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    Measurements and Errors

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    Nilang Panchal

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    Measurements and Errors

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    Measurements and Errors

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    Errors in Measurements

    B.Tech-Civil, Semester-IV

    Surveying-II
    Content
    • Errors in Measurements
    • Propagation of Errors
    • Reliability and Quality of Measurement
    Errors in Measurements
    • In case of repeated observation of any parameter, usually it
    has been found to have variations, however small, in the
    resulting measurement. Moreover, there is nothing definite in
    the amount of variation i.e., variations are random in nature.
    Thus, a measurement usually differs from its true value.

    • The difference between a measured value and its true value


    is called the measurement error.
    Sources of Errors in Measurement
    • Natural Errors (variations in wind, temperature, humidity,
    refraction, gravity and magnetic field of the Earth)

    • Instrumental Errors (non calibrated instruments)

    • Personal Errors (human limitations)


    Types of Errors in Measurement
    • Gross Error
    • Systematic Error
    • Random Error
    Types of Errors- Gross Error
    • Gross errors, also known as blunders or mistakes, are results
    from:
    – Carelessness on the part of observer in taking or recording
    reading;
    – Faults in Equipments;
    – Adoption of wrong technique.
    – Misinterpretation.
    Types of Errors- Systematic Errors
    • A systematic error is an error that under same conditions, will
    always be of the same size and sign.

    • Follows particular mathematical sequence

    • Types: 1) Cumulative Error & 2) Compensating Error


    Types of Errors- Random Errors
    • After mistakes are eliminated and systematic errors are
    corrected, a survey measurement is associated with random
    error only.

    • This error is small and is equally liable to be plus or minus in


    nature.

    • Random errors are unpredictable and they cannot be


    evaluated or quantified exactly.
    Types of Errors- Random Errors
    • Random errors conform to the laws of probability and are
    therefore equally distributed throughout the survey. Because
    of their random nature, correction factors cannot be
    computed and applied as they are with some systematic
    errors.

    • However, they can be estimated using a procedure based on


    the laws of probability known as the least-squares method of
    adjustment.
    Propagation of Errors
    • Measurements are used for calculation of different parameters. As
    the measurements are fraught with errors, it is important to know
    how these errors combine in various mathematical operations.

    – Error Propagation in a Sum or a Difference of Measurements


    – Error Propagation in a Product of Measurements
    – Error Propagation in a Division
    – Error Propagation due to the Power of a Measured Quantity
    Propagation of Errors
    • Error Propagation in a Sum or a Difference of Measurements:

    • When two or more quantities are added or subtracted, the


    error in result (Es) is the square root of the sum of the square
    of the errors (e1, e2, .....) of the individual quantity:
    Propagation of Errors
    • Example: The total distance D = (120 ± 2) mm + (321 ± 5) mm
    Propagation of Errors
    • Errors Propagation in a Product of Measurements:

    • When two or more quantities are multiplied, the error in


    result (Eproduct) is the square root of the sum of the square of
    the fractional errors of the individual quantity multiplied by
    multiplication of individual quantity.
    Propagation of Errors
    • A rectangle is measured 160.881 ± 0.026 cm long and
    75.007 ± 0.001 cm wide. The error in its area (12,067 cm2) is
    Propagation of Errors
    • Errors Propagation in a Division:

    • When two or more quantities are divided, the error in result is


    the square root of the sum of the square of the fractional
    errors in the individual quantity multiplied by division of
    individual quantity.
    Propagation of Errors
    • If the area of a rectangular plot is somehow known to be
    49,650 ± 10 m2 and the width dimension measured several
    times found to be 175.66 ± 0.46 m, the calculated length
    dimension is
    Standard Deviation
    • If the range of variations narrows to a small value, the range
    of errors (thus standard deviation) also constricts, rendering
    the mean value predictably close to the true one. This
    hypothesis enables observers to speak the reliability of a
    measurement.
    Standard Deviation
    Uncertainty
    • It is an indicator to define the reliability, of any observation in
    a set of repeated observations.

    • To ascertain the reliability of an observation, it is required to


    find within what percentage of error a particular observation
    lies. This defines the uncertainty of the observation and
    consequently its reliability. Lower the percentage of error
    within which a particular observation lies, lower is its
    uncertainty and thus greater is its reliability.
    Uncertainty
    • For example, if an observation falls
    within (µ ± σ) [where µ represents
    the mean and σ the standard
    deviation of the set of the
    observations] then the observation
    lies within 68.3% errors of the set
    of observation.
    • Thus, 68.3% is designated as the
    uncertainty of the sample.
    Quality of Measurement
    • Quality of a measurement having a set of repeated
    observations is being tested by using indicators like
    – Accuracy
    – Precision
    – Relative Precision
    Quality of Measurement
    Quality of Measurement
    Accuracy:

    • The accuracy of a set of repeated observations is being


    defined as amount of closeness of their mean to the
    population or distribution mean, i.e., closeness of the mean
    of observations to the true value.

    • Degree of Accuracy and Order of Accuracy


    Quality of Measurement
    • Degree of Accuracy:

    • The degree of accuracy indicates the accuracy attained in the


    measurements. It is usually expressed as the ratio of the
    error and the associated measured value. For example, a
    degree of accuracy of 1 in 10,000 indicates that there is an
    error of 1 unit in 10,000 units of measured / observed value.
    Quality of Measurement
    • Degree of Accuracy:
    • Linear-

    • Traverse-

    • Angular-

    • Levelling-
    Quality of Measurement
    • A rectangle has sides approximately 380 m and 260 m. If the
    area is to be determined to the nearest 10 sq.m, what will be
    the maximum error permitted in each line and to what
    accuracy should the lines be measured. Assume equal degree
    of accuracy for each length.
    Quality of Measurement
    • Order Of Accuracy:

    • The range of the allowed degree of accuracy is known as


    order of accuracy.
    • The most accurate work is designated as the work of the first
    order accuracy. The work of the second order accuracy is less
    accurate than that of the first order accuracy.
    Quality of Measurement
    • Order Of Accuracy:

    • The range of the allowed degree of accuracy is known as


    order of accuracy.
    • The most accurate work is designated as the work of the first
    order accuracy. The work of the second order accuracy is less
    accurate than that of the first order accuracy.
    Quality of Measurement
    • Precision:

    • Precision pertains to the degree of closeness of observations


    among each other in a set of repeated observations of a
    measurement.
    • If a set of observations for the same parameter are clustered
    together, i.e., observations have small deviations from their
    sample mean, then the observations are said to have been
    obtained with high precision.
    Quality of Measurement
    • Relative Precision:

    • Relative precision is defined as a ratio of the precision of a


    given measurement and the value of the measurement itself.
    • If d is a measured distance, and sd is the standard deviation of
    the measurement, then the relative precision is sd / d. It is
    expressed as percentage or a fractional ratio.
    Quality of Measurement
    1. Two angles are measured with instruments having standard
    deviations s1 = 20" and s2 = 30“, Which instrument is more precise?

    2. Observations for the distance between two points are found to be as


    follows :Set I: 165.485 ± 0.005m;Set II:165.465 ± 0.010 m. State which
    of these sets of observation is more reliable and why?

    3. Distinguish between standard deviation and uncertainty as indicator


    of reliability.
    Weight of an Observation
    • The weight of an observation is a number giving an indication of
    its precision and trustworthiness when making a comparison
    between several quantities of different worth.

    • If a certain observation is of weight 4, it means that it is four


    times as much reliable as an observation of weight 1.

    • Observations are required to be weighted when they are made


    with unequal care and dissimilar conditions.
    Laws of Weights
    1) The weight of the arithmetic mean of the measurements of unit
    weight is equal to the number of observations.

    2) The weight of the weighted arithmetic mean is equal to the sum


    of the individual weights.

    3) The weight of algebraic sum of two or more quantities is equal


    to the reciprocals of the individual weights.
    Laws of Weights
    4) A quantity of given weight is multiplied by a factor, the
    weight of the result is obtained by dividing its given weight by the
    square of the factor.

    5) If a quantity of given weight is divided by a factor, the weight of


    the result is obtained by multiplying its given weight by the square
    of the factor.
    Laws of Weights
    6) If a equation is multiplied by its own weight, the weight of the
    resulting equation is equal to the reciprocal of the weight of the
    equation.

    7) The weight of the equation remains unchanged, if all the signs


    of the equation are changed or if the equation is added or
    subtracted from a constant.
    Most Probable Value
    • The most probable value (MPV) of quantity is the one which has
    more chances of being true than has any other.

    • MPV of a quantity is equal to the arithmetic mean if the


    observations are of equal weight.
    • MPV of a quantity is equal to the weighted arithmetic mean if
    the observations are of different weight.
    • MPV can be found out using principles of least square as well.
    Principle of Least Square
    • Most probable value of a system of unknown quantities upon
    which observations have been made, are obtained by making
    the sum of the squares of the errors a minimum.

    • The sum of the squares of the residuals found by the use of the
    arithmetic mean is a minimum.
    Most Probable Error
    • The most probable error is defined as that quantity which
    added to, and subtracted from, the most probable value fixes
    the limits within which it is an even chances the true value of
    the measured quantity must lie.
    Probable Error
    • Probable error of single measurement is given by:

    • Probable error of an average is given by:


    Probable Error
    • In process of levelling work, the following eight readings were
    taken under identical conditions: 2.322, 2.346, 2.352, 2.306,
    2.312, 2.300, 2.306, 2.326.

    • Calculate: 1) the probable error in single observation and 2)


    probable error of the mean.
    Probable Error
    • The following are the observed values of an angle:

    Angle Weight
    40˚ 20’ 20” 2
    40˚ 20’ 18’’ 2
    40˚ 20’ 19’’ 3

    • Calculate p.e. of single measurement & p.e. of weighted


    arithmetic mean
    Distribution of Error
    • The correction to be applied to an observation is inversely
    proportional to the weight of the observation.

    • The correction to be applied to an observation is directly


    proportional to the square of the probable error.

    • In case of line of levels, the correction to be applied is


    proportional to the length.
    Distribution of Error
    • The following are the three angles A, B and C observed at a
    station P closing the horizon, along with their probable errors of
    a measurement. Determine their corrected values.
    • A= 78˚ 12’ 12” ± 2”
    • B= 136˚ 48’ 30” ± 4”
    • C= 144˚ 59’ 08” ± 5”
    Distribution of Error
    • Adjust the following angles closing the horizon:
    Angle Observed Value Weight
    A 110˚ 20’ 48” 4
    B 92˚ 30’ 12” 1
    C 56˚ 12’ 00” 3
    D 100˚ 57’ 04” 2

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