A PROJECT PRESNTATION IN THE COLLEGE

OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES

DEPATMENT OF NURSING SCIENCES
TOPIC: RESEARCH DESIGNS
BY
JAMES, PRECIOUS IFECHUKWU
RU/NSC/19/052
AND
JONES, CHIKA CELINDA KUBIAT
RU/NSC/19/053
SUPERVISOR – MRS NWOKORO, U.I.
COURSE: RESEARCH IN NURSING
DATE: 2nd February 2022.

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 Acknowledgement
First we want to acknowledge God almighty for helping and keeping us till this day, we also
want to acknowledge our parents and guardians for their great support in our lives to see that
they provide every need pertaining to this course. The lecturers of Rhema University who took
out time to teach and train us for this purpose and assisted us during the course of our research.

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 Dedication
We dedicate this Presentation to God Almighty, our Parents, the H.O.D of Nursing science
department Rhema University, the lecturer who assisted us in this course and to our Supervisor.

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 Table of Contents
Title page ……………………………………………………………………………………. 1
Acknowledgements ………………………………………………………………………….. 2
Dedication ……………………………………………………………………………………. 3
Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………....... 5
Definition …………………………………………………………………………………….. 6
- Purpose of Research designs………………………………………………………….. 6
- Choice of Research designs …………………………………………………………... 6
Classifications of Research designs ………………………………………………………. 7
- Quantitative Research design …………………………………………………………. 7
. Types of quantitative research design
1. Experimental designs ………………………………………………………………… 8
2. Non-experimental designs ……………………………………………………………. 11
3. Quasi-experimental designs ………………………………………………………….. 14
4. Survey designs ……………………………………………………………………….. 15
- Differences between Experimental and Non-experimental design …………………… 13
- Qualitative Research design …………………………………………………………… 16
. Types of qualitative design
1) Phenomenology …………………………………………………………………….. 17

2) Grounded theory …………………………………………………………………….. 18

3) Ethnography………………………………………………………………………...... 19

4) Narrative inquiry ……………………………………………………………………. 20

Differences between Qualitative and Quantitative Research Designs …………………………. 21

Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………………… 22

References ……………………………………………………………………………………. 23

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 Introduction
In the best of all possible worlds, evidence would be the result of well-controlled, perfectly
designed studies. Of course, most nurses do not practice in the best of all possible worlds
nursing research is planned by making a series of decisions, each of which involves weighing
alternatives and options in the search for knowledge. It is important, then, to understand each of
the predominant research designs so a study can be planned that best answers the research
question and therefore is the strongest evidence for practice. Research is designed to investigate
explicit questions. In the case of nursing research these questions relate to those aspects of
professional activity that are predominantly and appropriately the concern and responsibility of
nurses.

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 Definition of Research Designs
Research design is studied in both macro and micro sense. From a macro perspective, design
refers to an overall approach to the study, grounded in a set of beliefs about knowledge and the
question that must be answered. Dealing with choices requires a micro view of the research
process, including decisions that will give the researcher specific guidance in implementing the
study. This micro view is called research design.
A research design is a strategy to get the information the researcher wants in a study. It is the
overall plan for answering the research questions or testing the hypotheses. The research design
incorporates the data collection plan, the sampling plan and the analysis plan. There is no hard
rule for specific designs, but the decision of which one to use rests on the researcher and the
nature of the research. Each researcher could choose the design deemed most suitable for the
specific research.

Purposes of Research designs

The major purposes include theses:
- To enable the researcher focus on the key variables under investigation
- To facilitate adequate sampling methods
- To ensure that the appropriate data collection method is applied.
- It enhances the data analysis plan.

Choice of Research designs

The type of design chosen by any researcher depends on:
• The research question
• The researcher’s knowledge
• Time available for study
• Resources available
• Availability and commitment of research participants

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 Classification of Research Designs

Research design could be described in two ways;

A. Quantitative research: Here information is collected in quantities, data would be in
numbers. The common theme to virtually all quantitative research is that it involves the
handling of numerical information (information involving numbers) and it is best known for its
use of numerical information. Numbers can provide insights into many aspects of health and
health care. It can inform you how common a disease is at any given time among the population
(the percentage of the population who have a disease comprises numerical information), the risks
of contracting a disease (the odds of catching a disease is made up of numerical information) and
can tell you a lot about whether one method of treating an illness is better or worse than another
mode of treatment by comparing the number of symptoms of people following each mode of
treatment (the number of symptoms comprises numerical information).
An example of quantitative research is the survey conducted to understand the amount of time a
doctor takes to tend to a patient when the patient walks into the hospital. A patient satisfaction
survey template can be administered to ask questions like how much time did a doctor takes to
see a patient, how often does a patient walks into a hospital, and other such questions.
Quantitative research templates are objective, elaborate, and many times, even investigational.
The results achieved from this research method are logical, statistical, and unbiased. Data
collection happened using a structured method and conducted on larger samples that represent
the entire population.

Types of Quantitative Research

There are four quantitative research designs that is commonly used;
5. Experimental designs
6. Non-experimental designs
7. Quasi-experimental designs
8. Survey designs

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 Experimental design

This type of design is mostly concerned with a cause and effect relationships. It is mostly how

experiments where being carried out in secondary school and how we had to control the

environment in order to give us our desired result. This is the same way that experimental

research is carried out. Most of the experimental studies carried out involve manipulation and

control in order of the independent variable and how it affects the dependent variable.

Experimental research are very difficult to establish but are highly respected in the scientific

world: though nursing researchers still employ the use of non-experimental research.

Experimental research is research conducted with a scientific approach using two sets of

variables. The first set acts as a constant, which you use to measure the differences of the second

set. Quantitative research methods, for example, are experimental. If you don’t have enough data

to support your decisions, you must first determine the facts. Experimental research gathers the

data necessary to help you make better decisions. Any research conducted under scientifically

acceptable conditions uses experimental methods. The success of experimental studies hinges on

researchers confirming the change of a variable is based solely on the manipulation of the

constant variable. The research should establish a notable cause and effect. You can conduct

experimental research in the following situations: Time is a vital factor in establishing a

relationship between cause and effect.

Types of Experimental design

The way you classify research subjects, based on conditions or groups, determines the type of

research design you should use. There are two primary types of experimental design;

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 1. Pre-experimental research design: A group, or various groups, are kept under

observation after implementing factors of cause and effect. You’ll conduct this research

to understand whether further investigation is necessary for these particular groups. This

kind of experimental designs are considered very weak and in which the researcher has

little control over the research. Sometimes these types of designs are discussed to provide

examples of how not to do research.

You can break down pre-experimental research further in three types:

. One-shot Case Study Research Design- In a one-shot case study, a single group is exposed to an

experimental treatment and observed after the treatment.

. One-group Pretest-posttest Research Design- The one-group pretest-posttest design provides a

comparison between a group of subjects before and after the experimental treatment.

2. True experimental research design: True experimental research relies on statistical

analysis to prove or disprove a hypothesis, making it the most accurate form of research.

Of the types of experimental design, only true design can establish a cause-effect

relationship within a group. In a true experiment, three factors need to be satisfied:

There is a Control Group, which won’t be subject to changes, and an Experimental Group, which

will experience the changed variables. This experimental research method commonly occurs in

the physical sciences.

Steps to select an experimental research

1. Identify and study the population.

2. Select a sample from the population by simple random sampling.

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 3. Randomly assign the sample to two subgroups, which you will name experimental and

control groups.

4. Observe and record the characteristics of the two groups.

5. Introduce the independent variable to the experimental group but not the control group.

6. Later observe the dependent variable in both the experimental and control groups.

7. Compare the changes in the experimental group with that of the control group.

8. Compare the values statically and judge the differences from the two groups.

9. If the findings are significantly greater than would be expected to occur by chance, a

casual relationship between the dependent and independent variable.

Advantages of experimental research

It’s vital to test new ideas or theories. Why put time, effort, and funding into something that may

not work? Experimental research allows you to test your idea in a controlled environment before

taking it to market. It also provides the best method to test your theory.

1. Researchers have a stronger hold over variables to obtain desired results.

2. The subject or industry does not impact the effectiveness of experimental research.

3. Any industry can implement it for research purposes.

4. The results are specific.

5. After analyzing the results, you can apply your findings to similar ideas or situations.

6. You can identify the cause and effect of a hypothesis. Researchers can further analyze

this relationship to determine more in-depth ideas.

7. Experimental research makes an ideal starting point. The data you collect is a foundation

on which to build more ideas and conduct more research.

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 Disadvantages of Experimental design

1. Experimental research is highly prone to human error while the major disadvantage of non-

experimental research is that the results obtained cannot be absolutely clear and error-free. In the

long run, the error obtained due to human error may affect the results of the experimental

research.

2. Some other disadvantages of experimental research include the following; extraneous

variables cannot always be controlled, human responses can be difficult to measure, and

participants may also cause bias.

Non- Experimental design

Non-experimental research is the type of research that does not involve the manipulation of

control or independent variable. In non-experimental research, researchers measure variables as

they naturally occur without any further manipulation. This type of research is used when the

researcher has no specific research question about a causal relationship between 2 different

variables, and manipulation of the independent variable is impossible. Many nurse researchers

have made great use of research designs. Experimental research cannot be conducted with human

beings because of ethical reasons so at times non experimental research is the best style to use.

All non-experimental research is descriptive because there is no manipulation of data or

variables over the research setting. One reason for using a non-experimental design is that a vast

number of human characteristics are inherently not subject to experimental manipulation (e.g.,

blood type, personality, health beliefs, and medical diagnosis), the effects of these characteristics

on other phenomena cannot be studied experimentally. Another reason being that there are some

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research questions for which an experimental design is not appropriate. This is especially true for

descriptive studies, which seek to document the characteristics, prevalence, intensity, or full

nature of phenomena.

Characteristics of non-experimental research

1. Most studies are based on events that occurred previously and are analyzed later.

2. In this method, controlled experiments are not performed for reasons such as ethics or

morality.

3. No study samples are created; on the contrary, the samples or participants already exist and

develop in their environment.

4. The researcher does not intervene directly in the environment of the sample.

5. This method studies the phenomena exactly as they occurred.

Types of non-experimental research design

Correlational Research: Correlation type of research compares the statistical relationship

between two variables. Correlation research is classified as non-experimental because it does not

manipulate the independent variables. For example, a researcher may wish to investigate the

relationship between the class of family students come from and their grades in school. A

questionnaire may be given to students to know the average income of their family, and then

compare it with CGPAs. In correlational research, the researcher examines the strength of

relationship between variables by determining how the changes in one variable affect the other.

Example of Correlational Research Questions:

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 - The relationship between stress and depression.

- The equation between fame and money.

- The relation between activities in a third-grade class and its students.

Descriptive Research: its purpose is to observe, describe and document aspects of situations as

it naturally occurs and to serve as a starting point for hypothesis generation and theory

development.

Advantages of Non-experimental design

1. It is very flexible during the research process

2. The cause of the phenomenon is known, and the effect it has is investigated.

3. The researcher can define the characteristics of the study group.

Disadvantages of non-experimental design

1. The groups are not representative of the entire population.

2. Errors in the methodology may occur, leading to biases.

Differences between Experimental and Non-experimental Design

Experimental design Non-experimental design

They are characterized by randomization, The subjects are studied just as they are, but

control and manipulation of subjects with less control and they maybe random

selection subjects

They are more cost effective because they They are less expensive compared to

have to create environment to control it experimental

They are suitable to replication They are not suitable to replication

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 It is able to determine the cause and effect of They are not able to determine such

a relationship

Quasi-Experimental design

The word “Quasi” indicates similarity. A quasi-experimental design is similar to experimental,

but it is not the same. The difference between the two is the assignment of a control group. In

this research, an independent variable is manipulated, but the participants of a group are not

randomly assigned. Quasi-research is used in field settings where random assignment is either

irrelevant or not required. Quasi-experimental research design is discussed in two divisions are

necessary to the researchers;

Case–control designs: also known as non-equivalent control group design. They are research

designs that researchers used to identify or study the possible variables that may contribute to

various health factors. It is similar to the pretest-posttest control group design except there is no

random assignment of subjects to the experimental and comparison groups.

Time series design: a control group was used but randomization was not, the researcher

periodically observes or measures the subjects. With its numerous observations or measurements

of the dependent variable helps strengthen the validity of the design.

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 Survey Designs

It is an empirical method of obtaining large amount of data in a relatively short time and tries to

understand the phenomenon rather than cause and effect. It provides accurate assessment of the

characteristics of the whole population and can be used in studying large and small population to

determine the frequency of events. A nurse researcher might use survey to gather data on health

needs of the client, their sleep patterns or they perceptions of the nursing care they have received.

One of the major advantage of survey research is the ability to provide accurate information on

population while using relatively small samples and another advantage is the large amount of

data gotten can be generated quickly with lest time. Although the responses given maybe not be

true and some are socially acceptable. There are two types of survey known as cross- section and

longitudinal survey. In a cross- sectional surveys subjects are studies at one point at a time, while

in longitudinal survey subjects are studied over time over an extended period. Examples of

survey are opinion polls, attitudes, status of individuals etc

Prospective design: it is an opposite of retrospective and it is a longitudinal study. It identifies

the independent variable X in the present and look to the future in respect to identify the

dependent variable Y which can be a potential effect. It begins with a presume cause and look

forward to its effects.

Retrospective design: it means looking backwards and this is where changes in the independent

variable have already occurred before the research due to the natural course of events. The

dependent variable is identified in the present and then the researcher looks to the previous

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events that have already occurred to identify the possible independent variable. The researcher

does not manipulate the independent variable to observe the effect.

B. Qualitative Research: It is a research design concerned with establishing answers

concerned with the whys and hows of the phenomenon in question. It is often defined as

being subjective and findings are gathered in a written format. Qualitative research is a

type of research that involves the measurement of the health and healthcare through a

range of philosophical methods and ways. It is widely accepted in the academic world

particularly to nursing. Qualitative research will require you immerse yourself in the

world of your participants and it is more subjective than objective.

In qualitative research, participants are purposively selected for their experience with the

phenomena of interest as opposed to a random selection or sampling from a larger population.

The data from selected participants are considered rich in detail and are often referred to as dense

or thick descriptions. Typical sample sizes vary from few up to 30 participants. This is quite

different from quantitative samples that often require larger number of participants, guided by

statistical power analyses. The power in qualitative research is in the richness of description and

detail of specific lived experiences, social processes, cultures, and narrative accounts.

The methods used in qualitative designs are less structured than in quantitative designs and

primarily include multiple in-depth interviews, ongoing participant-observation, written diaries,

narrative descriptions, and focus groups.

Types of Qualitative Research

The four types of qualitative research designs most often used to conduct nursing research

include:

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1) Phenomenology

2) Grounded theory

3) Ethnography

4) Narrative inquiry

Phenomenology

The purpose of phenomenological research is to describe specific phenomena of interest as they

are lived and experienced by individuals. The focus of phenomenological studies is on

understanding what an experience means within the context of people's lives. This is referred to

as capturing the lived experience. For example, a research question for this approach might be

"What is the experience of teens living in a family at genetic risk for Huntington disease?" The

only reliable sources of information to answer this type of inquiry or question are the people

experiencing the phenomena. In this example, teen participants would be sought whose parent or

grandparent had tested positive or had symptoms of Huntington disease.

To select a sample for a phenomenological study, the researcher purposively selects individuals

or groups that have experienced the phenomenon. Inclusion and exclusion criteria are established

based on the focus for study. Estimating the number of participants depends on the amount and

quality of information elicited from each participant, the scope of the study, the nature of the

topic, and the number of interviews per participant(9). In a focused study, with a clearly defined

topic and limited scope, a relatively small sample size (10 or fewer participants) is required.

However, if each participant is interviewed only once and the amount of information limited,

large numbers (up to 60 participants) are sought. The key is to reach saturation of data.

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Saturation is the state where no more new data of importance to the study emerges and the

elements of all of the themes, concepts, and theory are accounted for (10).

Grounded Theory

Grounded theory research was discovered by two sociologist called glasser and Strauss in 1967.

They involve the use of deductive and inductive approach development. Researchers use a

grounded theory design when they are interested in phenomena involving the social processes

underlying human experiences and behavior (5). For example, a research question for this

approach might be "How do children cope following the death of a sibling?" In this example,

children would be interviewed and asked questions, as well as their parents and, perhaps, their

schoolteachers. The different concepts and patterns of coping that emerge from the analysis of

the data are then synthesized into a theory to serve as a guide for further understanding or testing.

The main idea is that the theory of how children cope emerges from the descriptions of those

experiencing the phenomenon, not from ideas from those who have not. The aim of a grounded

theory approach is the generation of theory that comes from, or is "grounded" in, the data (10).

The primary characteristics of grounded theory designs are theoretical sampling and the constant

comparison of data with emerging categories (3). Data collection and analysis occur

simultaneously and each piece of new data is constantly compared and contrasted with

previously identified concepts (5). Sample sizes tend to be larger in grounded theory designs,

when compared to other qualitative designs, because of need for theoretical sampling.

Theoretical sampling means that the selection of participants is directed by the emerging analysis

(6). In other words, the researcher begins with a focused sample, but as different concepts

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emerge, the researcher seeks out additional participants based on further understanding of his

concepts. This process often includes the search for outliers and negative cases so the full range

of possible experiences or a full understanding takes place. Theoretical sampling continues until

the researcher is satisfied that the theory synthesized from the data and concepts are reflective of

the social process under study.

Ethnography

Researchers use ethnography as a research design when they are seeking a deeper understanding

or description of a specific culture, group, or community (10). Ethnography involves

experiencing, most often by participant observation, enquiring, through interviews and oral

histories, and examining, the study of cultural documents and artifacts. Most of the time,

ethnography is equated with the extended immersion of the researcher in the culture, group, or

community under study. This is often referred to as fieldwork and the extensive notes taken by

the researcher are referred to as field notes. Immersion in the field helps the researcher identify

key informants, customs, and artifacts that are so enmeshed in the group being studied that they

would probably not be identified by simple interview.

Although ethnography is the research design most often thought of when studying culture, the

word culture can be interpreted in many ways. Culture can be defined as the way of life of a

group learned behaviors that are socially constructed and transmitted (10). Researchers can use

ethnography to explore the culture of nursing, of nursing homes, academia, and/or politics. Each

of these cultures has its own way of communicating, its own customs, rites of passage, and

artifacts. This broader interpretation of ethnography and culture is being used more often in

research today.

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Using ethnography, the researcher's responsibility is to describe the unique and distinctive

processes or rules of behavior of the subculture or culture with the primary aim of further

understanding and communication. The important concept in ethnographic research design is the

emphasis on obtaining an emic, rather than etic, perspective. An emic perspective is the cultural

member's, insiders, or native's point of view or perspective (9). This perspective is essential as it

prevents the imposition of the values and beliefs of researchers and other outsiders. The outsider,

or etic, perspective has been prevalent for too long both in health care and in research (10).

Ethnography is often very time consuming and intense for the researcher as data collection

involves ongoing immersion in the culture and participant observation.

Narrative Enquiry

Narrative inquiry is a broadly determined and interpreted research design that involves individual

narrative accounts and the interpretation of their meaning (10-11). Narrative accounts can be

obtained from a number of groups including patients, family, and caregivers. In narrative

inquiry, the researcher studies the lives and experiences of individuals or groups by asking them

to talk about or story their experiences. The resultant narratives are analyzed within and across

individuals and then re-told or re-storied by the researcher (3). The primary aim of narrative

inquiry is to listen and question earlier assumptions. For example, children are typically

understood through adult proxy, usually their parents. When children themselves are asked about

their experiences, their narrative accounts are often quite different. The same can be said of

patients and others in the same room. Individuals are purposively selected for participation in

narrative inquiry studies based on the research focus and criterion under study. The numbers of

participants vary and depend on the overall focus and scope of the study and the amount of

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information gained from each narrative account. Narratives are analyzed individually and then

across participants until a meta-narrative or overall story is synthesized and the re-told by the

researcher. The researcher looks at what is said and the analysis appears very similar to the

thematic analysis used in phenomenology. However, when narratives are examined for their

structure, the researcher looks at how the story is constructed and told. Through this process,

researchers examine what details are prioritized, reiterated, emphasized, and/or left out looking

not so much at the story itself, but at why the story was told in this particular way. Narratives can

be examined for their content and/or structure.

Differences between Qualitative and Quantitative Research

BASIS FOR QUALITATIVE RESEARCH QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

COMPARISON

Meaning Qualitative research is a method Quantitative research is a research

of inquiry that develops method that is used to generate
understanding on human and numerical data and hard facts, by
social sciences, to find the way employing statistical, logical and
people think and feel. mathematical technique.

Nature Holistic Particularistic

Approach Subjective Objective

Research type Exploratory Conclusive

Reasoning Inductive Deductive

Sampling Purposive Random

Data Verbal Measurable

Inquiry Process-oriented Result-oriented

Hypothesis Generated Tested

Elements of Words, pictures and objects Numerical data

analysis

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 Objective To explore and discover ideas To examine cause and effect
used in the ongoing processes. relationship between variables.

Methods Non-structured techniques like In- Structured techniques such as surveys,

depth interviews, group questionnaires and observations.
discussions etc.

Result Develops initial understanding Recommends final course of action

Conclusion

The research design is the blue print of the research. A major purpose of the design is to ensure

that the adequate data collection method is applied. The design will set up how the experiment

will go. It determines the dependent and independent variables in the study. There are many

different research designs that can be used. Some of these designs include: descriptive, correlation,

experimental, and review. Qualitative and/or quantitative research methods can be used to collect

data for the studies. For a study to be valid, there must internal and external variable-related

validity factors. The internal validity is when an efficient test of the hypothesis has been done.

External validity is when the research can be applied to things outside of the study or in other

studies. Usually, a study that contains high internal validity will have a low external validity.

There are several strengths and limitations to experimental research.

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 References

Nursing Research Principles and Methods. Designing Quantitative studies, 8, 182-189, 197-201,

204-207. Qualitative Research Design and Approaches, 11, 265-272.

John Maltby_et_al_Research Methods, 2, 44-60, 64-79

Nursing Research Reading, Using and Creating Evidences (2018). Selecting an appropriate

research design, 6, 154-162

Foundations of Nursing Research seventh edition. Quantitative Research Design, 9, 130-142.

Qualitative Research Design, 10, 151-157.

Research Methods in Nursing. Research Design, 37-41.

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