

d) Average Velocity:
The average velocity, , is given by

e) Point of Maximum Velocity:

To find the maximum point of velocity, we set equal to zero and solve for corresponding r,

At r = 0,

FULLY DEVELOPED TURBULENT FLOW

In turbulent flows, there is no universally acceptable relation between shear stress and velocity
gradients. Therefore, the analytical solutions of turbulent flow problems are impossible, we
must rely on semi-empirical data.

INCOMPRESSIBLE INVISCID FLOW

MOMENTUM EQUATION FOR FRICTIONL

be obtained from Navier-Stokes equations (by setting = 0).

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