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LEADERSHIP
MOTIVATION:
Motivation is the driving force which causes us to achieve goals. Motivation is said to be intrinsic
or extrinsic. The term is generally used for humans but, theoretically, it can also be used to
describe the causes for animal behavior as well. This article refers to human motivation.
According to various theories, motivation may be rooted in a basic need to minimize physical
pain and maximize pleasure, or it may include specific needs such as eating and resting, or a
desired object, goal, state of being, ideal, or it may be attributed to less-apparent reasons such as
altruism, selfishness, morality, or avoiding mortality. Conceptually, motivation should not be
confused with either volition or optimism.[1] Motivation is related to, but distinct from, emotion
Motivation concepts
Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation
Intrinsic motivation refers to motivation that is driven by an interest or enjoyment in the task
itself, and exists within the individual rather than relying on any external pressure. Intrinsic
motivation has been studied by social and educational psychologists since the early 1970s.
Research has found that it is usually associated with high educational achievement and enjoyment
by students. attribute their educational results to internal factors that they can control (e.g. the
amount of effort they put in),
• believe they can be effective agents in reaching desired goals (i.e. the results are not
determined by luck),
• are interested in mastering a topic, rather than just rote-learning to achieve good grades.
Extrinsic motivation comes from outside of the individual. Common extrinsic motivations are
rewards like money and grades, coercion and threat of punishment. Competition is in general
extrinsic because it encourages the performer to win and beat others, not to enjoy the intrinsic
rewards of the activity. A crowd cheering on the individual and trophies are also extrinsic
incentives.
Social psychological research has indicated that extrinsic rewards can lead to over justification
and a subsequent reduction in intrinsic motivation. In one study demonstrating this effect,
children who expected to be (and were) rewarded with a ribbon and a gold star for drawing
pictures spent less time playing with the drawing materials in subsequent observations than
children who were assigned to an unexpected reward condition and to children who received no
extrinsic reward.
Self-determination theory proposes that extrinsic motivation can be internalised by the individual
if the task fits with their values and beliefs and therefore helps to fulfill their basic psychological
needs.
Self-control
Drives and desires can be described as a deficiency or need that activates behavior that is aimed
at a goal or an incentive. These are thought to originate within the individual and may not require
external stimuli to encourage the behavior. Basic drives could be sparked by deficiencies such as
hunger, which motivates a person to seek food; whereas more subtle drives might be the desire
for praise and approval, which motivates a person to behave in a manner pleasing to others.
By contrast, the role of extrinsic rewards and stimuli can be seen in the example of training
animals by giving them treats when they perform a trick correctly. The treat motivates the animals
to perform the trick consistently, even later when the treat is removed from the process.
MOTIVATIONAL THEORIES
Incentive theory
A reward, tangible or intangible, is presented after the occurrence of an action (i.e. behavior) with
the intent to cause the behavior to occur again. This is done by associating positive meaning to
the behavior. Studies show that if the person receives the reward immediately, the effect would
be greater, and decreases as duration lengthens. Repetitive action-reward combination can cause
the action to become habit. Motivation comes from two sources: oneself, and other people. These
two sources are called intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation, respectively.
Applying proper motivational techniques can be much harder than it seems. Steven Kerr notes
that when creating a reward system, it can be easy to reward A, while hoping for B, and in the
process, reap harmful effects that can jeopardize your goals
Incentive theory in psychology, treats motivation and behavior of the individual, as they are
influenced by beliefs, such as engaging in activities that are expected to be profitable. Incentive
theory is promoted by behavioral psychologists, such as B.F. Skinner and literalized, by
behaviorists, especially by Skinner in his philosophy of Radical behaviorism, to mean that a
person's actions always have social ramifications: and if actions are positively received people
are more likely to act in this manner, or if negatively received people are less likely to act in this
manner. Incentive theorists tend to distinguish between wanting and liking, where liking is a
passive function evaluating a stimulus, but wanting adds an active process "attracting" the person
towards the stimulus.
Incentive theory distinguishes itself from other motivation theories, such as drive theory, in the
direction of the motivation. In incentive theory, stimuli "attract", to use the term above, a person
towards them. As opposed to the body seeking to reestablish homeostasis pushing it towards the
stimulus. In terms of behaviorism, incentive theory involves positive reinforcement: the stimulus
has been conditioned to make the person happier. For instance, a person knows that eating food,
drinking water, or gaining social capital will make them happier. As opposed to in drive theory,
which involves negative reinforcement: a stimulus has been associated with the removal of the
punishment-- the lack of homeostasis in the body. For example, a person has come to know that
if they eat when hungry, it will eliminate that negative feeling of hunger, or if they drink when
thirsty, it will eliminate that negative feeling of thirst.
Drive-reduction theories
There are a number of drive theories. The Drive Reduction Theory grows out of the concept
that we have certain biological drives, such as hunger. As time passes the strength of the drive
increases if it is not satisfied (in this case by eating). Upon satisfying a drive the drive's strength
is reduced. The theory is based on diverse ideas from the theories of Freud to the ideas of feedback
control systems, such as a thermostat.
Drive theory has some intuitive or folk validity. For instance when preparing food, the drive
model appears to be compatible with sensations of rising hunger as the food is prepared, and,
after the food has been consumed, a decrease in subjective hunger. There are several problems,
however, that leave the validity of drive reduction open for debate. The first problem is that it
does not explain how secondary reinforcers reduce drive. For example, money satisfies no
biological or psychological needs, but a pay check appears to reduce drive through second-order
conditioning. Secondly, a drive, such as hunger, is viewed as having a "desire" to eat, making the
drive a homuncular being—a feature criticized as simply moving the fundamental problem
behind this "small man" and his desires.
In addition, it is clear that drive reduction theory cannot be a complete theory of behavior, or a
hungry human could not prepare a meal without eating the food before he finished cooking it.
The ability of drive theory to cope with all kinds of behavior, from not satisfying a drive (by
adding on other traits such as restraint), or adding additional drives for "tasty" food, which
combine with drives for "food" in order to explain cooking render it hard to test.
This occurs when an individual experiences some degree of discomfort resulting from an
incompatibility between two cognitions. For example, a consumer may seek to reassure himself
regarding a purchase, feeling, in retrospect, that another decision may have been preferable.
Another example of cognitive dissonance is when a belief and a behavior are in conflict. A person
may wish to be healthy, believes smoking is bad for one's health, and yet continues to smoke.
NEED THEORIES:
Need hierarchy theory
Abraham Maslow's theory is one of the most widely discussed theories of motivation.
• Human beings have wants and desires which influence their behavior. Only unsatisfied
needs influence behavior, satisfied needs do not.
• Since needs are many, they are arranged in order of importance, from the basic to the
complex.
• The person advances to the next level of needs only after the lower level need is at least
minimally satisfied.
• The further the progress up the hierarchy, the more individuality, humanness and
psychological health a person will show.
The needs, listed from basic (lowest-earliest) to most complex (highest-latest) are as follows:
The factors that motivate people can change over their lifetime, but "respect for me as a person"
is one of the top motivating factors at any stage of life.
He distinguished between:
The name Hygiene factors is used because, like hygiene, the presence will not make you healthier,
but absence can cause health deterioration.
The theory is sometimes called the "Motivator-Hygiene Theory" and/or "The Dual Structure
Theory." Herzberg's theory has found application in such occupational fields as information
systems and in studies of user satisfaction (see Computer user satisfaction).
Alderfer, expanding on Maslow's hierarchy of needs, created the ERG theory. This theory
posits that there are three groups of core needs — existence, relatedness, and growth, hence the
label: ERG theory. The existence group is concerned with providing our basic material existence
requirements. They include the items that Maslow considered to be physiological and safety
needs. The second group of needs are those of relatedness- the desire we have for maintaining
important interpersonal relationships. These social and status desires require interaction with
others if they are to be satisfied, and they align with Maslow's social need and the external
component of Maslow's esteem classification. Finally, Alderfer isolates growth needs' an intrinsic
desire for personal development. These include the intrinsic component from Maslow's esteem
category and the characteristics included under self-actualization.
Self-determination theory
Self-determination theory, developed by Edward Deci and Richard Ryan, focuses on the
importance of intrinsic motivation in driving human behavior. Like Maslow's hierarchical theory
and others that built on it, SDT posits a natural tendency toward growth and development. Unlike
these other theories, however, SDT does not include any sort of "autopilot" for achievement, but
instead requires active encouragement from the environment. The primary factors that encourage
motivation and development are autonomy, competence feedback, and relatedness.
Broad theories
Cognitive theories
Goal-setting theory
Goal-setting theory is based on the notion that individuals sometimes have a drive to reach a
clearly defined end state. Often, this end state is a reward in itself. A goal's efficiency is affected
by three features: proximity, difficulty and specificity. An ideal goal should present a situation
where the time between the initiation of behavior and the end state is close. This explains why
some children are more motivated to learn how to ride a bike than to master algebra. A goal
should be moderate, not too hard or too easy to complete. In both cases, most people are not
optimally motivated, as many want a challenge (which assumes some kind of insecurity of
success). At the same time people want to feel that there is a substantial probability that they will
succeed. Specificity concerns the description of the goal in their class. The goal should be
objectively defined and intelligible for the individual. A classic example of a poorly specified
goal is to get the highest possible grade. Most children have no idea how much effort they need
to reach that goal.
LEADERSHIP
Alan Keith of Genentech states that, "Leadership is ultimately about creating a way for people
to contribute to making something extraordinary happen." According to Ken "SKC" Ogbonnia,
"effective leadership is the ability to successfully integrate and maximize available resources
within the internal and external environment for the attainment of organizational or societal
goals." Managers are people who do things right, while leaders are people who do the right
thing. 'Leadership is all about courage to dream big. ‘Leadership is a complex process by which
a person influences others to accomplish a mission, task, or objective and directs the
organization in a way that makes it more cohesive and coherent. Leadership makes people want
to achieve high goals and objectives, while, on the other hand, bosses tell people to accomplish
a task or objective. Leadership can be used for good or ill. Leadership skills can be perverted
to pursue bad ends .
CHARACTERISTICS OF LEADERSHIP:
➢ Co-existence with follower ship
➢ Responsibility
➢ Understanding nature
➢ Precedence
➢ Situation
“Leadership is the process of influencing and supporting others to work enthusiastically toward
achieving objectives”. – Barnard Key.
Autocratic Leadership Style: - This is also known as authoritarian, directive style. In this style
manager centralizes decision-making power in him. He structures the complete work situation
for his employees. He does not entertain and suggestions or initiative from subordinates. He
gives orders and assigns tasks without taking subordinates opinion. There are three categories
of autocratic leaders.
a) Strict Autocrat: - He follows autocratic styles in a very strict sense. His method of
influencing subordinates behaviour is through negative motivation that is by criticizing
subordinates, imposing penalty etc…
b) Benevolent Autocrat: - He also centralizes decision making power in him, but his
motivation style is positive. He can be effective in getting efficiency in man situations. Some
like to work under strong authority structure and they drive satisfaction by this leadership.
Advantages:-
Disadvantages:-
1. People in the organisation dislike it specially when it is strict and the motivational style is
negative.
2. Employees lack motivation frustration, low morale and conflict develops in the organisation.
B C
Advantages:-
1. Employees are highly motivated.
2. The productivity of employees is very high.
3. Subordinates share the responsibility with the superior and try to safeguard them also.
Disadvantages:-
C
3. Some leaders may use this style as a way of avoiding responsibility.
10 | P.B.Narendra Kiran – MBA, M.Phil., (Ph.D.) JNTUK- {R19}
DMS – BITS VIZAG
UNIT- 4 MOTIVATION &
LEADERSHIP
Free-rein Leadership:- A free-rein leader does not lead, but leaves the group entirely to itself
as shown in the following figure.
M
B
In this style, manager once determines policy, programmes, and limitations for action
and the entire process is left to subordinates group members perform everything and the
manager usually maintains contacts with outside persons to bring the information and
materials which the group needs.
The following figure shows the spectrum of a wide variety of leadership styles moving
from a very authoritarian style at one end to a very democratic style at the other end, as
suggested by Tannenbaum and warren H.schmidt.
IMPORTANCE OF LEADERSHIP
1. Initiates action
2. Motivation
3. Providing guidance
4. Creating confidence
5. Building morale
7. Co-ordination
The realities of gloablisation, with increasing emphasis on emerging markets, present corporate
leaders with enormous challenges in developing the leaders required to run global organisations.
Too many multinational companies particulary Japanese, Indian, German, and some American
ones still concentrate vital decisions in the hands of a small group of trusted leaders from their
home county. They hire technical, specialists, local experts and country managers from emerging
markets but rarely promote them to corporate positions. Instead, they groom future global leaders
from the headquarters nation by sending them on overseas appointments.
Having the attributes of a leader is only the beginning. Every leader is faced with challenges.
Some of the more common leadership challenges are outlined below:
• Leadership vs. Management: People often confuse the two, or praise one while dismissing
the other. So when deciding between being a leader vs manager, the truth is both roles are
crucial.
• Lack of Development: Leaders might be born, but leadership is also a skill that can be
learned. Some people are placed in a leadership position without the necessary skills and
experience and need to learn quickly.
• Lack of Support: Just as leaders offer support, they need it too. A network of mentors,
advisors and other peers can help.
• Challenging Environment: Sometimes it’s not you, it’s them, like a chain of command that
is laying blame everywhere but where it belongs.
• Personal Limitations: Then sometimes it is you, such as a fear of failure that limits your
effectiveness, or a lack of confidence, which is key to successful leadership.
Challenges have repercussions, and they can derail your leadership if you’re not careful. These
are some of the things that you should be on the lookout for:
• Micromanaging: There’s a tendency to try and regain control by getting into managing the
minutia of the team, but this can feel like meddling. Micromanaging can denote a lack of
trust in your people and can backfire.
• Fail to Support: The opposite is that you pull back and don’t give your team the support
they need to succeed.
• Unable to Make Decisions: For some, the frustration of those challenges can lead to inertia
and a lack of being able to pull the trigger. A leader that can’t decide is not a true leader.
• Avoid Hard Conversations: Then there are those who avoid confrontation and don’t start
the difficult, but necessary, conversations needed to get things back on track.
• Get Defensive: Some leaders get defensive. They take out their frustrations on others and
refuse to listen objectively to constructive criticism.
Challenges have impacts, but leaders can adjust. That’s what leadership is. Jennifer offered these
tips to keep running things smoothly:
• Clarify or Adjust Role: Never be too rigid. Sometimes the best response is to clarify what
your role is, or simply adjust it to something that you’re more comfortable with.
• Embrace Feedback: Be open to listening to other points of view. They can lead to possible
solutions you had not considered.
• Know What Value You Bring to the Table: Just by acknowledging your skills, strengths
and expertise, you’ll add to your overall confidence, and that will positively impact your
leadership.
• Create a Development Plan: Know your strengths, but also identify your weaknesses. That
way you can make a comprehensive development plan.
• Set Goals: To structure that development, set goals for training, progress, etc.
• Role Play: This is a good technique for working through issues and finding solutions that
might otherwise have been hidden.
• Set a Vision for Your Group: Part of motivating and inspiring the group is having a clear
vision that has been communicated and understood by all.
• Delegate: Finally, you can’t do it alone. That’s not leadership; that’s being unrealistic and
masochistic. Share responsibilities. You assembled a team because they have the skills and
experience you wanted. Use them.
JOHARI WINDOW
Definition: The Johari Window is the psychological model developed by Joseph Luft and
Harrington Ingham, that talks about the relationship and mutual understanding between the group
members. In other words, a psychological tool that helps an individual to understand his
relationship with himself and with other group members is called as a Johari Window.
The objective behind the creation of a Johari window is to enable an individual to develop trust
with others by disclosing information about himself and also to know what others feels about
himself through feedback.
The Johari Window model is made up of four quadrants that explain the overall relationship of
an individual with himself and with other group members. These are as follows:
1. Open Self: This quadrant shows the behavior, motives, attitudes, knowledge skills of an
individual that he is aware of and is willing to share it with others. The open self is characterized
as a state wherein the individual is open and straight forward to himself and others about what he
is doing, how is he doing and what are his intentions.
2. Blind Self: The blind self shows the state of an individual known to others but not known to him.
It usually happens, when an individual or a subject copies the behavior of some significant
personalities unconsciously since his childhood.
3. Hidden Self: This quadrant of the Johari window shows the state of an individual known to him
but not known to the others. This is generally seen in the individuals who are introvert and do not
like to share their private lives with anyone. The individual keeps his feelings, ideas or thoughts
to himself and do not disclose it in front of the others.
4. Unknown Self: The unknown self is the mysterious state of an individual neither known to him,
nor others know about it. Ofen the feelings, thoughts or ideas go so deep down the individual that
it becomes difficult for the individual as well for the other people to understand it.
The ultimate need is to enlarge the open self quadrant with the intent to establish a fruitful
relationship with the self as well with others such that the work can be performed efficiently when
working as a team.
TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS
(TA to its adherents), is an integrative approach to the theory of psychology and psychotherapy.
It is described as integrative because it has elements of psychoanalytic, humanist and cognitive
approaches. TA was first developed by Canadian-born US psychiatrist Eric Berne, starting in
the late 1950s.
1. Ego States
a. Parent ego
• Nurturing parent ego
• Critical parent ego
b. Adult ego
c. Child ego
• Natural child
• Adaptive child
• Rebellion child
2. Types of Transactions
a. Complementary
b. Non-Complementary transactions
c. Gallows transactions
3. Life Positions
1. Interpersonal Effectiveness
2. Organizational Development
3. Conflict Resolution
4. Executive Development
When people interact in assertive or non-assertive ways, there is a social transaction in which
one person responds to another. The study of these social transactions between people is called
Transactional Analysis (TA). Transactional analysis was developed by Eric Berne for
psychotherapy in the 1950s. The objective of TA is to provide better understanding of how
people relate to one another, so that they may develop improved communication and human
relationship.
KEY IDEAS IN TA
Ego States The personality of a person is the collection of behaviour patterns developed over a
period of time that other people begin to recognize as that person. These behaviour patterns are
evolved in differing degrees from three ego states - Parent, Adult and Child.
Parent ego is formed by external events and influences upon us as we grow through early
childhood to adulthood. Parent ego is characterized by protective, nurturing, commanding, and
directing. There are two kinds of Parent ego states: (i) Nurturing Parent and (ii) Critical
parent. The Nurturing parent is that part of a person which is understanding and caring about
other people. Behaviour coming from the nurturing parent may set limits on and provide
direction for people behaviour. It will not put the people down and make them feel not OK as
individual. Critical parent behaviour attacks people's personalities as well as their behaviour.
Critical parent makes people feel that they are not OK. When people are in their critical parent
ego state they are very evaluative and judgmental. They are always ready to respond with a
'should' or 'ought' to almost anything people tell them.
The Adult ego state evokes behaviour that could be described simply as logical, reasonable,
rationale and unemotional. Behaviour from the adult ego state is characterized by problem
solving analysis and rationale decision-making. People operating from the adult ego state are
taking emotional content of their child ego state, the value-laden content of their parent ego state
and checking them out in the reality of the external world. These people are examining
alternatives, probabilities and values prior to engaging in behaviour.
The child ego state is associated with behaviours that appear when a person is responding
emotionally. A person's child contains the 'natural' impulses and attitudes learned from child
experiences. There are several forms of the child ego state. However, two kinds of ego states
viz. happy child and destructive child are commonly relevant in their behaviour. People
behaving from their happy child are doing things they want to do it but it is not destructive to
others. However, people in their destructive child are also doing things but their behaviour is
either destructive to others or to themselves, or to their environment. In understanding the
difference between these two types of child ego state, it helps to remember that behaviour by
itself is not happy or destructive. Whether a person's behaviour is coming from a happy child or
destructive child depends on the transaction feedback from others.
Strokes Berne observed that people need strokes, the units of interpersonal recognition, to
survive and thrive. Understanding how people give and receive positive and negative strokes
and changing unhealthy patterns of stroking are powerful aspects of work in transactional
analysis. Stroking is the recognition that one person gives to another. Strokes are essential to a
person's life. Without them, Berne said, the "spinal cord will shrivel up." It has been shown that
a very young child needs actual physical strokes in order to remain alive. Adults can get by on
fewer physical strokes as they learn to exchange verbal strokes; positive strokes like praise or
expressions of appreciation, or negative strokes like negative judgments or put downs.
Therefore, the exchange of strokes is one of the most important things that people do in their
daily lives.
Games The essential aspect of games is that they are crooked or covert exchanges of strokes. A
game is a recurring series of covert transactions with a beginning, middle and end, and a payoff.
The payoff is a hidden advantage which motivates the players to participate. Transactional
Analysis became a nation-wide fad in the 1960's due to the bestselling success of Eric Berne's
book, Games People Play. In this book he assigned engaging names (“Now I’ve got you,” “Kick
me,” “I only trying to help.”) for different games. For instance when Jane plays "Why Don' You,
Yes But" she asks advice from another but rejects every suggestion so that everyone ends up
exasperated. It is the type of conversation which occurs over and over again, especially in
therapy groups. It is devious and covert: on the social level, it appears to be a conversation in
which a person in the Adult ego state is asking a question to one or more people who are also in
their Adult ego states. What makes it a game is that none of the suggestions are really accepted.
The reason for that is that, at the psychological and much more meaningful level, what is really
going on is that Jane may need advice but needs strokes even more. Because these strokes are
being given in a roundabout way they are not as satisfying as direct strokes would be. This is
why the game ends on a note of depressed frustration.
Payoffs There are a number of payoffs of this game; every game pays off at three different
levels: (i) The biological pay-off of a game is strokes. Even though games end badly, all the
players get a considerable number of strokes – both positive and negative – out of playing
them.
(ii) The social pay-off of a game is time-structuring. People are able to fill time which otherwise
might have been dull and depressing with an exciting activity. (iii) The existential pay-off of a
game is the way in which the game confirms the existential position of each player.
Life position In the process of growing up, people make basic assumptions about their own self-
worth as well as about the worth of significant people in their environment that may or may not
be channelized to other people later in life. Harris called them combination of an assumption
about oneself and another person a life position. Life position tend to be more permanent than
ego states. They are learned throughout life by way of reinforcements for, and responses to
expressed. These assumptions are described in terms of 'okay ness'. Thus individual that they
are either OK or not OK and other individuals are assumed to be either OK or not OK. Four
possible relationship resulted from this life position. 1. I am not OK, You are not OK (neither
person have value) 2. I am not OK, You are OK (you have value but I do not have) 3. I am OK,
You are not OK (I have value but you don't have) 4. I am OK, You are OK (we both
have value) I AM NOT OK, YOU'RE NOT OK: People tend to feel bad about themselves
and see that the whole world as miserable. People with this life position usually give up. They
do not trust other people and have no confidence in themselves.
I AM NOT OK, YOU'RE OK People with this life position often come from their child ego state.
They feel that others are more capable and generally have fewer problems than they themselves
do. They tend to think that they always got the short end of the stick. This is the most common
life position for people who have high expectations for authority. They see their world as "I
don't have any control or much power, but those people seem to have all the power and rewards
and punishment."
I AM OK, YOU'RE NOT OK This type of people often come their Critical Parent ego state. They
tend to be down on other people for at least two reasons. First, they often regard other people as
source of criticism. They feel that if they are not exactly perfect or right, people will be
excessively critical of them. Second, they want to break away or rebel from some authority
figure and become more independent, but they are either not sure how to go about this or they
have had pleasant experiences in attempting it in the past.
I AM OK, YOU'RE OK This life position is considered as healthy position. People with these
feelings express confidence in themselves as well as trust and confidence in other people in their
environment. Their behaviour tends to come from their Nurturing Parent, Adult and Happy
Child ego states, while seldom being evoked from their Destructive Child or Critical parent. TA
may be used to explain why people behave in specific patterns throughout their life. This
analysis enables people to identify patterns of transactions between themselves and others.
Ultimately, this can help us to determine which ego state most heavily influencing our behaviour
and the behaviour of other people with whom we interact.
Transaction: There are two types of transactions. One is complementary, another is non-
complementary. When the receiver of the message responds the message in the same ego state
he or she receives it, is known as complementary transaction. Here the ego state of two persons
are parallel to each other. When the receiver of the message responds the message with different
ego state than the ego state he/she receives message is known as non-complementary
transaction. Here the ego state of two persons are not parallel rather than crossed happens.
APPLICATION OF TA:
Stroking – Stroking is defined as any act of recognition for another. People seek stoking in their
interaction with others. It applies to all type of recognition, such as physical, verbal and eye
contact between people. Strokes may be either positive, negative, or mixed. Positive strokes,
when they are received contribute to a person's sense being OK. Negative stokes hurt physically
or emotionally and make us feel OK about ourselves. There also is a difference between
conditional and unconditional strokes. Conditional strokes are offered to employees if they
perform correctly or avoid problems. A Regional manager may promise" I will give you a choice
posting if you achieve the targets of advances, deposits and recovery and turn around the
branch". Unconditional strokes are presented without any connection to behaviour, although
they may make a person feel good (for example, "you're a good officer").
TA and Leadership – when managers transact primarily from a single ego state, they limit their
choice of leadership styles. For example, the person with a dominant Parent ego state will tend
towards a more autocratic style. If the Child state is dominant, the free-rein style may be used
extensively. However, a supervisor who feels "I am OK-You're OK" and who has a
welldeveloped Adult state, is more likely to collect data prior to making a choice of style. The
style chosen by the adult state generally will allow ample freedom for employees to participate
in the decision process.
TA and conflict resolution – There are several natural connections between TA and the
approaches to resolving conflict. the Parent ego state may lead to the use of a forcing strategy,
while the child state may smooth over conflicts or try to avoid them. The "I am OK – You're
OK" person is more likely to seek a win-win outcome, applying the Adult ego
state.
Benefits of TA – Organisations that have used TA approach were found moderately successful
training in TA can give employees fresh insights into their own personalities, and it also can
help them to understand why others sometimes respond as they do. A major benefit is
improved interpersonal communication. Employees in organization can sense when crossed
communication occurs and then take steps to restore complementary communication,
preferably in the Adult-to-Adult pattern. The result is a general improvement in interpersonal
transactions.
GROUP DYNAMICS:
People may underestimate the importance of society and group memberships on their lives.
Whilst people sometimes undertake solo journeys yet by and large much of our experiences of
life involves being engaged with others and groups.
Within an organization we do find number of groups. Individuals joining group (s) is a reality
– may be formal or informal groups. People work in groups quite frequently and in many
different areas of their life e.g. at work, school/college, sport, hobbies. The managers need to
understand Group Dynamics that can enable managers to adopt the right approach of interacting
with them.
Group dynamics is relevant to groups of all kinds – both formal and informal. If the UPA
government has set up Group of Ministers for every governance issue, the Supreme Court of
India has 27 Group of Judges committees overseeing all manner of non-judicial work in the
apex court. In an organizational setting, the term groups are a very common and the study of
groups and group dynamics is an important area of study.
What is A Group?
Every organization is a group unto itself. A group refers to two or more people who share a
common meaning and evaluation of themselves and come together to achieve common goals.
In other words, a group is a collection of people who interact with one another; accept rights
and obligations as members and who share a common identity.
Characteristics of a Group:
Regardless of the size or the purpose, every group has similar characteristics:
(b) Formal social structure (the rules of the game are defined)
(d) Common goals (the destiny is the same and emotionally connected)
(g) Self-definition as group members (what one is who belongs to the group)
Group Development is a dynamic process. How do groups evolve? There is a process of five
stages through which groups pass through. The process includes the five stages: forming,
storming, forming, performing, and adjourning.
Forming:
The first stage in the life of a group is concerned with forming a group. This stage is
characterized by members seeking either a work assignment (in a formal group) or other benefit,
like status, affiliation, power, etc. (in an informal group). Members at this stage either engage
in busy type of activity or show apathy.
Storming:
The next stage in this group is marked by the formation of dyads and triads. Members seek out
familiar or similar individuals and begin a deeper sharing of self. Continued attention to the
subgroup creates a differentiation in the group and tensions across the dyads / triads may appear.
Pairing is a common phenomenon. There will be conflict about controlling the group.
Norming:
The third stage of group development is marked by a more serious concern about task
performance. The dyads/triads begin to open up and seek out other members in the group.
Efforts are made to establish various norms for task performance. Members begin to take greater
responsibility for their own group and relationship while the authority figure becomes relaxed.
Once this stage is complete, a clear picture will emerge about hierarchy of leadership. The
norming stage is over with the solidification of the group structure and a sense of group identity
and camaraderie.
Performing:
This is a stage of a fully functional group where members see themselves as a group and get
involved in the task. Each person makes a contribution and the authority figure is also seen as a
part of the group. Group norms are followed and collective pressure is exerted to ensure the
Process of Group effectiveness of the group. The group may redefine its goals Development in
the light of information from the outside environment and show an autonomous will to pursue
those goals. The long-term viability of the Group is established and nurtured.
Adjourning:
In the case of temporary groups, like project team, task force, or any other such group, which
have a limited task at hand, also have a fifth stage, This is known as adjourning. The group
decides to disband. Some members may feel happy over the performance, and some may be
unhappy over the stoppage of meeting with group members. Adjourning may also be referred
to as mourning, i.e. mourning the adjournment of the group. The readers must note that the four
stages of group development mentioned above for permanent groups are merely suggestive. In
reality, several stages may go on simultaneously.
Types of Groups:
One way to classify the groups is by way of formality – formal and informal. While formal
groups are established by an organization to achieve its goals, informal groups merge
spontaneously. Formal groups may take the form of command groups, task groups, and
functional groups.
1. Command Groups:
Command groups are specified by the organizational chart and often consist of a supervisor and
the subordinates that report to that supervisor. An example of a command group is a market
research firm CEO and the research associates under him.
2. Task Groups:
Task groups consist of people who work together to achieve a common task. Members are
brought together to accomplish a narrow range of goals within a specified time period. Task
groups are also commonly referred to as task forces. The organization appoints members and
assigns the goals and tasks to be accomplished.
Examples of assigned tasks are the development of a new product, the improvement of a
production process, or designing the syllabus under semester system. Other common task groups
are ad hoc committees, project groups, and standing committees. Ad hoc committees are
temporary groups created to resolve a specific complaint or develop a process are normally
disbanded after the group completes the assigned task.
3. Functional Groups:
In contrast to formal groups, informal groups are formed naturally and in response to the
common interests and shared values of individuals. They are created for purposes other than the
accomplishment of organizational goals and do not have a specified time frame. Informal groups
are not appointed by the organization and members can invite others to join from time to time.
Informal groups can have a strong influence in organizations that can either be positive or
negative. For example, employees who form an informal group can either discuss how to
improve a production process or how to create shortcuts that jeopardize quality. Informal groups
can take the form of interest groups, friendship groups, or reference groups.
i. Interest Group:
Interest groups usually continue over time and may last longer than general informal groups.
Members of interest groups may not be part of the same organizational department but they are
bound together by some other common interest.
The goals and objectives of group interests are specific to each group and may not be related to
organizational goals and objectives. An example of an interest group would be students who
come together to form a study group for a specific class.
ii. Friendship Groups:
Friendship groups are formed by members who enjoy similar social activities, political beliefs,
religious values, or other common bonds. Members enjoy each other’s company and often meet
after work to participate in these activities. For example, a group of employees who form a
friendship group may have a yoga group, a Rajasthani association in Delhi, or a kitty party lunch
once a month.
iii. Reference Groups:
A reference group is a type of group that people use to evaluate themselves. The main objectives
of reference groups are to seek social validation and social comparison. Social validation allows
individuals to justify their attitudes and values while social comparison helps individuals
26 | P.B.Narendra Kiran – MBA, M.Phil., (Ph.D.) JNTUK- {R19}
DMS – BITS VIZAG
UNIT- 4 MOTIVATION &
LEADERSHIP
evaluate their own actions by comparing themselves to others. Reference groups have a strong
influence on members’ behavior. Such groups are formed voluntarily. Family, friends, and
religious affiliations are strong reference groups for most individuals.