Module- 3

Approaches and techniques of

Counselling
Freud
A. Human Nature According to Freud:
Determinism: Freud applied determinism to psychology, suggesting that the contents of
consciousness are determined by individual psychological and biological drives. This implies a
lack of complete free will.

Ambivalence on Free Will: While Freud acknowledged determinism, he was ambivalent

about free will. He recognized that individuals sometimes make rational decisions and
judgments, suggesting a complex interplay between deterministic forces and elements of
free will.

B. Role of the Unconscious:

Existence of the Unconscious: Freud postulated the existence of the unconscious, which
goes beyond preconscious states. The unconscious contains elements of which individuals
have no awareness but which still exert influence.

Repression of Traumatic Events: Elements in the unconscious may have originally been
conscious, such as traumatic events, but were subsequently repressed. Repression involves
pushing ideas into the unconscious to avoid conscious awareness. Repression serves as a
mechanism to cope with distressing or unacceptable thoughts, protecting the individual from
the immediate psychological impact of such experiences.
 C. Structure of the Mind: Three-Part Division:
Freud introduced a fundamental model of the structure of the mind, dividing it into three
parts: the id, ego, and superego.

Id: Instinctual drives seeking immediate satisfaction according to the pleasure principle.
Ego: Conscious mental states governed by a reality principle.
Superego: Conscience confronting the ego with moral rules or feelings of guilt and
anxiety.

D. Emphasis on Drives or Instincts:

Freud's theory emphasizes the role of drives or instincts in shaping human behavior. These
drives are powerful psychological forces that compel individuals to act in certain ways. Freud
identified multiple types of drives that influence human behavior.

Sexual Drive (Libido): Freud placed a considerable emphasis on the sexual drive,
considering it a powerful force that influences human behavior. He believed that
sexual energy, known as libido, plays a crucial role in shaping personality and driving
various actions.

Self-Preservation and Life-Enhancing Drives (Eros): In addition to the sexual

drive, Freud recognized other life-affirming forces. These include the drive for self-
preservation and the pursuit of life-enhancing activities. The term Eros is often used
to encompass these positive, constructive drives.

Self-Destructive Drives (Thanatos): Freud also introduced the concept of

Thanatos, representing self-destructive drives. These instincts include aggression,
sadism, and a general inclination towards death. Thanatos represents the destructive
aspect of human nature, contrasting with the life-affirming Eros.

E. Developmental Account of Human Personalities:

Freud's theory emphasizes childhood experiences as crucial for shaping adult psychological
functioning, emphasizing understanding an individual's present personality by delving into
their past events and experiences.

Crucial Importance of Childhood:

Freud believed that early experiences, conflicts, and resolutions during childhood
significantly influence an individual's psyche, attitudes, behaviors, and relationships,
making it a pivotal period in psychological development.

Sexual Stages of Development:

Freud's psychosexual development theory outlines distinct stages of development,
including oral, anal, phallic, latent, and genital, each focusing on specific conflicts and
erogenous zones. Successful navigation is crucial for healthy psychological
development, emphasizing the interconnectedness of sexuality, childhood experiences,
and personality.
Repression as a Primary Cause of Neuroticism:
 Freud posited that repression, the unconscious suppression of mental conflict, is a key
factor in neuroticism.

 Neuroticism refers to the tendency to experience excessive anxiety, emotional

instability, and maladaptive behavior.

 According to Freud, when individuals face conflicting drives, desires, or beliefs that
contradict societal norms, they often resort to repression as a defense mechanism to
avoid the mental conflict arising from these internal contradictions.

Counsellor's Role – According to Freud

1. Maintain a sense of neutrality to foster a transference relationship
Freudian principles recommend counselors maintain neutrality to foster a transference
relationship, allowing clients to project emotions onto the therapist, and facilitating
exploration of unconscious processes and unresolved conflicts.

2. Very little disclosure

According to Freudian principles, counselors are encouraged to disclose very little about
themselves. This approach is aimed at preventing the therapist's personal experiences from
influencing the client's perceptions and interpretations. It helps maintain the focus on the
client's thoughts, emotions, and experiences.
3. Assist the client in achieving Self-awareness, honesty, and more effective
personal relationships, dealing with anxiety realistically, and gaining
control over impulsive and irrational behavior.
4. The therapist listens, learns, and interprets, which assists in accelerating
the process of uncovering the conscious.
Therapists use active listening, client understanding, and interpretation to uncover
unconscious thoughts and conflicts, accelerating self-awareness by revealing hidden
consciousness aspects.

5. Establish a working relationship.

The counselor establishes a strong client-counselor relationship, fostering trust and
openness for the therapeutic process, and allowing the client to express their thoughts and
emotions.

6. To listen for gaps and inconsistencies in the client’s stories, infer the
meaning of reported dreams, and remain sensitive to clues concerning
the client’s feelings towards the analyst.
The therapist listens for gaps in the client's narratives, infers dreams' meaning, and reveals
feelings towards the analyst, gaining insights into unconscious material and deepening the
client's psyche understanding.
Strengths:
Stimulation of Further Thinking:
 Freud's theories, despite generating controversy, have stimulated further thinking
and the development of therapy in the field of psychology.

 The controversies have led to the exploration and refinement of psychoanalytic ideas.

Development of Psychoanalytic Premises:

 Psychoanalytic premises introduced by Freud, such as resistance, transference,
counter-transference, and defense mechanisms, have provided valuable concepts for
understanding and addressing psychological issues.

 These concepts form the basis for many therapeutic interventions.

Understanding Unfinished Business:

 Freud's emphasis on the importance of childhood experiences and unresolved issues
has contributed to the understanding that unfinished business from the past can be
worked through in therapy.

Weaknesses:
Limited Practical Application:
The practical application of psychoanalytic (PA) techniques is limited due to factors such as
time, expense, and the availability of trained therapists.

Biological Emphasis, Neglecting Social and Cultural Factors:

The exclusive focus on biological aspects can limit the comprehensive understanding of
psychological phenomena.

Restrictive Role of the Counselor:

This approach may limit the active involvement and collaboration between the therapist and
the client.

Long-Time Commitment:
The extended duration of therapy may not align with the preferences or needs of individuals
seeking more time-efficient interventions.

Gender Bias and Focus on Psychosexual Development:

The exclusive focus on psychosexual development may oversimplify and limit the
understanding of diverse human experiences.

THERAPIES IN GENERAL
Supportive Therapy:
 Believes in restoring an individual's adaptive capacities.

 Aims to teach new ways to maintain control and strengthen existing defenses against
anxiety.
 Techniques:
Reassurance: Providing comfort and encouragement.

Environmental Manipulation: Adjusting surroundings to reduce stress.

Muscular Relaxation: Teaching relaxation techniques to manage physiological responses to

anxiety.

Behavior Modification: Changing maladaptive behaviors through reinforcement and

conditioning.

Insight Therapies:
 Focused on gaining insight into an individual's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

 Aims to promote self-awareness and understanding of unconscious conflicts.

Subtypes:
a) Re-Educative:
 Directed towards creating a more harmonious self-structure.

 Involves teaching and guiding individuals toward healthier ways of thinking and behaving.

b) Reconstructive:
 Aims to uncover and address unconscious conflicts.

 Seeks extensive alteration in an individual's character structure.

 Release of energies for the development of new adaptive patterns.

 Person-centered therapy
Person-centered therapy, also known as client-centered therapy or Rogerian psychotherapy,
was developed by psychologist Carl Rogers in
the mid-20th century. The approach is based
on the belief that individuals have an inherent
tendency towards growth and self-
actualization. The primary goal of person-
centered therapy is to facilitate this self-
actualization process in clients through the
creation of a supportive therapeutic
relationship.

The core conditions of person-centered therapy, as outlined by Carl Rogers, are:

Congruence (Genuineness): Involves the therapist transparently relating to clients

without hiding behind professional or personal facades.

Unconditional Positive Regard: The therapist creates a non-judgmental, accepting

environment for clients, valuing their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors, fostering a
safe space for exploration and sharing experiences without fear of criticism.

Empathy: Empathy involves the ability to accurately grasp the client's feelings and
meanings as if the therapist were in the client's shoes. Through empathetic
understanding, the therapist can convey genuine care and concern for the client's
subjective experience.

Rogers believed that a therapist who embodies the three critical and reflexive attitudes
(the three 'Core Conditions') will help liberate their client to more confidently express their
true feelings without fear of judgment.

Theory
1) People are honest, smart, and have the ability to understand themselves
Person-centered therapy relies on the client's self-awareness and understanding, with the
therapist assuming honesty and intelligence in their exploration of thoughts, feelings, and
experiences, which is a fundamental aspect of the therapeutic approach.

2) People can solve their problems

Person-centered therapy promotes client autonomy and self-determination, recognizing that
individuals possess internal resources for problem-solving. Therapists create a supportive
environment, allowing clients to utilize their abilities for decision-making.

3) People are capable of self-directed growth if they are involved in a specific

kind of therapeutic relationship
Person-centered therapy focuses on personal growth and self-actualization through genuine,
supportive, and non-directive therapeutic relationships. This approach encourages clients to
naturally grow, fostering a natural tendency towards self-directed development.
Question type
o Open questions
 Open the door, encouraging the clients to talk
 Do not invite short answer
 Leave broad latitude for how to respond

o Closed questions
 Have short answers like yes or no
 Ask for specific information
 Might be multiple choices
 They limit the clientÕs answer option

Goals
1. Increase the dependence and integration of the client
2. Create conditions necessary for positive growth
3. Focus on the person, not on the problem
4. Develop an openness to new experiences, thrust in themselves, internal source of
evaluation, and willingness to continue growing.

Weaknesses
1. The client is not challenged
2. Too simplistic
3. No interventions or techniques
4. Undirected
5. Not all clients can find their answer.
6. Theory has not evolved much since the 1960s

Existential Counselling
 Emmy Van Deurzen (born 1951) and Irvin D. Yalom (born 1931) are the prominent
founders of existential psychotherapy, a form of psychotherapy rooted in the
existential tradition of European philosophy.

 The therapy is based on a model of human nature and experience that revolves around
fundamental existential concepts such as death, freedom, responsibility, and the
meaning of life.

 Existential psychotherapy distinguishes itself by viewing common human experiences

like anxiety, alienation, and depression not as indicators of mental illness but as
inherent aspects of normal human development and maturation.

 Rather than pathologizing these experiences, the therapy emphasizes a philosophical

exploration of an individual's encounters, highlighting the person's freedom and
responsibility in navigating and making meaning from their life circumstances.

A philosophical or intellectual approach to therapy.

View of human nature.
 The capacity for self awareness.

The tension between freedom and responsibility.

The creation of an identity and establishing meaningful relationship.

The search for meaning, purpose and values of life.

Accepting anxiety as a condition of leaving.

The awareness of death and non- being.

Layers of a person’s life.

Challenge. Gain Loss
Physical. Death and pain. Life to the full. Unlived life or
constant fear.
Social. Loneliness and Understand and be Bullying or being
rejection. understood. bullied.
Personal. Weakness and Strength and Narcissism or self
failure. stamina. destruction.
Spiritual. Meaninglessness and Finding an ethics to Fanaticism or
Futility. leave by. Apathy.

Process of existential therapy.

Three Phases:
Initial Phase: In this stage, the therapist explores the client's assumptions about the world,
helping to identify underlying beliefs and attitudes that may influence their perceptions and
experiences.

Middle Phase: The focus shifts to challenging the client to examine their value system. This
involves questioning the client's beliefs and exploring how these values shape their decisions
and actions.

Final Phase: The therapist works to help the client develop their will to act. This phase
involves assisting the client in translating insights gained during therapy into meaningful and
purposeful actions in their life.

Functions of existential clinician.

I - thou relationship- involves mutual respect.
 Existential therapy emphasizes an "I-Thou" relationship between the therapist and
client, characterized by mutual respect. This relationship provides a supportive and
non-judgmental space for the client to explore their thoughts, feelings, and beliefs.

Infuse ultimate concern in whatever topic is discussed

The therapist encourages discussions that infuse ultimate concern into various topics.
This involves exploring the deepest questions about life, meaning, and existence,
fostering a deeper understanding of the client's values and priorities.

Help turn suffering into productive pursuits.

Existential therapy aims to help individuals transform their experiences of suffering
into opportunities for personal growth and development. The therapist assists clients
in finding constructive and meaningful ways to cope with life's challenges.

Types of existential therapy.

1) Yalom’s approach.
Irvin D. Yalom, one of the founders of existential therapy, focuses on the therapeutic
relationship and the exploration of existential concerns. His approach often involves group
therapy, emphasizing interpersonal dynamics and shared existential themes.

The primary goal is to help individuals transform experiences of suffering into opportunities
for personal growth. The therapist aids clients in finding constructive and meaningful ways
to cope with life's challenges.

Group Therapy Principles:

 The instillation of hope creates a feeling of optimism.

 Universality helps group members realize that they are not alone in their impulses,
problems, and other issues.
 Imparting information helps to educate and empower people with knowledge pertaining
to their specific psychological situation.
 Altruism allows clients to gain a sense of value and significance by helping other group
members.
 Corrective recapitulation provides for the resolution of family and childhood events
within the safety of the group family.
 Socializing techniques promote social development, tolerance, empathy, and other
interpersonal skills.
 Through imitative behavior group members learn to adopt the coping strategies and
perspectives of other group members.
 Interpersonal learning teaches clients how to develop supportive interpersonal
relationships.
 Group cohesiveness gives members a sense of acceptance, belonging, value, and
security.
 Catharsis releases suppressed emotions and promotes healing by disclosing information
to group members.
  Existential factors incorporate learning how to just exist as part of something larger
than oneself. This factor brings a client into the awareness that life will continue on,
with pain, death, sadness, regret, and joy. By living existentially, clients learn how to
accept these conditions without escaping from them. Instead, they learn how to live
with them and through them

2) Frankl’s approach (logotherapy).

Logotherapy is a school of psychology and a philosophy based on the idea that we are
strongly motivated to live purposefully and meaningfully, and that we find meaning in life as a
result of responding authentically and humanely (i.e. meaningfully) to life's challenges.

Logotherapy is the pursuit of that meaning for one's life. Frankl's theories were heavily
influenced by his personal experiences of suffering and loss in Nazi concentration camps

Man's Search for Meaning is a 1946 book by Viktor Frankl chronicling his experiences as a
prisoner in Nazi concentration camps during World War II, and describing his
psychotherapeutic method, which involved identifying a purpose in life to feel positively
about, and then immersively imagining that outcome.

Assessing the humanistic Existential model.

Strengths.
 Emphasizes the individual.
 Taps into domains missing from their own theories. - Nondeterministic.
 Optimistic
 Emphasis help.

Weaknesses.
 Focuses on abstract issues. – Difficult to research.
 Not much influence.
 Weakened by disapproval of scientific approach. – Changing somewhat

Gestalt therapy
Gestalt therapy is an existential/experiential form of psychotherapy that emphasizes
Personal responsibility, and that focuses upon the individual's experience in the present
moment, the therapist–client relationship, the environmental and social contexts of a
person's life, and the self-regulating adjustments people make as a result of their overall
situation.

Goal
Substantial increase in self-awareness and self-acceptance. Improved ability to live fully in
the present moment. Improved communication skills. Better and satisfying relationships with
others.

Key Concept
Wholeness and Integration: Wholeness refers to the whole person or the
individualÕs mind and body as a unit rather than as separate parts (Seligman, 2006).
 Integration refers to how these parts fit together and how the individual integrates
into the environment.

Awareness: Awareness is one of the most important elements in Gestalt Therapy as

it is seen as a “hallmark of the healthy person and a goal of treatment” (Seligman,
2006). When individuals are “aware”, they are able to self-regulate in their
environment

There are two main causes lacking awareness:

1. Preoccupation with oneÕs past, fantasies, flaws and strengths that the individual
becomes unaware of the whole picture.
2. Low self-esteem

There are three ways people may achieve awareness through therapy :
Contact with the environment: This is through looking, listening, touching, talking, moving,
smelling, and tasting. This enables the individual to grow in his or her environment through
reacting to the environment and changing.

Here and now: This is the individual living in and being conscious at the present moment
rather than worrying about the past or the future.

Responsibility: This refers to the individual taking responsibility for his or her own life
rather than blaming others.

Important Concepts in Gestalt Therapy

Present focus –Awareness of what theyÕre experiencing in the present is one of the
most essential elements of Gestalt therapy.

Importance of experience – Techniques used in Gestalt therapy help clients become

more aware of what theyÕre experiencing.

Contact – In Gestalt therapy, the relationship between the client and therapist is one
of the most important aspects of the therapy process.

Respect for the Client – In Gestalt therapy, itÕs imperative that therapists treat all
clients with the deepest respect.

Personal and Social Responsibility – Individuals are responsible not only for the choices
they make regarding their own lives, but also for how they treat others and interact in
society. Both personal and social responsibility are important concepts in Gestalt therapy.

Role of the Gestalt therapist

1) Creating a safe atmosphere that enables clients to identify and explore their
current thoughts, feelings, and perceptions, experiment with new behaviours, and
engage in open dialogue.

2) Helping clients increase their self-awareness

3) Encouraging and helping clients stay focused in the present moment

 4) Paying close attention to clients’ verbal and non-verbal behaviour; non-verbal
behaviour like body language often indicates the presence of strong emotions

5) Treating clients with the utmost respect and as equals

6) Listening closely without judgment

7) Participating as fully as possible in the clientÕs experience without becoming

enmeshed in it.

8) Sharing his or her experience which includes observations, emotions, thoughts, and
perspective (this also provides a model for the client to follow)
9) Refraining from interpretation and explanation

10) Encouraging clients to learn to regulate themselves

11) Being committed to connect and dialogue with the client without attempting to
manipulate or control the client or the process in order to reach a or control the client
or the process

Theraputic Techniques
Dialogue – Authentic and meaningful dialogue often involves more than simply talking in
Gestalt therapy. Forms of dialogue may include things like singing, dancing, or even laughing
together.

Dream Work – the therapist will encourage you to relive the dream in therapy. Dreams are
believed to be a projection of yourself, so exploring and understanding the emotions they
elicit helps increase self-awareness.

Confrontation or “Making the Rounds” – This Gestalt exercise works best in a group
therapy format. While making the rounds, you say or do something with each group member.
This gives you the opportunity to try out new behaviours, such as disclosing something
personal, confronting a problem . The goal is to facilitate personal growth.

Reversal- In this exercise, youÕll act out the behaviours, traits, or symptoms that are the
exact opposite of the ones that have been causing you problems. Doing so will enable you to
accept whatever it is youÕve been denying or avoiding.

Rehearsal – This exercise increases your willingness to experiment with new behaviours and
become more spontaneous. It also helps decrease the anxiety (the fear that youÕre not doing
it right) that often accompanies trying something new.

Exaggeration – One of the best ways to grasp the meaning and emotions attached to body
Language –a gesture, facial expression, or particular posture (e.g. clenching your fists or
crossing your arms) – is to repeatedly perform it in an exaggerated manner. This will
intensify whatever it is you associate with the behaviour, such as defensiveness, anger, or
frustration, and enable you to understand it better.
Staying with the Feeling –This Gestalt exercise is designed to help you face – rather
than try to escape or avoid – uncomfortable or unpleasant emotions as well as the things that
trigger them.

The Empty Chair – This powerful exercise involves having you sit in a chair that is facing
an empty chair. As you sit in the chair, you imagine someone or something in the empty chair
that is important to you and / or causing distress or difficulties in your life. The person in
the opposite chair may be yourself, someone from your past or present, or even someone
youÕve yet to meet (e.g. a future spouse or child).

The object can be anything, such as an aspect of your personality (e.g. something you donÕt
like about yourself), a physical symptom (e.g. chronic migraines) or trait (e.g. a big nose), your
home, your job, a situation, an event, a stereotype (e.g. controlling women), part of a dream
you had, or something you wish you had, such as wealth or beauty.

The purpose of the technique is so the patient will become more in touch with their feelings
and have an emotional conversation that clears up any long-held feelings or reaction to the
person or object in the chair.

Limitations.
1) The approach has potential for therapist to abuse power by using powerful techniques
without proper training.
2) This approach may not be useful for clients who have difficulty abstracting and
imagining.
3) The emphasis on therapist authenticity and self discosure may be overpower by for
some clients.

Disadvantage of gestalt therapy.

1) Client who are inhibited, or scared of expressing themselves in front of others, may
struggle in gestalt therapy (Although they may gain a lot in reluctance can be
overcome). Similarly, some people who lack imagining or creativity, or who are
frightened to express feelings, are unlikely to benefit from gestalt therapy.

2) Some clients may have cultural or social inhibition against. For example, coversing with
dead relatives or conforting a patient.

Techniques in counselling
1. Directive Counselling
Under directive counselling the counsellor issues certain instructions to the counsellee or he
is directed to do certain things

e.g.: he is asked to behave in a particular manner, asked to abstain from alcohol or drug,
asked to respect his colleagues and superiors.

2. Non Directive Counselling

Under non directive counselling counsellor does not issue directions but observe the
behaviour and attitude of the counsellee towards his work and his colleagues and superiors
and subordinates. If he errs then counsellor comes to his rescue and corrects him realizing
him that he was wrong. He will not issue him any instructions or will not direct him.

3. Cooperative Counselling
This is a kind of counselling that can be done through extending full cooperation to the
counsellee and makes him realize his mistakes relating to his behaviour and attitudes so that
he himself will be back on the track and improve himself. It is winning the heart of the
counsellee through cooperation. His confidence will be won by the counsellee and he in turn
will extend his cooperation and become self disciplined.

4. Marital and Family Counselling

Employees need counselling in respect of marriage and family problems. The troubled
employees can discuss out their problems with the counsellor who can take them into
confidence and prescribe solutions for their ills.

5. Eclectic counselling
Eclectic counseling is defined as the combination of the two extremes that is directive and
non-directive counseling.. In eclectic counseling, the counselor is neither too active as in the
directive counseling nor too passive as in the non-directive counseling.

Techniques used in counselling

1) Releasing Emotional Tension
Some people are more emotional. They become so at everything. They take things emotionally
and they come into the grip of emotions very often. The emotions are associated with fear,
respect, insult, anxiety, guilt, hostility etc. If the counselee is under emotional tension it is
to be released.

2) Effective Communication
Effective two-way communication help subordinates to narrate their difficulties to their
superiors through which many problems get automatically solved.

3) Clarified Thinking
One should think positively and shun negative thinking. It is negative thinking needs to be
removed from the mind of counsellee.

4) Performance Counselling:
As the name suggests it relates with the performance. If the employee is not keeping his
performance constant and it is below standard then counselling is required to maintain the
standard level of performance.