Cmp 312

Operating System (OS)

Definition and Concept

History and & Evolution

Core OS task

OS Architecture

Types of OS

Example of OS

Definition and Concept

An operating system is a program or software that creates a

communication between the user and the hardware component.it manages
computer resources and provide essential services and act as an interface
between the computer and the software components.

History and Evolution of OS (based on generation)

1. Batch operating system => first generation of computer

2. Time sharing => second generation of computer
3. Network OS => third generation of computer
4. Distributed OS => fourth generation
5. Real time OS => fifth Generation
The history and evolution of operating systems can be traced back to the
1950s and have undergone significant advancements since then. Here's a
brief overview of the major milestones:

1950s-1960s: Early Operating Systems: The earliest computers had no

operating systems. Programs were directly written in machine language
and executed one at a time. As computers became more complex, simple
batch processing systems emerged, allowing users to submit jobs on
punched cards or magnetic tape for sequential execution.

1960s-1970s: Mainframe Operating Systems: IBM's OS/360, developed

in the mid-1960s, was a significant milestone. It introduced the concept
of virtual memory, time-sharing, and multiprogramming, allowing
multiple users to simultaneously run different programs on a single
mainframe computer.

Late 1960s-1970s: Unix: Developed by Ken Thompson and Dennis

Ritchie at Bell Labs, Unix introduced a new paradigm. It was a modular,
multi-user operating system with a powerful command-line interface.
Unix became highly influential and served as the basis for many later
operating systems.

1980s: Rise of Personal Computers: The 1980s saw the emergence of

personal computers. Operating systems like MS-DOS (Microsoft Disk
Operating System) and Apple's ProDOS were developed for early PC
systems. They provided a command-line interface and basic file
management capabilities.

1980s-1990s: Graphical User Interfaces: The graphical user interface

(GUI) revolutionized operating systems. Apple's Macintosh introduced
the first commercially successful GUI in 1984, followed by Microsoft's
Windows in 1985. GUIs made computers more accessible to non-
technical users by providing visual elements like windows, icons, and
menus.

1990s-2000s: Windows and Linux: Microsoft Windows became the

dominant operating system for personal computers. Windows 95,
Windows XP, and subsequent versions gained popularity for their user-
friendly interfaces and software compatibility. Additionally, Linux, an
open-source operating system, gained traction for its stability, security,
and flexibility.

2000s-Present: Mobile and Cloud Computing: The advent of smartphones

led to the development of mobile operating systems such as Android
(based on Linux) and iOS (developed by Apple). These operating systems
focused on touch-based interfaces and app ecosystems. Furthermore,
cloud computing emerged, enabling remote access to applications and
data through web browsers, reducing the reliance on locally installed
operating systems.

Current Trends: Modern operating systems continue to evolve, focusing

on areas such as enhanced security, virtualization, containerization, and
 improved user experiences. Operating systems like Windows 10, macOS,
and various Linux distributions remain popular on desktops and laptops,
while mobile operating systems dominate the smartphone and tablet
market.

It's worth noting that this overview provides a simplified timeline, and
there are numerous other operating systems and variations that have
played significant roles in the history and evolution of computing.

1. batch Operating System

Batch operating system has (1. Single user, 2. single task and single machine)

A batch operating system is a type of operating system that processes a series of jobs or
tasks without requiring user intervention. In a batch processing environment, users
submit their jobs to the operating system, typically in the form of batch files or job
control language (JCL). The operating system then executes these jobs one after
another, in a sequential manner, without user interaction.

Here are the key characteristics and features of a batch operating system:

Job Submission: Users submit their jobs as a batch, usually providing instructions and
data files necessary for the job's execution. These jobs are typically stored on external
storage media, such as punch cards, magnetic tapes, or disk files.

Job Scheduling: The operating system has a job scheduler that determines the order in
which the submitted jobs are executed. It considers factors such as priority, resource
availability, and job dependencies to optimize the overall system performance.
 Job Execution: The batch operating system takes each job from the batch queue and
allocates the necessary system resources for its execution. It loads the job into memory,
sets up the environment, and initiates its execution.

No User Interaction: once a job starts executing, there is any user interaction or
intervention until the job completes or encounters an error. The operating system
executes the job using the predefined instructions and processes the data files associated
with it.

Job Completion and Output: After a job completes, the operating system typically
generates output files containing the results or reports of the job's execution. These
output files are often stored for further processing or delivered to the user.

Job Control Language (JCL): A batch operating system often uses a specific language,
such as JCL, to define the job control statements and provide instructions to the
operating system. JCL specifies parameters, file names, resource requirements, and
other details necessary for the proper execution of jobs.

Batch operating systems are commonly used in scenarios where large volumes of
similar or repetitive tasks need to be processed efficiently. For example, payroll
processing, billing systems, and data processing applications often employ batch
operating systems. They maximize the utilization of computing resources by allowing
the system to process multiple jobs without requiring constant user input, thus
improving overall efficiency and throughput.

2. Time Shearing:

Time Shearing has (1. Single System, 2. Multiple task, 3. Multiple users).

Is also a single system, multitasking and multiple user operating system

Time sharing, also known as multitasking, is a technique used by operating systems to

enable multiple users or processes to share a single computing resource, such as a CPU,
in a seemingly simultaneous manner. The concept of time sharing emerged as a solution
to maximize resource utilization and improve user productivity.
In a time-sharing system, the CPU's time is divided into small time intervals called time
slices or time quanta. Each user or process is allocated a time slice during which it can
execute its tasks. The operating system rapidly switches between these tasks, giving the
illusion of concurrent execution. The switching between tasks is performed so quickly
that it creates the perception of parallelism.

Here's how time sharing works:

 The operating system allocates a small time slice to the first task or user.
 The task executes for that allocated time slice.
 At the end of the time slice, an interrupt is generated, indicating that the time slice
has expired.
 The operating system's scheduler then selects the next task to run, based on
predefined scheduling algorithms.
 The context of the current task is saved, including the values of registers and
program counters.
 The context of the next task is restored, and its execution resumes from where it
was interrupted.
 This process continues, with tasks being rapidly switched and executed in a
round-robin fashion.

Time sharing provides several advantages:

Improved Responsiveness: Users get the perception of concurrent execution, as their

tasks are executed in short time slices. This leads to better responsiveness and
interactive experiences.

Better Resource Utilization: Time sharing maximizes the utilization of computing

resources. Instead of having resources sitting idle, multiple tasks or users can share
them, leading to increased efficiency.
 Fair Allocation: Time sharing systems typically employ scheduling algorithms to ensure
fair allocation of resources among different users or processes. This prevents any single
task from monopolizing the resources and ensures equitable access.

Concurrency Support: Time sharing systems enable the execution of multiple tasks
concurrently, allowing users to run different applications simultaneously without
interference.

Time sharing is a fundamental concept in modern operating systems and plays a crucial
role in providing efficient and interactive computing experiences. It allows for the
illusion of parallel execution on single or limited computing resources, facilitating
multitasking and improving overall system performance.

3. Network operating system

Network OS: The mode of connection which are carried out using Network Os is wired
(Lan connection) the connection is made using cables. It emerges with the ability of
multitasking, multiprogramming, multisystem and multiusers

Network Operating System (NOS): A network operating system is designed to facilitate

the sharing of resources and data across multiple computers in a network. It allows users
to access files, printers, and other network devices as if they were local resources. NOS
provides services such as file sharing, directory services, security, and network
management. Examples of network operating systems include Novell NetWare,
Windows Server, and Linux-based systems with networking capabilities.

A Network Operating System (NOS) is a type of operating system specifically designed

to manage and facilitate the sharing of resources and data within a computer network. It
provides the necessary services and protocols to enable communication and resource
sharing among multiple computers connected in a network.
 Here are some key features and functionalities of a Network Operating System:

 Resource Sharing: One of the primary functions of a NOS is to enable the sharing of
network resources among users and computers. This includes shared files, printers,
scanners, and other peripheral devices. The NOS provides mechanisms for users to
access and utilize these shared resources efficiently.

 File and Print Services: A NOS typically offers file and print services, allowing users
to access and manage files stored on remote servers within the network. Users can
create, modify, and share files across the network. Additionally, NOS facilitates
centralized printing, where users can send print jobs to shared printers on the network.

 User and Group Management: NOS provides user authentication and authorization
mechanisms, allowing administrators to create user accounts, assign access rights, and
manage user privileges within the network. It also supports the creation of user groups
to simplify the management of permissions and access control.

 Directory Services: NOS often includes directory services, which provide a

centralized database for storing and organizing information about network resources
and users. Directory services enable efficient and secure access to network resources,
such as user profiles, addresses, and security policies. Common directory services
include Active Directory in Windows Server and OpenLDAP in Linux-based systems.

 Network Security: Network Operating Systems prioritize security to protect sensitive

data and ensure network integrity. They include features such as user authentication,
access control, encryption, and firewall capabilities. NOS also supports security
protocols and technologies to secure network communication, such as Secure Shell
(SSH), Secure Sockets Layer (SSL), and Virtual Private Networks (VPNs).

 Network Management: NOS provides tools and utilities for network administrators to
manage and monitor the network infrastructure. This includes monitoring network
 performance, configuring network devices, troubleshooting connectivity issues, and
generating network usage reports.

 Examples of Network Operating Systems include Microsoft Windows Server, Novell

NetWare, Linux distributions with network capabilities (such as Ubuntu Server), and
UNIX variants like Solaris.

 Network Operating Systems play a crucial role in managing and coordinating the
activities of multiple computers within a network, allowing for efficient resource
sharing, centralized management, and secure communication.

4. Distributed Operating System

Fourth Generation of operating system that immerges with a technique of wireless

connection using Wide Area Network (WAN) in other to utilize and maximize computer
resources that are located somewhere else in the world.

Distributed system is a flat form that cloud computing works on

Distributed Operating System (DOS): A distributed operating system is designed to

run on a network of interconnected computers and provide a unified computing
environment. It enables multiple computers to work together as a single system, sharing
resources and coordinating tasks. Distributed operating systems provide transparency to
users, meaning they can access remote resources without knowing their physical
location. Examples of distributed operating systems include Amoeba, Sprite, and Sun
Microsystems' Network File System (NFS).

A Distributed Operating System (DOS)

The operating system is designed to run on a network of interconnected computers and

provide a unified computing environment. It allows multiple computers to work together
as a single system, enabling resource sharing, communication, and coordination among
the distributed nodes.

Here are some key features and characteristics of a Distributed Operating System:

Transparency: A fundamental aspect of a distributed operating system is transparency,

which aims to hide the distribution of resources from users and applications.
Transparency ensures that users perceive the distributed system as a single, integrated
computing environment rather than a collection of individual nodes. This includes
transparency in accessing remote resources, location transparency, and failure
transparency.

Resource Sharing: A distributed operating system facilitates the sharing of resources

across the network. This includes shared files, databases, devices, and computational
power. Users can access and utilize resources available on remote nodes as if they were
local resources.

Communication and Coordination: Distributed operating systems provide mechanisms

for communication and coordination among the distributed nodes. This includes inter-
process communication protocols, message passing, and synchronization mechanisms to
enable collaboration and data sharing between processes running on different nodes.

Fault Tolerance: A distributed operating system incorporates fault tolerance mechanisms

to ensure system availability and reliability. It includes techniques such as redundancy,
replication, and error recovery to handle failures of individual nodes or network
components. Fault tolerance aims to maintain system functionality even in the presence
of failures.

Scalability: Distributed operating systems are designed to be scalable, allowing the

addition or removal of nodes from the network without significant disruption. This
enables the system to accommodate increasing workloads and expand the computing
capacity as needed.
 Load Balancing: To optimize resource utilization and performance, a distributed
operating system employs load balancing techniques. Load balancing evenly distributes
the workload across the network nodes, ensuring efficient utilization of resources and
avoiding bottlenecks.

Security: Distributed operating systems incorporate security mechanisms to protect data

and ensure secure communication within the distributed environment. This includes
authentication, encryption, access control, and secure communication protocols.

Examples of Distributed Operating Systems include Amoeba, Sprite, LOCUS, and

Sun Microsystems' Network File System (NFS).

Distributed Operating Systems provide a framework for building large-scale, cooperative

computing systems by integrating multiple computers into a unified environment. They
enable resource sharing, fault tolerance, scalability, and efficient collaboration, making
them suitable for applications like distributed databases, distributed file systems, and
distributed computing clusters.

5. Real-Time Operating System

Real-Time Operating System (RTOS): A real-time operating system is designed to

handle time-critical tasks and provide guaranteed response times within predefined
deadlines. RTOS is commonly used in applications that require precise timing and
control, such as industrial automation, robotics, aerospace systems, and medical devices.
Real-time operating systems prioritize tasks based on their urgency and ensure timely
execution. They can be classified into hard real-time systems (where missing a deadline
is catastrophic) and soft real-time systems (where missing a deadline is tolerable but
degrades performance. Examples of real-time operating systems include VxWorks,
QNX, and FreeRTOS.

A Real-Time Operating System (RTOS)

The operating system is designed to provide deterministic and predictable behavior for
time-critical applications. It is specifically tailored to handle tasks with strict timing
requirements and ensures that critical operations are executed within specified
deadlines.

Here are some key features and characteristics of a Real-Time Operating System:

Determinism: RTOS guarantees the deterministic execution of tasks by providing

precise and predictable timing behavior. It ensures that tasks are scheduled and
executed within their deadlines, allowing time-critical operations to be performed
reliably.

Task Scheduling: RTOS utilizes specialized scheduling algorithms to prioritize and

schedule tasks based on their urgency and deadlines. It typically employs preemptive
scheduling, where higher-priority tasks can preempt lower-priority tasks to ensure that
critical tasks are executed on time.

Response Time: RTOS aims to provide quick response times for time-critical events.
It minimizes interrupt latency and context-switching overhead to ensure that the
system can respond rapidly to external stimuli and events.

Timing Services: RTOS includes timing services, such as timers and clock
management, to accurately measure and control time intervals. These services are
essential for scheduling tasks, synchronizing operations, and meeting time constraints.

Interrupt Handling: RTOS efficiently handles interrupts and prioritizes them based on
their urgency. It provides mechanisms for rapid and predictable interrupt response,
allowing critical tasks to preempt lower-priority tasks and ensuring that important
events are handled promptly.
Resource Management: RTOS manages system resources, such as CPU, memory, and
peripherals, to ensure efficient utilization. It provides mechanisms for resource
allocation, sharing, and synchronization, allowing tasks to access and utilize resources
without conflicts.

Fault Tolerance: RTOS incorporates fault tolerance mechanisms to handle errors and
exceptions that may occur during real-time operations. It includes features such as
error handling, exception handling, and system recovery techniques to maintain
system integrity and reliability.

Certification and Standards: Depending on the application domain, some RTOS may
undergo certification processes to ensure compliance with industry-specific standards,
such as DO-178C for avionics or IEC 61508 for industrial automation.

Examples of Real-Time Operating Systems include VxWorks, QNX, FreeRTOS,

and eCos.

Note: Real-Time Operating Systems are widely used in applications where precise
timing, responsiveness, and reliability are critical, such as aerospace and defense
systems, industrial automation, robotics, medical devices, and automotive systems.
These systems require the ability to perform time-sensitive tasks with minimal delay
or jitter, making RTOS an essential component for achieving predictable and
deterministic behavior.
 CMP 312

Recap

Function of OS

Types of Operating System

System Architecture

Functions of an operating system include

Process Management: The OS manages and schedules processes (or tasks) running on the
computer. It allocates system resources such as CPU time, memory, and input/output devices
to ensure efficient multitasking and optimal performance.

Memory Management: It controls the allocation and de-allocation of memory resources to

running programs. This involves managing both physical memory (RAM) and virtual
memory, which uses disk space as an extension of RAM.

File System Management: The OS provides a file system that organizes and manages files
and directories on storage devices. It handles tasks such as file creation, deletion, and access
permissions, ensuring data integrity and efficient storage utilization.

Device Management: It manages input and output devices, such as keyboards, mice, printers,
and storage devices. The OS provides drivers and protocols to enable communication
between software and hardware components, allowing applications to interact with devices
seamlessly.
User Interface: The OS provides a user interface (UI) that allows users to interact with the
computer system. This can be through a command-line interface (CLI), graphical user
interface (GUI), or a combination of both, enabling users to execute programs, access files,
and configure system settings.

Security: The OS incorporates security measures to protect the computer system from
unauthorized access, viruses, malware, and other threats. It includes user authentication
mechanisms, access control policies, and often provides firewall and antivirus functionality.

Networking: Many operating systems support networking capabilities, allowing computers to

connect and communicate over local area networks (LANs) or the internet. This enables file
sharing, remote access, and collaboration among multiple users.

Different types of operating systems exist, such as Windows, macOS, Linux, and mobile
operating systems like Android and iOS, each tailored for specific devices or platforms. They
provide a foundation upon which software applications can run, manage resources efficiently,
and enable users to interact with computers and devices effectively.

Types of OS

1. Mac OS
2. Windows OS
3. Linux OS
4. Chrome OS
5. Android OS
6. Java OS
7. Symbian OS
8. Embedded OS
Process management

Recap

Programs

OS Process

Process life circle

Process control block

Thread

Program

A program is the sequential collection of instruction written in high level language to

perform a specific task.

OS Process:
In the context of computing, a process refers to an instance of a computer program that is
being executed or run by the operating system. It is the fundamental unit of work in a
computer system, representing a running program along with its associated resources.

When a program is lunched, the operating system creates a corresponding process to manage
its execution. Each process has its own memory space, which includes variables, data and
instruction specific to that process. It also includes other resources such as open files,
network connection and input/output devices.

Process are managed by the operating system scheduler, which allocates CPU time and
system resources in a fair and efficient manner. The scheduler determines the order and
duration in which processes are executed, allowing multiple program to run concurrently on a
single computer system.

Processes can interact with each other through inter-process communication mechanisms
provided by the operating system, such as shared memory, pipes, sockets, or message
passing. This enables processes to exchange data, coordinate activities, and collaborate in
various ways.

Each process is assigned a unique identifier called a process ID(PID), which helps track and
manage them. Processes can have different states, such as running, waiting, or terminated
depending on their current status.

in summary, a process represents the execution of a program, including its code, data and
resources. It’s a fundamental concept in computer system, allowing for multitasking and
efficient utilization of a computing resources.

Process life circle

A process life circle are different stages that a program undergoes from time of
execution (lunching) to termination.

1. New: this is the initial stage when a process is first created. The necessary resources
are allocated to the process, and it awaits admission into the system.
2. Ready: in this state, is waiting to be assign to a processor for execution. It has all the
necessary resources, and once the processor becomes available, it can transition to the
running state.
3. The process is being executed by the processor. It is actively using CPU time to
perform its tasks. Depending on the scheduling algorithm employed by the operating
system, the process may preempt and moved back to the ready state if another higher-
priority process needs the CPU.
4. Wait: A process in this state is unable to proceed until a certain event occurs. This
event could be waiting for user input, waiting for resource to become available, or
waiting for the completion of an I/O operation. Once the event occurs, the process can
transition back to the ready state.
5. Terminate: When a process completes its execution or is explicitly terminated by the
operating system or user, it enters the terminated states. In this state, the process is
removed from the system, and its resources are deallocated.
 interrupt

New Terminatio
Ready Running
n

i/o response

Wait

 Every program requires two components to execute

1. Memory
2. Resources
 The condition of a particular program to move from running to ready is known as
interrupt which is cause by the CPU
 The condition of a program to move from running to wait is known as I/O Response

The condition of I/O response can be running process that needs the user intervention
in other to continue.

Example: let’s consider the program installation that needs user input to continue.

Process Control Block

Simply the statistic or information of a process or task, the PCB is responsible for the
allocation of the information in the register

A Process Control Block (PCB), also known as a task control block or process
descriptor, is a data structure used by operating systems to manage individual
processes or tasks. It contains essential information about a specific process and helps
the operating system keep track of its execution.

The PCB is created by the operating system when a new process is initiated and is
associated with that process throughout its lifetime. It serves as a central repository of
 information related to the process. Here are some key components typically found in a
PCB:

1. Process Identifier (PID): A unique identification number assigned to each process by

the operating system. It helps the system differentiate between different processes.

2. Process State: Indicates the current state of the process, such as running, waiting,
ready, or terminated. The state is updated as the process progresses through its
execution.

3. Program Counter (PC): Keeps track of the address of the next instruction to be
executed within the process. When a process is interrupted or scheduled for execution,
the PC value is saved in the PCB.

4. CPU Registers: These registers store the current values of the processor's registers
that are being used by the process. This includes the general-purpose registers, stack
pointer, and other relevant registers.

5. Memory Management Information: Tracks the memory allocation and usage details of
the process. It includes information such as the base address, limit, and page tables
associated with the process's memory segments.

6. Process Priority: Represents the priority assigned to the process by the operating
system's scheduling algorithm. It determines the order in which processes are
executed.

7. I/O Information: Contains details about the I/O devices the process is using or waiting
for. This information helps the operating system manage and coordinate the process's
interaction with external devices.

8. Accounting Information: Includes statistical data about the process, such as CPU
usage, execution time, and memory usage. This information aids in performance
monitoring and resource allocation decisions.

The PCB is crucial for context switching, where the operating system switches
between different processes, allowing multitasking and efficient resource utilization.
When a process is interrupted or scheduled out, the CPU state is saved into the PCB,
and the state of the next process to be executed is restored from its PCB.
 Overall, the PCB provides a comprehensive snapshot of a process's essential attributes
and facilitates efficient process management by the operating system.

The Process Control Block is typically stored in the operating system's memory and is
associated with each active process. When a process is scheduled for execution, the
operating system uses the information in the PCB to set up the CPU and manage the
process's execution. The PCB is updated as the process progresses, reflecting changes
in its state, resource utilization, and execution context.

Overall, the Process Control Block provides the necessary data and control
information for the operating system to effectively manage and coordinate the
execution of processes within the system.

Thread:

A thread is a function or the implementation of task in a particular program.

Example: in Microsoft word there are numerous function that you can be able to carry
on like typing, print, save, redo, undo therefore all memory and resources allocation
of this task

A thread is a basic unit of execution within a process. It represents a sequence of

instructions that can be scheduled and executed independently by the operating
system's scheduler. Threads allow multiple sets of instructions to run concurrently
within a single process, enabling concurrent and parallel execution of tasks.

Here are some key points about threads:

1. Relationship with Processes: A process can have one or multiple threads. Threads
within the same process share the same memory space and resources, such as files and
open network connections. Each thread has its own program counter, stack, and
thread-specific data, but they can access shared data within the process.

2. Lightweight: Threads are often referred to as "lightweight processes" because they are
more lightweight and faster to create and manage compared to full-fledged processes.
 Creating a new thread within a process is quicker and requires fewer resources than
creating a new process.

3. Concurrent Execution: Threads within a process can execute concurrently, meaning

they can be scheduled to run simultaneously on different processor cores or time-
sliced on a single core. This allows for efficient utilization of the CPU and can
improve the overall performance of an application.

4. Shared Resources: Threads within a process share the same resources, such as
memory, files, and I/O devices. However, this shared access must be carefully
managed to avoid conflicts and ensure data integrity. Synchronization mechanisms,
like locks or semaphores, are commonly used to coordinate access to shared
resources.

5. Communication: Threads within the same process can communicate with each other
more easily than processes, as they can directly access shared memory. This allows
for efficient data sharing and coordination between threads within an application.

6. Benefits and Use Cases: Threads are commonly used in situations where parallelism
and concurrent execution are required, such as multi-threaded server applications,
multimedia processing, and computationally intensive tasks. By dividing a task into
multiple threads, it becomes possible to execute different parts of the task
simultaneously, potentially reducing execution time and improving responsiveness.

7. Thread States: Threads have different states, such as running, ready, waiting, or
terminated. The operating system's scheduler manages the state transitions and
decides which threads to execute based on scheduling algorithms and priorities.

It's important to note that threads are executed within the context of a process, while
processes are separate entities with their own memory space. Threads provide a way
to achieve concurrency and parallelism within a single process, allowing for more
efficient and responsive applications.
 Recap

Multitasking VS Multiprogramming

OS Scheduling Concept

Process Scheduling Queues

 Top queue
 Reading queue
 Device queue

2-State Process Model

Scheduler

 Long term
 Short Term
 Medium Term

Recap: (based on class jotting [

OS Scheduling is the activity of a process manager that handles the admission and removal of
running process into and from the CPU base on a given strategy.

The same Scheduler admit and remove resources out of the CPU that is to say it handles the
execution and the termination.])

Multitasking VS Multiprogramming

Multitasking and multiprogramming are both techniques used in operating systems to

achieve efficient and concurrent execution of multiple tasks or programs. Although
the terms are sometimes used interchangeably, they have distinct meanings.

1. Multitasking

Multitasking: Multitasking, also known as time-sharing, is the ability of an operating

system to execute multiple tasks concurrently by rapidly switching the CPU's
attention between them. It gives the illusion that multiple tasks are running
simultaneously, even though the CPU is actually executing one task at a time in a
time-sliced manner.
 In multitasking, the operating system divides the available CPU time into small time
intervals called time slices or time quanta. Each task is assigned a time slice during
which it can execute. The operating system's scheduler switches between tasks
frequently, allowing each task to make progress.

Multitasking provides benefits such as improved responsiveness, efficient CPU

utilization, and the ability to run multiple applications simultaneously. It enables users
to interact with multiple programs concurrently, switch between them seamlessly, and
perform background tasks without disrupting foreground activities.

2. Multiprogramming

Multiprogramming: Multiprogramming is a technique where multiple programs are

loaded into memory simultaneously, and the CPU switches between them as
necessary. Unlike multitasking, which switches tasks at short intervals,
multiprogramming focuses on maximizing CPU utilization by overlapping the
execution of I/O operations and CPU-bound tasks.

In multiprogramming, the operating system keeps multiple programs in main

memory, even if only one program can execute at a given time. When a program is
waiting for an I/O operation to complete, the CPU can switch to another program that
is ready for execution. This allows the CPU to stay busy and utilize the time that
would otherwise be wasted during I/O operations.

Multiprogramming improves CPU utilization and throughput by overlapping I/O and

computation. It enables efficient utilization of system resources and allows for better overall
system performance.

In summary, multitasking refers to the concurrent execution of multiple tasks by rapidly

switching the CPU's attention between them, providing the illusion of parallelism. On the
other hand, multiprogramming focuses on maximizing CPU utilization by loading multiple
programs into memory and overlapping their execution to keep the CPU busy. Both
techniques are used in modern operating systems to achieve efficient resource utilization and
improved system performance.