Context-Free Grammars (CFGs) are a fundamentsssssssal concept in compiler design, particularly in

the syntax analysis phase. They provide a formal way to describe the syntactic structure of
programming languages, allowing compilers to verify if a given sequence of tokens (produced by the
lexical analyzer) adheres to the language's grammar rules. CFGs are more powerful than regular
expressions and can handle nested structures, making them suitable for expressing the complex
syntax of programming languages.

Here's a breakdown of CFGs in the context of compiler design:

Key Components of a CFG:

A CFG is defined by four components:

1. Terminals (T): These are the basic building blocks of the language, the atomic symbols that cannot
be broken down further. In compiler design, terminals correspond to the tokens generated by the
lexical analyzer (e.g., keywords like if, while, identifiers like variable_name, operators like +, -, literals
like 123, "hello").

2. Non-Terminals (N): These are syntactic variables or placeholders that represent higher-level
syntactic structures or constructs in the language. They are symbols that need to be further
expanded. Examples include expression, statement, if_statement, loop, etc.

3. Productions (P): These are the rules that specify how non-terminals can be expanded or replaced
with combinations of terminals and non-terminals. A production has the form A -> α, where A is a
non-terminal, and α is a sequence of terminals and/or non-terminals. This production rule essentially
means: replace non-terminal A with sequence α.

4. Start Symbol (S): A designated non-terminal symbol that represents the topmost level or the root of
the grammar. It indicates where to begin when parsing an input string. Usually, it represents an entire
program or a major section of it (e.g., program).

Formal Notation:

A CFG is often denoted as G = (N, T, P, S).

Example:

Consider a simple grammar for arithmetic expressions:

• Terminals (T): {+, -, *, /, (, ), id, num} where id is an identifier (variable) and num is a number.
• Non-Terminals (N): {E, T, F} where E represents an expression, T a term, and F a factor.
• Start Symbol (S): E (Expression)
• Productions (P):
• E -> E + T
• E -> E - T
• E -> T
• T -> T * F
• T -> T / F
• T -> F
• F -> ( E )
• F -> id
• F -> num

How CFGs are Used in Syntax Analysis (Parsing):

1. Grammar Definition: A compiler uses a CFG to define the syntactic rules of the programming
language it is compiling.
2. Parsing: The syntax analyzer (parser) takes the stream of tokens produced by the lexical analyzer
and tries to construct a parse tree (or abstract syntax tree - AST) based on the defined CFG. The
parser attempts to verify if the input tokens can be derived from the start symbol of the grammar
using the production rules.
3. Syntax Error Detection: If the parser cannot construct a valid parse tree according to the grammar
rules, it signals a syntax error.
4. AST Generation: If the input string is syntactically correct, the parser constructs a parse tree (or
more typically, an Abstract Syntax Tree), a hierarchical representation of the program's structure,
which will be used in later phases of the compiler.

Key Characteristics of CFGs:

• Context-Free: The term "context-free" indicates that a non-terminal can always be replaced by its
production, regardless of the surrounding context.
• Hierarchical Structure: CFGs are naturally suited for representing hierarchical, nest

Okay, let's explore some concrete examples to illustrate how Context-Free Grammars (CFGs) are used
to define the syntax of programming language constructs.

1. Simple Arithmetic Expressions:

We've already seen a basic example, but let's refine it and provide a clearer context:

• Goal: Define a grammar that allows expressions like 2 + 3 * 4, (5 - 1), and a * b / c

• Terminals (T): id (identifier), num (number), +, -, *, /, (, )
• Non-Terminals (N): E (expression), T (term), F (factor)
• Start Symbol (S): E
• Productions (P):
* E -> E + T
* E -> E - T
* E -> T
* T -> T * F
* T -> T / F
* T -> F
* F -> ( E )
* F -> id
* F -> num

• Explanation:
* E can be an E + T (allowing expressions to be built from other expressions and terms) or simply a
term T.
* T represents multiplication and division.
* F represents the basic building blocks of an expression: parenthesized expressions, identifiers, or
numbers.
* This grammar encodes operator precedence (multiplication/division before
addition/subtraction) through the hierarchy of non-terminals.

2. If-Else Statement:

• Goal: Define a grammar for a simplified if-else statement.

• Terminals (T): if, else, (, ), {, }, id, ==, statement (where statement can be something like an
assignment or another nested if statement)
• Non-Terminals (N): if_statement, condition
• Start Symbol (S): if_statement
• Productions (P):
* if_statement -> if ( condition ) { statement }
* if_statement -> if ( condition ) { statement } else { statement }
* condition -> id == id
* condition -> id == num

• Explanation:
* This grammar allows for both if statements with or without an else clause.
* condition is a placeholder for an expression that evaluates to true or false. The example
productions only allow for basic id and num comparison but can be expanded to support complex
conditions.

3. While Loop:

• Goal: Define a grammar for a while loop.

• Terminals (T): while, (, ), {, }, id, <, statement (similar to if-else example)
• Non-Terminals (N): while_loop, condition
• Start Symbol (S): while_loop
• Productions (P):
* while_loop -> while ( condition ) { statement }
* condition -> id < num

• Explanation:
* This represents the structure of a while loop with a condition and a body (statements enclosed in
curly braces).
* The condition is limited to a less than comparison for simplicity.

4. Function Declaration (Simplified):

• Goal: Define a grammar for a basic function declaration.

• Terminals (T): function, id, (, ), {, }, int, return, ;, parameter, statement
• Non-Terminals (N): function_declaration, parameter_list, return_statement
• Start Symbol (S): function_declaration
• Productions (P):
* function_declaration -> function id ( parameter_list ) { return_statement }
* parameter_list -> parameter
* parameter_list -> parameter_list, parameter
* parameter -> int id
* return_statement -> return id ;

• Explanation:
* This allows us to describe the basic layout of functions.
* parameter_list allows functions to have multiple parameters.
* parameter is defined as an integer and an id.

Key takeaways from these examples:

• Abstraction: Non-terminals abstract away details, making the grammar more manageable.
• Hierarchy: CFGs define a hierarchical structure of a programming language by using non-terminals
to build complex constructs from simpler ones.
• Recursion: CFGs can be recursive (like in the E -> E + T case), which is crucial for representing
nested structures.
• *Flexibility:* By carefully crafting productions, you can define different syntactic structures to suit
the requirements of your programming language.
These examples demonstrate how CFGs are used to formally define the syntax of programming
language constructs. By using CFGs, compilers can check for syntactic errors, parse source code, and
prepare it for further processing.

In the context of Context-Free Grammars (CFGs), a *derivation* is the process of applying production
rules to transform a starting non-terminal symbol into a sequence of terminal symbols. It's how we
demonstrate that a string of tokens (the program's source code) is syntactically valid according to the
grammar.

Here's a breakdown of derivation in CFGs:

Core Idea:

A derivation starts with the grammar's start symbol and, step-by-step, replaces non-terminals with
the right-hand sides of their production rules. This process continues until no more non-terminals
remain, resulting in a sequence of terminal symbols – which constitutes a string (or token sequence)
in the language.

Formal Definition:

A derivation is a sequence of steps in which, at each step, a non-terminal symbol is replaced by a

string of symbols (terminals or non-terminals) according to one of the production rules of the
grammar. The general form is:

α A β => α γ β

Where:
• α, β are strings of terminals and non-terminals,
• A is a non-terminal symbol, and
• A -> γ is a production rule in the grammar.

The symbol => means "directly derives" or "yields".

Types of Derivation:

There are primarily two types of derivation:

1. Leftmost Derivation: In a leftmost derivation, the *leftmost* non-terminal symbol is always

replaced first in each step.

2. Rightmost Derivation: In a rightmost derivation, the *rightmost* non-terminal symbol is always

replaced first in each step.

While the order of derivation differs, both leftmost and rightmost derivations can produce the same
final string of terminals if that string is indeed valid according to the CFG.

Example:

Let's consider the following grammar for simple arithmetic expressions again:

• Terminals (T): id, num, +, -, *, /, (, )

• Non-Terminals (N): E, T, F
• Start Symbol (S): E
• Productions (P):
* E -> E + T
* E -> E - T
* E -> T
* T -> T * F
* T -> T / F
* T -> F
* F -> ( E )
* F -> id
* F -> num

Let's derive the string id + num * id using both leftmost and rightmost derivations:

1. Leftmost Derivation:

1. E (start symbol)
2. E + T (using E -> E + T)
3. T + T (using E -> T on the leftmost E)
4. F + T (using T -> F on the leftmost T)
5. id + T (using F -> id on the leftmost F)
6. id + T * F (using T -> T * F on the leftmost T)
7. id + F * F (using T -> F on the leftmost T)
8. id + num * F (using F -> num on the leftmost F)
9. id + num * id (using F -> id on the leftmost F)

2. Rightmost Derivation:

1. E (start symbol)
2. E + T (using E -> E + T)
3. E + T * F (using T -> T * F on the rightmost T)
4. E + T * id (using F->id on the rightmost F)
5. E + F * id (using T->F on the rightmost T)
6. E + num * id (using F->num on the rightmost F)
7. T + num * id (using E -> T on the rightmost E)
8. F + num * id (using T -> F on the rightmost T)
9. id + num * id (using F -> id on the rightmost F)

Parse Trees and Derivations:

A derivation can be visually represented as a *parse tree*. The root of the parse tree is the start
symbol, and the leaves are the terminal symbols of the derived string. The interior nodes represent
the non-terminals, and each non-terminal is a node that has a child for each symbol on the right hand
side of the production it was expanded using. Each edge from a parent to a child indicates that the
non-terminal (parent) was replaced using that particular rule. A derivation illustrates how to obtain
the string of terminal symbols that represent the program being analyzed.

Key Points:

• Derivation is a mechanism for demonstrating the membership of a string in a language defined by a

CFG.
• Both leftmost and rightmost derivations can yield the same final string, but the order of
substitutions differs.
• The derivations, or more correctly the parse trees, are used by compilers and language tools to
analyze the structure of a program or sentence.
In summary, derivations are an important concept for understanding how CFGs generate strings of
terminals, showing how the production rules transform the start symbol until a terminal string is
derived. They form the foundation of syntactic analysis and compiler design.

Let's illustrate derivations with more examples, focusing on both leftmost and rightmost derivations,
and showing how they relate to parse trees. We'll use a slightly more complex grammar to showcase
the process.

Grammar:

This grammar will generate simple sentences with a noun phrase (NP) and a verb phrase (VP):

• Terminals: the, cat, dog, sat, ran, on, mat

• Non-terminals: S (sentence), NP (noun phrase), VP (verb phrase), PP (prepositional phrase)
• Start Symbol: S
• Productions:
• S -> NP VP
• NP -> the cat
• NP -> the dog
• VP -> sat
• VP -> ran
• VP -> sat PP
• VP -> ran PP
• PP -> on mat

Example 1: "The cat sat."

• Leftmost Derivation:

1. S
2. NP VP (using S -> NP VP)
3. the cat VP (using NP -> the cat)
4. the cat sat (using VP -> sat)

• Rightmost Derivation:
 1. S
2. NP VP (using S -> NP VP)
3. NP sat (using VP -> sat)
4. the cat sat (using NP -> the cat)

• Parse Tree:

```
S
/\
NP VP
/\|
the cat sat
```

Example 2: "The dog ran on the mat." (This demonstrates a more complex sentence with a
prepositional phrase.)

• Leftmost Derivation:

1. S
2. NP VP
3. the dog VP
4. the dog ran PP
5. the dog ran on mat

• Rightmost Derivation:

1. S
2. NP VP
3. NP ran PP
4. NP ran on mat
5. the dog ran on mat

• Parse Tree:

```
S
/\
NP VP
/\|\
the dog ran PP
/\
on mat
```

Example 3: Illustrating Ambiguity (A potential problem with CFGs):

Let's add a rule: NP -> NP PP. This allows for noun phrases like "the cat on the mat". Now consider the
sentence "The cat sat on the mat".

This sentence has two possible parse trees because of the added rule, introducing ambiguity. The
grammar doesn't clearly specify whether "on the mat" modifies the verb "sat" or the noun "cat". This
ambiguity would need to be resolved by either revising the grammar or using a more sophisticated
parsing technique.
Key Observations:

• Different derivations (leftmost vs. rightmost) can lead to the same sentence but represent different
parsing orders.
• Parse trees visually represent the hierarchical structure derived from the grammar.
• Ambiguity in grammars can lead to multiple parse trees for the same sentence, highlighting the
importance of carefully designing grammars to avoid this.

These examples show how derivations are fundamental to demonstrating that a string is
grammatically correct according to the CFG, and how parse trees visually represent that derivation.
The parse trees are ultimately more important because they show the grammatical structure of the
input string. Ambiguity is a significant challenge in grammar design and parsing.

A parser, in the context of compiler design, is a software component that takes a stream of tokens
(generated by a lexical analyzer or scanner) as input and checks if that sequence of tokens conforms
to the grammatical rules of a programming language, as defined by a context-free grammar (CFG). It
essentially acts as the "syntax checker" for the programming language.

Here's a brief explanation of its key aspects:

Function:

• Input: Receives a stream of tokens from the lexical analyzer.

• Grammar: Uses a CFG to understand the language's syntax.
• Output: Generates a parse tree (or, more commonly, an Abstract Syntax Tree - AST).
• Task: Determines if the input token sequence is syntactically valid according to the language's
grammar and constructs a hierarchical representation of the code based on the grammar.

Process:

• Grammar Analysis: The parser uses parsing algorithms to determine if the token stream matches
the expected pattern defined by the CFG.
• Tree Construction: If the token sequence is valid, the parser builds a parse tree or an AST, which
represents the syntactic structure of the code, with hierarchical relationships.
• Error Detection: If the token stream violates the grammar, the parser detects and reports a syntax
error. It identifies the location and type of the error, helping the programmer correct the issue.

Types of Parsing:

• Top-Down Parsing: Starts with the root of the parse tree and tries to build it downwards (e.g.,
Recursive Descent, LL parsing).
• Bottom-Up Parsing: Starts with the leaves of the parse tree (tokens) and tries to combine them
upwards (e.g., LR parsing).

Key Objectives:

• Verify Syntax: Ensure the code is structurally correct according to the language's rules.
• Structure Code: Organize the token sequence into a hierarchical form (parse tree/AST) that can be
used by later compiler phases.
• Detect Errors: Identify and report any syntax errors found in the source code.

In essence, the parser is a crucial component that transforms a flat sequence of tokens into a
structured representation that the compiler can understand and analyze. It validates the grammatical
correctness of the program and prepares it for the next steps of the compilation process.
Okay, let's explore top-down and bottom-up parsing with examples to highlight their differences and
how they approach the parsing process.

Grammar:

We'll use a simple grammar for arithmetic expressions:

• Terminals: id (identifier), num (number), +, *, (, )

• Non-Terminals: E (expression), T (term), F (factor)
• Start Symbol: E
• Productions:
* E -> E + T
* E -> T
* T -> T * F
* T -> F
* F -> ( E )
* F -> id
* F -> num

Input String: id + num * id

1. Top-Down Parsing (e.g., Recursive Descent):

• Approach: Starts with the start symbol E and tries to match the input string by expanding the non-
terminals.

• Steps (Simplified):

1. Start: E
2. Prediction: Sees the id and predicts using the production E -> T.
3. T
4. Prediction: Predicts using T -> F
5. F
6. Prediction: Predicts using F-> id
7. id Matched with the input
8. Sees the + so it backtracks to E-> E+T to try that instead.
9. E + T
10. T+T
11. F+T
12. id + T
13. sees a * and predicts T -> T*F
14. id + T * F
15. id+ F * F
16. id + num * F
17. id + num * id

• Parse Tree (Implicitly Built):

E
/\
E + T
| /\
T T * F
| | |
F F id
| |
 id num

• Key Points:
* Starts with the overall goal (an expression E) and works down to match the input.
* It can be recursive (each production for a non-terminal can call functions for other non-
terminals).
* May involve backtracking (e.g., after E->T fails, it tries E -> E+T) which is expensive.

2. Bottom-Up Parsing (e.g., LR Parsing):

• Approach: Starts with the individual tokens and tries to combine them to form higher-level non-
terminal symbols until the start symbol is reached.

• Steps (Simplified, Using a Stack):

1. Stack: Empty, Input: id + num * id

2. Shift: Push id onto the stack. Stack: id, Input: + num * id
3. Reduce: Apply F -> id to the stack. Stack: F, Input: + num * id
4. Reduce: Apply T -> F. Stack: T, Input: + num * id
5. Reduce: Apply E -> T. Stack: E, Input: + num * id
6. Shift: Push +. Stack: E +, Input: num * id
7. Shift: Push num onto the stack. Stack: E + num, Input: * id
8. Reduce: Apply F->num. Stack: E + F, Input: * id
9. Reduce: Apply T->F. Stack: E+ T, Input: * id
10. Shift: Push * onto the stack. Stack: E + T * , Input: id
11. Shift: Push id onto the stack. Stack: E + T * id, Input:
12. Reduce: Apply F->id. Stack: E + T * F, Input:
13. Reduce: Apply T-> T*F. Stack: E+T, Input:
14. Reduce: Apply E -> E + T. Stack: E , Input: Accept.

• Parse Tree (Implicitly Built): The same tree as the top-down, but built up from the bottom instead.

E
/\
E + T
| /\
T T * F
| | |
F F id
| |
id num

• Key Points:
* Starts with the individual tokens and works upwards to the start symbol.
* Uses a stack to keep track of partially parsed items.
* Involves shifts (pushing tokens onto the stack) and reductions (applying production rules to
combined tokens on the stack).
* Handles a wider range of grammars more efficiently (e.g., handles left recursion).

Summary of Differences:

| Feature | Top-Down Parsing | Bottom-Up Parsing |

| ----------------- | --------------------------------
Shift-reduce parsing is a type of bottom-up parsing technique used in compiler design. It works by
analyzing the input stream of tokens and incrementally building up the parse tree from the bottom
(tokens) towards the top (start symbol), in contrast to top-down parsing. The key actions involved are
"shifting" tokens onto a stack and "reducing" a sequence of stack symbols using a grammar's
production rules. It is a highly used method for building efficient and effective parsers.

Here's a breakdown of the core concepts:

Key Components:

1. Input Buffer: Holds the remaining tokens from the input stream that are yet to be parsed.
2. Stack: A data structure that stores terminal and non-terminal symbols. The stack grows from the
bottom up as input tokens are processed, and parts of the stack are reduced.
3. Parsing Table: A table that maps the current state of the stack and the next input token to parsing
actions. This table is crucial for making deterministic parsing decisions.

Actions in Shift-Reduce Parsing:

The parser performs two fundamental actions:

1. Shift:
• Moves the next input token from the input buffer onto the top of the stack.
• This action effectively reads the input one token at a time and prepares the stack for possible
reductions.
2. Reduce:
• Identifies a sequence of symbols on the stack that match the right-hand side of a production rule
in the grammar.
• Replaces this sequence of symbols on the stack with the corresponding non-terminal symbol (the
left-hand side of the production).
• This reduces a part of the stack and constructs a portion of the parse tree.

The Parsing Algorithm:

1. Initialization:
• The stack is initially empty.
• The input buffer contains the stream of tokens.

2. Loop: The parser repeatedly performs shift or reduce actions, guided by the parsing table, until:
• The stack contains only the start symbol of the grammar.
• The input buffer is empty.
• No errors are detected.

3. Decision Making: At each step, the parser looks at the top of the stack and the next input token,
consulting the parsing table to decide:
• Whether to shift the next token onto the stack.
• Whether to reduce a sequence of symbols on the stack using a particular production rule.
• Whether to report a syntax error.
• If parsing is complete, accept the input.

4. Error Handling: If the parsing table dictates an error action based on the current stack and input,
the parser will halt and report a syntax error with location information.

Types of Shift-Reduce Parsers:

Shift-reduce parsers can be classified based on how they construct the parsing table and make
decisions. Common types include:

• LR Parsers (Left-to-right, Rightmost derivation): Powerful and widely used parsers that can handle a
large class of context-free grammars. LR parsers include SLR, CLR, and LALR parsers which have
varying capabilities, with LALR being a common one used. These parsers use a lookahead token to
make shift and reduce decisions.

• Operator-Precedence Parsers: Designed for operator grammars and use operator precedence to
drive parsing actions. These parsers are simpler than LR parsers but less general.

Example:

Let's revisit our arithmetic expression grammar and the input id + num * id:

1. Stack: Empty, Input: id + num * id

2. Shift: Stack: id, Input: + num * id
3. Reduce (F -> id): Stack: F, Input: + num * id
4. Reduce (T -> F): Stack: T, Input: + num * id
5. Reduce (E -> T): Stack: E, Input: + num * id
6. Shift: Stack: E +, Input: num * id
7. Shift: Stack: E + num, Input: * id
8. Reduce (F -> num): Stack: E + F, Input: * id
9. Reduce (T -> F): Stack: E + T, Input: * id
10. Shift:

Stack: E + T *, Input: id
11. Shift: Stack: E + T * id, Input:``
12. Reduce (F -> id): Stack: E + T * F, Input: ``
13. Reduce (T -> T * F): Stack: E + T, Input: ``
14. Reduce (E -> E + T): Stack: E, Input: `` Accept.

Advantages:

• Efficiency: Shift-reduce parsers are efficient and well-suited for processing large codebases.
• Handling Ambiguity: LR parsers can handle many ambiguous grammars effectively, which is critical
when dealing with real world programming languages.

Limitations:

• Complexity: Constructing the parsing table for LR parsers can be complex.

• Grammar Restrictions: Not all grammars are suitable for shift-reduce parsing techniques. For
example, some ambiguous grammars are harder to resolve using this approach.

In summary, shift-reduce parsing is a bottom-up technique that uses a stack, input buffer, and a
parsing table to analyze input tokens, construct a parse tree, and detect errors. LR parsers are the
most common and capable examples of shift-reduce parsers. These techniques are essential for
efficient and effective compiler design.
Okay, let's walk through some examples to illustrate how shift-reduce parsing works, focusing on the
actions of the parser and how it builds up a parse tree from the bottom up. We'll use the familiar
arithmetic expression grammar and some variations to show different scenarios.

Grammar:

• Terminals: id (identifier), num (number), +, *, (, )

• Non-Terminals: E (expression), T (term), F (factor)
• Start Symbol: E
• Productions:
* E -> E + T
* E -> T
* T -> T * F
* T -> F
* F -> ( E )
* F -> id
* F -> num

Example 1: Input String: id + num

| Step | Stack | Input | Action | Explanation |

| ---- | -------- | ---------- | --------------- | ----------------------------------------- |
| 1 | Empty | id + num | Shift | Push id onto the stack. |
| 2 | id | + num | Reduce (F->id) | Reduce id to F. |
| 3 | F | + num | Reduce (T->F) | Reduce F to T. |
| 4 | T | + num | Reduce (E->T) | Reduce T to E. |
| 5 | E | + num | Shift | Push + onto the stack. |
| 6 | E + | num | Shift | Push num onto the stack. |
| 7 | E + num | Empty | Reduce (F->num) | Reduce num to F. |
| 8 | E + F | Empty | Reduce (T->F) | Reduce F to T. |
| 9 | E + T | Empty | Reduce (E->E+T) | Reduce E + T to E |
| 10 | E | Empty | Accept | Stack contains start symbol, input is empty |

• Parse Tree (Implicitly Built):

E
/|\
E +T
| |
T F
|
F
|
id num

Example 2: Input String: ( id * num )

| Step | Stack | Input | Action | Explanation |

| ---- | -------- | ---------- | --------------- | ----------------------------------------- |
| 1 | Empty | ( id * num ) | Shift | Push ( onto the stack. |
| 2 | ( | id * num ) | Shift | Push id onto the stack. |
| 3 | ( id | * num ) | Reduce (F->id) | Reduce id to F. |
| 4 | ( F | * num ) | Reduce (T->F) | Reduce F to T. |
| 5 | ( T | * num ) | Shift | Push * onto the stack. |
| 6 | ( T * | num ) | Shift | Push num onto the stack. |
| 7 | ( T * num | ) | Reduce (F->num) | Reduce num to F. |
| 8 | ( T * F | ) | Reduce (T->T*F) | Reduce T * F to T. |
| 9 | ( T | ) | Reduce (E->T) | Reduce T to E. |
| 10 | ( E | ) | Shift | Push ) onto the stack. |
| 11 | ( E ) | Empty | Reduce (F->(E)) | Reduce ( E ) to F. |
| 12 | F | Empty | Reduce (T->F) | Reduce F to T. |
| 13 | T | Empty | Reduce (E->T) | Reduce T to E. |
| 14 | E | Empty | Accept | Stack contains start symbol, input empty |

• Parse Tree (Implicitly Built):

E
|
T
|
F
/|\
( E)
|
T
/\
T *F
|
F
|
id num

Example 3: Input String: id + num * id

This longer example shows how the parser handles more complex precedence:

| Step | Stack | Input | Action |

|---- | ------------- | ------------ | ------------------ |
| 1 | Empty | id + num * id | Shift |
| 2 | id | + num * id | Reduce (F->id) |
|3 |F | + num * id | Reduce (T->F) |
|4 |T | + num * id | Reduce (E->T) |
|5 |E | + num * id | Shift |
|6 |E+ | num * id | Shift |
| 7 | E + num | * id | Reduce (F->num)|
|8 |E+F | * id | Reduce (T->F) |
|9 |E+T | * id | Shift |
| 10 | E + T * | id | Shift |
| 11 | E + T * id | | Reduce (F->id) |
| 12 | E + T * F | | Reduce (T-> T * F) |
| 13 | E + T | | Reduce (E-> E + T) |
| 14 | E | | Accept |

• Parse Tree (Implicitly Built):

E
/|\
E+T
| /\
TT *F
|| |
 F | id
||
id F
|
num

Key Points Illustrated by the Examples:

• Shift: Pushes tokens from the input onto the stack, preparing for potential reductions.
• Reduce: Applies grammar production rules to replace a sequence of stack symbols with their
corresponding non-terminal, which is how the parser combines individual tokens into higher level
constructs.
• Bottom-Up: The parse tree is built from the leaves upwards.
• Stack: The stack manages intermediate parsing states, which is important in parsing many complex
grammars.
• Parsing Table: While not explicitly shown here, the parsing table (in an LR parser) dictates which
action (shift or reduce) to take at each step. The table is important in resolving ambiguity when there
is more than one production that could be reduced.

These examples demonstrate how a shift-reduce parser uses its stack, its input buffer, and its parsing
table to perform shifts and reductions in order to verify the grammar rules of the input, which makes
it a powerful tool for parsing programming languages.

Operator precedence parsing is a bottom-up parsing technique that's particularly well-suited for
grammars that describe arithmetic and logical expressions, where the precedence of operators plays
a crucial role. It's a simpler and more efficient alternative to general LR parsing for these specific types
of grammars. The core idea revolves around defining precedence relationships between operators
and using these relationships to guide the parsing process, which avoids the need to create complex
parsing tables.

Here's a breakdown of the core concepts of operator precedence parsing:

**Key Concepts:**

1. **Operator Grammar:** Operator precedence parsing works best with operator grammars, which
have the following characteristics:
* No productions have adjacent non-terminals on the right-hand side.
* No productions have epsilon (empty string) on the right-hand side.

These grammars usually express expressions involving operators and operands, making them
common in arithmetic or boolean expressions.
2. **Precedence Relations:** These are rules that determine the order in which operators are
evaluated based on their precedence and associativity. The following relations are usually defined
between terminal symbols:

* a <. b: *a has lower precedence than b* (or b has higher precedence) - indicates that b should
be evaluated first.
* a .> b: *a has higher precedence than b* (or b has lower precedence) - indicates that a should be
evaluated first.
* a .=. b: *a has the same precedence as b* (or both operators are at the same precedence level) -
indicates they should be processed in order of associativity.
 These are often called "precedence relations" or "operator precedence relations"
3. **Parsing Stack:** A stack used to store both terminal (operators) and non-terminal (operands)
symbols during the parsing process.

4. **Input Buffer:** Holds the sequence of input tokens that have not yet been processed.
5. **Parsing Algorithm:** The algorithm is based on repeatedly using the precedence relations
between the top of the stack and the next input token to determine the correct parsing action (shift
or reduce).

**Parsing Actions:**

The parser performs two main actions, guided by the precedence relations:

1. **Shift:**
* When the top of the stack has lower precedence than the next input token ( <. ) or the same
precedence with left associativity, the input token is shifted onto the stack.
* This delays the reduction of existing operators on the stack and lets them have another look at
the current token.

2. **Reduce:**
* When the top of the stack has higher precedence than the next input token ( .>) or the same
precedence with right associativity, a sequence of symbols on the stack is reduced according to a
grammar production.
* This is where previous operations on the stack are "evaluated".

**How Operator Precedence Parsing Works:**

1. **Initialization:**
* The stack is initially empty.
* The input buffer contains the stream of tokens.

2. **Loop:** The parser repeatedly performs shift or reduce actions until:

* The stack contains only the start symbol.
* The input buffer is empty.

3. **Precedence Determination:** The parser uses the precedence relations between the top
terminal symbol on the stack and the next input token.

4. **Action Selection:**
* If the top of the stack has lower precedence, then shift the current token.
* If the top of the stack has higher precedence, then reduce.
* If the input buffer is empty, then if the stack contains only the starting symbol, accept.
Otherwise, error.

**Example:**

Let's consider the expression id + id * id, with the following precedence relations:

• + <. * (Addition has lower precedence than multiplication)

• * .> +
• id .> +, id .> *

Here's how the parser would process the input:

1. **Stack:** Empty, **Input:** id + id * id

2. **Shift:** Stack: id, **Input:** + id * id
3. **Reduce:** Stack: E, **Input:** + id * id
4. **Shift:** Stack: E +, **Input:** id * id
5. **Shift:** Stack: E + id, **Input:** * id
6. **Reduce:** Stack: E + E, **Input:** * id
7. **Shift:** Stack: E + E *, **Input:** id
8. **Shift:** Stack: E + E * id, **Input:** Empty
9. **Reduce:** Stack: E + E * E, **Input:** Empty
10. **Reduce:** Stack: E + E, **Input:** Empty
11. **Reduce:** Stack: E , **Input:** Empty - **Accept**

*Note: For simplicity we have used E as the non-terminal.*

**Advantages:**

• **Simplicity:** Easier to implement than general LR parsers.

• **Efficiency:** Works well for expressions involving operators with well-defined precedence.
• **No Parsing Tables:** Uses simple precedence relations instead of complex parsing tables.

**Limitations:**

• **Limited Applicability:** Not suitable for all grammars, especially those with complex structures
beyond expressions.
• **Ambiguity:** Can have issues with some ambiguous grammars.
• **Grammar Restrictions:** Requires operator grammars, which have restrictions on where non-
terminals can appear.

In summary, operator precedence parsing is a bottom-up technique that relies on predefined

operator precedence relationships to guide the parsing of expressions. It is simple and efficient for
expression parsing but has limitations compared to more general parsing methods. It provides a
convenient and practical solution for handling operator grammars commonly found in programming
languages.