Chapter 1 (1)

Chapter 1:
Types of Structures and Loads

Introduction
❖Structures refer to a system of connected parts used to support a load,
such as buildings, bridges and towers
❖The design of a structure involves many considerations, among which

are four major objectives that must be satisfied:
▪ Safety: The structure must carry loads safely.

▪ Esthetics: The structure should have a good appearance.
▪ Serviceability: The structure must meet the performance requirement.
▪ Economic & environmental constraints
❖To analyze a structure properly, certain idealizations must be made as to

how the members are supported and connected together.
Classification of Structures
❖Structural elements
▪ Tie rods: Structural members that joins and reinforces parts in a structure, usually they are
subjected to a tensile force
Tie rods used for wind bracing.
▪ Beams: are usually straight horizontal members used primarily to carry vertical
loads.
Beams are primarily designed to resist bending moment; however, if they are short
and carry large loads, the internal shear force may become quite large and this
force may govern their design.
➢ Beams can be made out of many different materials, such as wood, concrete, or
steel, depending on the load requirements of the structure.
➢ Concrete beams generally have rectangular cross sections, since it is easy to

construct this form directly in the field. Because concrete is rather weak in
resisting tension, steel “reinforcing rods” are cast into the beam within regions of
the cross section subjected to tension.
▪ Columns: Members that are generally vertical and resist axial compressive loads.
Occasionally, columns are subjected to both an axial load and a bending moment as
shown in the figure. These members are referred to as beam columns.
➢Columns are typically constructed from materials such as stone, concrete,

timber, steel, and so on, which have good compressive strength.
❖Types of structures
The combination of structural elements and the materials from which they are composed
is referred to as a structural system.
1. Trusses: are structure that consists of members organised into connected

triangles so that the overall assembly behaves as a single object.
▪ Trusses are most commonly used in bridges, roofs and towers.

▪ When the span of a structure is required to be large and its depth is not an
important criterion for design, a truss may be selected.
2. Cables & Arches:
▪ Two other forms of structures used to span long distances are the cable and the
arch.
▪ Cables are usually flexible and carry their loads in tension. They are commonly
used to support bridges and building roofs.
▪ The cable has an advantage over the beam and the truss, especially for spans that
are greater than 150 ft (46 m). Because they are always in tension, cables will not
become unstable and suddenly collapse, as may happen with beams or trusses.
▪ Arches are frequently used in bridge structures and carry their loads in
compression
3. Frames:
▪ Frames are often used in buildings and are composed of beams and columns that
are either pin or fixed connected,.
▪ Frame members are subjected to internal axial, shear, and moment loadings.
Loads
Loads path
Foundations
▪ A building floor slab would be designed first, followed by the

supporting beams, columns, and last, the foundation footings.
▪ In order to design a structure, it is therefore necessary to first

specify the loads that act on it.
Loads
• Design loading for a structure is often specified in codes
• Design codes: provide detailed technical standards and are used to establish the
requirements for the actual structural design.
Loads
❖Types of load
▪ Dead loads:
a. Weights of various structural members
b. Weights of any objects that are permanently attached to the structure.
▪ For a building, the dead loads include the weights of the columns, beams,
and the floor slab, roofing, walls, windows, plumbing, electrical fixtures.
Loads
• Live loads
• Varies in magnitude & location
• They may be caused by the weights of objects temporarily placed on a

structure, moving vehicles.
• Building loads
• Depends on the purpose for which the building is designed

• These loadings are generally tabulated in local, state or national code
Example 1.2
The floor of a heavy storage warehouse building is made of 6-in.-thick stone
concrete. If the floor is a slab having a length of 15 ft and width of 10 ft,
determine the resultant force caused by the dead load and the live load.
Example 1.4
The floor of a light storage warehouse is made of 150-mm-thick lightweight
plain concrete. If the floor is a slab having a length of 7 m and width of 3 m,
determine the resultant force caused by the dead load and the live load.
Loads
• Wind loads
• When the speed of the wind is very high, it can cause massive damage to a
structure.
• Kinetic energy of the wind is converted into potential energy of pressure when
structures block the flow of wind.
• Effects of wind depends on density & flow of air, shape & stiffness of the
structure & roughness of surface
Loads
• Snow loads
• Design loadings depend on building’s general shape & roof geometry, wind
exposure, location and its importance.
• In some countries, roof loading due to snow can be quite severe, and therefore
protection against possible failure is of primary concern.
• Snow loads are determined from a zone map reporting 50-year recurrence
interval of an extreme snow depth.
Loads
• Earthquake loads
• Earthquake produce lateral loadings through its interaction with the ground & its
response characteristics
• Their magnitude depends on mass & stiffness of structure.
• Where strong earthquakes predominate, a specific attention is required to
consider earthquake loads.
• Other Natural Loads.

• Several other types of live loads may also have to be considered in the design
of a structure, depending on its location or use. These include the effect of blast,
temperature changes.

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Chapter 1:

Types of Structures and Loads

❖The design of a structure involves many considerations, among which

▪ Safety: The structure must carry loads safely.

❖To analyze a structure properly, certain idealizations must be made as to

➢ Concrete beams generally have rectangular cross sections, since it is easy to

➢Columns are typically constructed from materials such as stone, concrete,

1. Trusses: are structure that consists of members organised into connected

▪ Trusses are most commonly used in bridges, roofs and towers.

▪ A building floor slab would be designed first, followed by the

▪ In order to design a structure, it is therefore necessary to first

• They may be caused by the weights of objects temporarily placed on a

• Depends on the purpose for which the building is designed

• Other Natural Loads.

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