Research Designs 1

Prof. Pragya Tiwari

MBA Department
 Introduction 2

 The purpose of research is to discover answers to

questions through the application of scientific
procedures.

 Redman and Mory has explained research as

‘’systematized effort to gain new knowledge’
 What is research design?
3
 Overall plan or programme of research

 Research Design can be defined as a framework of research methods and

techniques applied by a researcher to incorporate different elements &
components of research in a systematic manner with a view to operate the
Research Problem efficiently.

 Most significantly, research design provides insights about “How to Conduct a

Research using a particular research methodology.

 The main aim of Research Design - To find out answers to research questions.
Key points need to split the
4
parts of the overall research
design

What type of data is required?

What is the study about?
Where can the required data be found?
Why is the study being made?
What periods of time will the study
Where will the study be carried out?
include?

What will be the sample design?

What techniques of data collection will
be used?
How will the data be analysed?
In what style will the report be prepared?
Functions of Research Design 5

1. The research design provides a blueprint to the researcher.

 For example- what the research is about?
 What kind of data requires to resolve research questions?
 Where to collect the required data and information? Study area, time, and so on.
Functions of Research Design 6

2.Research design determines an outline of research work that’s the researcher can

concentrate fully on the study.

 That is, the precise objectives of the study are the most important in this regard.
 The reason is pointless research becomes an endless practice so far.

3.The research design helps the researcher to resolve many shortcomings before the study

starts.
 This is possible through the proper Review of Literature.
 The researcher in this review can decide some possible alternative ways to solve the research
problem.
Essential elements of the research
designs 7

1. Accurate purpose statement

2. Techniques to be implemented for collecting and analyzing research
3. The method applied for analyzing collected details
4. Type of research methodology
5. Probable objections for research
6. Settings for the research study
 7. Timeline
How do we Create a Research Design? 8

Creating a research design means making DECISIONS about:

 Overall aims and approach
 The type of research design you’ll use
 How you’ll select participants or subjects
 Data collection methods
 The procedures you’ll follow to collect data
 Data analysis strategies
KEY CHARACTERISTICS OF 9
RESEARCH DESIGN
 Steps in Research Design 10

Step 1: Consider - aims and approach

Step 2: Choose a type of research design
Step 3: Identify - population and sampling method
Step 4: Choose - data collection methods
Step 5: Plan - data collection procedures
Step 6: Decide on - data analysis strategies
 TYPES OF RESEARCH 11
DESIGNS
 Descriptive Research

As the name implies, this is an in-depth sort of research design that answers
what
 TYPES OF RESEARCH 12
DESIGNS

 Exploratory Research

This sort of research explores the subject matter and answers what and how.

( Feasibility study )

 Explanatory Research

This sort of research design explains the subject of the research and thereby
answers what, why, and how. (Causes and effect)
 TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGNS
13

Evaluation research designs are classified into three broad categories, & several
subtypes.

1. Quantitative research design

2. Qualitative research design

3. Mixed method research design

 RESEARCH DESIGNS 14

Eight different research design :

Quantitative Qualitative Mixed Method

Experimental design Grounded theory Survey Research Design

Correlational Design Ethnographies Action Research Design

Narrative research

Case Study
 15

Research Designs- Qualitative

approach
 Qualitative Research Design 16

Qualitative Research Design having 4 subtypes:

1. Narrative research

2. Grounded theory

3. Ethnographies

4. Case study
 Qualitative Research Design 17

1.NARRATIVE RESEARCH

Narrative research is a design of inquiry from the humanities in which

the researcher studies the lives of individuals and asks one or more

individuals to provide stories about their lives.

 Qualitative Research Design 18

3.Grounded theory

 Grounded theory is a design of inquiry from sociology in which the researcher derives a
general, abstract theory of a process, action, or interaction grounded in the views of participants.

 This process involves using multiple stages of data collection and the refinement and
interrelationship of categories of information

4. Ethnography

 Ethnography is a design of investigation coming from anthropology and sociology in

which the researcher studies the shared patterns of behaviors, language, and actions of an
intact cultural group in a natural setting over a prolonged period of time.

 Data collection often involves observations and interviews.


 Qualitative Research Design 19

5.Case study

Case studies are a design of inquiry found in many fields, especially evaluation, in
which the researcher develops an in-depth analysis of a case, often a program, event,
activity, process, or one or more individuals.
 20

Research Designs- Quantitative

approach
Experimental Designs 21

 Experimental researchers test an idea (or practice or procedure) to determine

its effect on an outcome.

 Experimental research is usually undertaken when the goal of the research is

to trace cause-and-effect relationships between defined variables.
 22
Conclusion- Experimental Research Design

What do these studies tell you?

1. Experimental research allows the researcher to control the situation. In so doing,
it allows researchers to answer the question, “what causes something to occur?”

2. Permits the researcher to identify cause and effect relationships between

variables and to distinguish placebo effects from treatment effects.

3. Experimental research designs support the ability to limit alternative

explanations.

Approach provides the highest level of evidence for single studies.

 23
Conclusion- Experimental Research Design

What do these studies don't tell you?

 The design is artificial, and results may not generalize well to the real world.
 The artificial settings of experiments may alter subject behaviors or responses.
 Experimental designs can be costly if special equipment or facilities are needed.
 Some research problems cannot be studied using an experiment because of
ethical or technical reasons.
 Difficult to apply ethnographic and other qualitative methods to experimental
designed research studies.
 24

RESEARCH
DESIGN – •Action Research Design
Quantitative
Action Research
25
Purpose of Action Research Design 26

 The purpose of action research is to improve the practice of education, with

researchers studying their own problems or issues in a school or
educational setting.

 Educators engage in reflection about these problems, collect and analyze

data, and implement changes or a plan of action based on their findings.

 In some cases, the research solves a local, practical problem, such as a

classroom issue for a teacher.

 In other situations, the research seeks ideological aims, such as to

empower, transform, and liberate individuals and communities.
Types of Action Research Design 27
Conclusion- Action Research 28

What do these studies tell you?

 1. A collaborative and adaptive research design that lends itself to use in

work or community situations.

 2. Design focuses on pragmatic and solution-driven research rather than

testing theories.

 3. When practitioners use action research it has the potential to increase the
amount they learn consciously from their experience. The action research
cycle can also be regarded as a learning cycle.

 4. Action search studies often have direct and obvious relevance to practice.

 5.There are no hidden controls or preemption of direction by the researcher.

Conclusion- Action Research 29

What these studies don't tell you?

1.It is harder to do than conducting conventional studies because the

researcher takes on responsibilities for encouraging change as well as for
research.

2. Action research is much harder to write up because you probably can’t

use a standard format to report your findings effectively.

3. Personal over-involvement of the researcher may bias research results.

4. The cyclic nature of action research to achieve its twin outcomes of

action (e.g. change) and research (e.g. understanding) is time-consuming
and complex to conduct.
 Examples in Action Research 30

 When Do we Use Action Research?

 We use action research when we have a specific educational problem to solve.

 Action research provides an opportunity for educators to reflect on their own

practices.

 Within the scope of a school, action research offers a means for staff
development, for teachers’ development as professionals, and for addressing
schoolwide problems (Allen & Calhoun, 1998).

 In fact, the scope of action research provides a means for teachers or

educators in the schools to improve their practices of taking action and to do
so by participating in research
 31

RESEARCH
DESIGN – •Survey Research Design
Quantitative
Survey Research 32
 33
Survey Research

 It provides a quantitative or numeric description of trends, attitudes, or

opinions of a population by studying a sample of that population.

 It includes cross-sectional and longitudinal studies using questionnaires or

structured interviews for data collection—with the intent of generalizing from

a sample to a population.
The main difference is that cross-sectional studies interview a fresh sample of people each
time they are carried out, (Summative results for two different academic years)
34
whereas longitudinal studies follow the same sample of people over time.( Formative results
with in a year)
Types of Survey Research 35
Design
 Conclusion- Survey Research Design
36

 What do these studies tell you?

 1.Cross-sectional studies provide a 'snapshot' of the outcome and the characteristics

associated with it, at a specific point in time.

 2.Unlike the experimental design where there is an active intervention by the researcher to
produce and measure change or to create differences, cross-sectional designs focus on
studying and drawing inferences from existing differences between people, subjects, or
phenomena.

 3.Involves collecting data at and concerning one point in time. While longitudinal studies
involve taking multiple measures over an extended period of time, cross-sectional research
is focused on finding relationships between variables at one moment in time.

 4.Groups identified for study are purposely selected based upon existing differences in the
sample rather than seeking random sampling.
 Conclusion- Survey Research Design
37

What these studies don't tell you?

1. Finding people, subjects, or phenomena to study that are very similar

except in one specific variable can be difficult.

2. Results are static and time bound and, therefore, give no indication of a
sequence of events or reveal historical contexts.

3. Studies cannot be utilized to establish cause and effect relationships.

4. Provide only a snapshot of analysis so there is always the possibility that

a study could have differing results if another time-frame had been chosen.

5. There is no follow up to the findings.

 38

RESEARCH
DESIGN – •Correlational Research
Quantitative Design
 Correlational Research 39

 Correlational designs provide an opportunity for you to predict scores and explain the

relationship among variables.

 In correlational research designs, investigators use the correlation statistical test to

describe and measure the degree of association (or relationship) between two or more

variables or sets of scores.

In this design, the researchers do not attempt to control or manipulate the variables as in

an experiment; instead, they relate, using the correlation statistic, two or more scores for

each person .

 (e.g., a student motivation and a student achievement score for each individual).
Correlational Research 40
Correlational Research 41

What do these studies tell you?

 Identify whether you plan to examine the association between or among

variables or use correlational research to make predictions about an
outcome.

 Plot on a graph the association between your variables so that you can
determine the direction, form, and strength of the association.

 Use appropriate correlational statistics in your design based on whether

the data are continuous or categorical and whether the form of the data
is linear (develop smoothly from one stage to another) or nonlinear
(doesn’t develop smoothly from one stage to another).
 Correlational Research 42

 Recognize that a correlation study is not as rigorous as an experiment

because the researcher can only control statistically for variables rather than
physically manipulate variables.

 Correlational studies do not “prove” relationships; rather, they indicate an

association between or among variables or sets of scores.

 Realize that all correlational studies, no matter how advanced the statistics,
use a correlation coefficient as their base for analysis.

 Understanding the intent of this coefficient helps you determine the results
in a correlational study.
 Examples of 43
Correlational Research

Maria chooses a quantitative correlational design for her graduate school research project.

This is her research question: “Is the use of alcohol by students related to suspensions for weapon
possession?”

In other words, does use of alcohol predict whether a person will receive suspension for possessing weapons
in the school?

Maria accesses school records for individuals cited for possession of alcohol and the records for weapon
possession.

She relates these two variables using the correlation statistic.

She finds that the two variables are positively related:

If a person has been cited for alcohol, he or she is likely to be suspended for weapon possession as well.

Maria conducts a correlation research study.

HYPOTHESIS:
Meaning and Definition
 Hypothesis is the pre -thought or primary idea on which any reassert work is based or to be
conducted.
 In general, hypo means below or sub, and thesis is research work. This word is derived
from Latin term hupothesis which gives the meaning of ‘to put under’ or ‘to suppose’.
 As per Merriam Webster Dictionary a hypothesis is-
 - an assumption or concession made for the sake of argument,
 -an interpretation of a practical situation or condition taken as the ground for action,
 -a tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical
consequences,
 - the antecedent clause of a conditional statement .
Actually every hypothesis is a suggestive answer to the problem identified( topic of
research ).
Types

The most common forms of hypotheses are-

 Simple Hypothesis
 Complex Hypothesis
 Empirical Hypothesis
 Null Hypothesis (Denoted by Ho)
 Alternative Hypothesis (Denoted by H1)
 Logical Hypothesis
 Statistical Hypothesis.
 --and many other types as per need and nature of field of study e.g.-impure and
original, working(narrative), substantive, universal, existential, alternative
hypothesis etc.
Types
The six most common forms of hypotheses are-
 Simple Hypothesis:
It shows a relationship between one dependent variable and a single independent
variable. For example – If you eat more vegetables, you will lose weight faster. Here,
eating more vegetables is an independent variable, while losing weight is the
dependent variable.
 Complex Hypothesis:
It shows the relationship between two or more dependent variables and two or more
independent variables. Eating more vegetables and fruits leads to weight loss,
glowing skin, and reduces the risk of many diseases such as heart disease.
 Empirical Hypothesis:
An empirical hypothesis, also called a working hypothesis, is one that professionals
accept as a basis for future research in order to formulate a theory for testing.
Types
 Null Hypothesis (Denoted by Ho):
A null hypothesis is the default position that assumes variables have no relation to
each other.
 Alternative Hypothesis (Denoted by H1):
An alternative hypothesis is created to disprove a null hypothesis and adapts its
method and prediction according to its results.
 Logical Hypothesis:
A logical hypothesis offers an explanation without extensive evidence.
 Statistical Hypothesis:
A statistical hypothesis evaluates a limited portion of a population and uses statistics
to assess the results.
Other Types:
•Directional hypothesis: The alternative
hypothesis contains the less than
(“<“) or greater than (“>”) sign. This
indicates that we’re testing whether
or not there is a positive or negative
effect.
•Non-directional hypothesis: The
alternative hypothesis contains the
not equal (“≠”) sign. This indicates
that we’re testing whether or not
there is some effect, without
Sources

Following are the main sources of hypothesis-

 Personal Experience
 Imagination & Thinking
 Observation
 Scientific Theory
 Previous Study
 Culture, folk wisdom, current beliefs and practices
 Analogy
 Surveys, policies, decisions, public opinions, previous researches etc.
Dimensions and Features

Johan Galtung has identified following dimensions( to be kept in mind) of a hypothesis-

1.Genertality
2.Complexity
3.Specificity
4.Determenancy
5.Falsifiability
6.Testability
7.Predictability
8.Communicability
9.Reproductibility
10.Reliability.
Precautions

Goode and Hatt have identified the following characteristics of a Hypothesis

A. Clarity
B. Empiricism
C. Specificity
D. Related to available techniques
E. Related to theories.
Every hypothesis must concern with three elements i.e.- unit of research,
variables and values.