Title:

INVESTIGATING THE CHALLENGES LEARNERS FACE WHEN SOLVING GRADE

12 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS PROBLEMS: A CASE STUDY OF ONE SECONDARY
SCHOOL IN EMFULENI-SEDIBENG REGION, GAUTENG SOUTH, and SOUTH
AFRICA.

 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL

FRAMEWORK
2.1. Introduction

This chapter examines previous findings leading to a clear understanding of difficulties

experienced by learners when solving problems related to differential calculus in Grade 12. The
study targets secondary school in the Emfuleni Sedibeng region Gauteng South South Africa. In
the chapter, the author presents the theoretical background informing this research. This paper
will therefore seek to establish various factors that have been found to cause difficulties to
learners in differential calculus, based on the accumulated literature. It also reveals possible ways
of eliminating them as major hindrances to the achievement of the intended goals.

2.2. Mathematics Curriculum in South Africa

The Department of Basic Education is in charge of developing the curriculum in the South
African learning institutions. The curriculum of mathematics adopted in South Africa aims at
giving learners a general view of possible mathematical content and skills they are capable of
using in life, in further learning, and in work, according to the CAPS, which declares the subjects
to be taught as well as the assessment tools that must be used at each grade.

2.2.1. Composition of the Curriculum

The South African mathematics curriculum is divided into two main phases:

General Education and Training (GET) Phase (Grades R-9):

 In this phase, mathematics is counted as one of compulsory subjects. The curriculum is

intended to build a firm foundation of essential mathematical content domains that include
 number operations, geometry, measurement, algebra, data, and probability to new students.
The general intent of the curriculum is education in prognosis skills, reasoning skills, and the
ability to adapt mathematical knowledge to use outside the classroom setting.
 In the end of Grade 9, the learners should have been able to grasp basic concepts in
mathematics that will form part of the basis for the advanced concepts they will meet in FET
phase..

Further Education and Training (FET) Phase (Grades 10-12):

 In the FET phase Mathematics can be presented under the title Mathematics or Mathematical
Literacy.. This kind of mathematics is therefore suitable for learners who intend to be
science, engineering and technology students who will need substantive knowledge in
mathematics. It bears courses touching on algebra, trigonometry, calculus, probability, and
statistics amongst others.
 Mathematical Literacy is available for students who will not be proceeding to math based
fields of study.. It involves counting, measuring and calculation which are mostly used in
financial management, data assessment and in different measurements.
 In the curriculum of mathematical learning for the Grade 12, various important calculus
aspects like the first derivative are useful in the explanation of the aspects of change and
motion both theoretically and practically..

2.2.2. Key Features and Challenges

The following are some of the challenges facing the South African education system; inequitable
distribution of resources, variations in teachers training standards, and learners, performance
disparity especially in African schools. As noted by (Spaull, 2013) these factors militate against
good teaching and leaning in maths, and there are variable achievements recorded across the
country. However, the CAPS curriculum seeks to integrate the use of mathematics within and
across other learning areas and contexts in an attempt to make math connects accessible for all
children.

2.2.3. Assessment
The choice of mathematics also includes formative and, more frequently, summative
assessments, with daily testing during the year. Learners’ year mark of 25% is thus calculated on
the basis of the formal assessments that learners write during the year. The year mark is very
significant because when added to the total mark of the exams helps boost a learners final mark.
All in all, this means that Grade 12 learners should have the same, or even better work rate each
time they are writing formal assignments. This particular Grade 12 examination is crucial
because students qualify for acceptability to university and to specialised fields that relate to
mathematics.

2.3. Importance of Differential Calculus in the Curriculum

Differential calculus is one of the elements in mathematics that should be emphasized at the
Grade 12 level. It hugely helps in equipping learners for further learning and employment on
STEM courses (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics). Nonetheless, learning
difficulties in differential calculus radicals have been described in several studies. This paper
aims at reviewing the existing literature on these challenges; having highlighted cognitive
difficulties, teaching strategies, and emotional profiles as having potential moderating influence
on the studies reviewed.

2.4. Challenges in Learning Differential Calculus

2.4.1. Conceptual Understanding

Mastering conceptual knowledge is crucial because from it, learners can then apply or solve
problem that is derived from it.Although the students had correctly solved the derived problems,
it was not on the basis of an understanding of the conceptual knowledge and a more profound
and comprehensive analysis was required. The first derivative that is an unifying idea in calculus,
is used to give information about how the curve behaves in certain instance, location of
maximum, minimum, points of inflections, etc. However, findings revealed that many learners in
Grade 12 have conceptual understanding and difficulties regarding the derivatives as they
perceive it to be mere algorithmic processes and not as tools for analysing situation. This lack of
deep understanding can cause basic mistakes which students often make, for example confusing
the derivative with the difference of function values and wrong application of differentiation
rules. There is still much work to be done (Tall, 1993; Hiebert & Lefevre, 1986) cited that
educators also need to enhance the learners ‘conceptual development of first derivative as a
process of representing the geometric and real-life meaning of the first derivative to facilitate the
way of thinking of the learners in solving the problems in the calculus This kind of thinking is
helpful not only in the process of solving the

The problem with differential calculus, however, is that it can be tough mentally to deal with.
Using the account given by Tall (1993) the learners are expected to make a relatively large
mental transition from algebra to function view. It remains complex for so many students
because it involves the notion of limit, continuity, and first derivative rate of change (Artigue,
2009). Furthermore, these and similar representations are problematic for learners because they
cannot understand how graphical, numerical, or algebraical presentations of calculus ideas relate
to one another. In the view of Hiebert and Carpenter (1992) this missing link deprives them of
being able to solve problems accurately. For instance, a student might comprehend what a
derivative of a function means symbolically, but not geometrically.

2.4.2. Procedural Fluency

Another of the cognitive processes that raises difficulties for the learners is termed procedural
fluency – which is characterized by the ability to execute algorithms and rules in the correct and
fast manner. Orton (1983) showed that the type of knowledge chosen by learners is
memorization with only ritual representations but most of the mistakes in solving the non-routine
questions are due to lack of improvisation. This then makes it difficult for them to apply what
they have learned at a new level of difficulty or in the face of new challenges.

2.4.3. Problem-Solving Skills

To solve efficient differential calculus problems, it is therefore necessary to use both heuristics
and algorithms. But as it was seen in the study many learners lack the ability to apply what they
have been taught in solving real life problems. Schoenfeld (1985) attributed this difficulty to a
problem with their strategic knowledge as well as metacognition so plan, monitor, and appraise
the problem solving processes.
2.5. Factors Contributing to Challenges in Differential Calculus

2.5.1. Teaching Methods

Overall, what educators consider as approaches to teaching facilitate or hinder performance

when learners are learning calculus. According to Freudenthal (1991), conventional exposition
approaches cannot meet learners’ needs. The research indicated by Anthony and Walshaw-
(2009) concluded that some forms of teaching practices that embraces use of technology and
collaborative learning are also student friendly practices which augment the understanding of
calculus concepts. Equally, there exists published research information that suggests that a
process of integrating the real life examples of uses of calculus in curriculum opens a channel
where learners could be coached on how to improve their understanding of the area of interest.
As Boaler opined cutting across from another source Boaler (1998), learners’ interest in learning
and applying calculus will be significantly enhanced the moment learners are able todiscover the
reality aspect of the subject.

2.5.2 Classroom Environment

The learners’ beliefs about mathematics and their learning needs and motivation are especially
construct from the classroom context when learning differential calculus. A positive learning
culture may help change the attitude towards learning mathematics and help promote
participation (Boaler, 2002). On the other hand, a pressurized competitive environment may
cause learners to develop anxiety and a negative attitude towards their performances a situation
that will ensure poor performance among students (Ashcraft & Krause, 2007).

2.5.3 Socioeconomic Factors

The learners’ beliefs about mathematics and their learning needs and motivation are especially
construct from the classroom context when learning differential calculus. A positive learning
culture may help change the attitude towards learning mathematics and help promote
participation (Boaler, 2002). On the other hand, a pressurized competitive environment may
cause learners to develop anxiety and a negative attitude towards their performances a situation
that will ensure poor performance among students (Ashcraft & Krause, 2007).
2.5.4. Affective Issues

Anxiety and self-efficacy, as variables of affective factors, play a very significant role in the
success of learners studying calculus topics in Grade 12. According to Bandura (1997), students
with a high level of self-efficacy are more willing to take on difficult tasks and they can persist
despite hardships. On the other hand, students with high rates of math anxiety tend to evade any
calculus problems resulting in poor performance (Ashcraft, 2002). More so, perceiving calculus
as an abstract subject that is challenging can discourage students thereby affecting their attitudes
towards studying it. Schoenfeld (1985) proposes that creating a positive learning environment as
well as providing proper support will enhance the decreasing effect of such insecurities on
learners.

2.6. Strategies for Improving Learning Outcomes in Differential Calculus

2.6.1 Professional Development for Teachers

Professional development opportunities can be provided to mathematics teachers to improve

their pedagogical content knowledge and instructional practices. Teachers’ ability to help
learners master differential calculus can be enhanced by training programs that focus on effective
teaching strategies, formative assessment, and integrating technology into mathematics
instruction (Darling-Hammond, Hyler, & Gardner 2017).

2.6.2. Use of Technology

The integration of technology in mathematics education has the potential to enhance learners'
understanding of differential calculus. Tools such as dynamic geometry software, graphing
calculators, and computer algebra systems can provide visual and interactive representations of
complex concepts, making them more accessible to students (Thomas & Holton, 2003).
Additionally, online learning platforms and resources can offer supplementary support for
learners outside the classroom.

2.6.3 Formative Assessment and Feedback

While formative assessment and timely feedback are crucial in uncovering learners'
misconceptions and directed support, an array of studies indicates that continual assessment and
constructive feedback can boost learners' understanding and performance in the subject matter
(Black & Wiliam, 1998). If used well, formative assessment practices can enable educators
to track learners' advancement and change their teaching styles.

The literature shows that learners face many challenges when dealing with differential calculus,
including cognitive factors, instructional components, and affective elements. These issues are
solved by considering all aspects at once including good teaching techniques, using the
knowledge acquired in real-life scenarios, and ensuring that emotional stability is maintained
among learners. It is essential to conduct more research on innovative methods of teaching
calculus so that learners can be provided with adequate assistance during their studies.

2.2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2.2.1. Constructivist Theory

Primarily developed by Piaget (1972) and Vygotsky (1978), constructivist theory serves an
important role in illuminating problems associated with learning differential calculus. According
to constructionism, learners create their interpretations of reality via experiences and reflection.
The theory emphasizes active learning, problem-solving, and the use of prior knowledge in
learning new concepts. In the case of differential calculus, constructivist principles suggest that
students should deal with calculus ideas by exploring, manipulating, and applying them. This
supports the notion that understanding calculus involves much more than just memorizing
formulas; it means acquiring deep conceptual understanding as well as being able to apply
concepts in different situations.

The knowledge of differential calculus remains elusive to many learners despite their desire for
good grades at all costs; thus they get discouraged when it comes to doing assignments relating
to this topic. Learners often think it is beyond them because it requires an analytical mind which
they feel they do not possess.

2.2.2. Cognitive load theory (CLT)

 Differential calculus poses some cognitive problems to learners who may not understand its
principles for example if there is a lot or too complicated information or problems in it; this
theory also relates well with teachers in that way by providing them with a description of their
role during the scaffolding process. Sweller’s Cognitive Load Theory (1988) explains how
throughout the learning process, students have to deal with various cognitive issues related to
differential calculus. According to CLT’s model, disruption happens when cognitive overload
goes beyond the working memory capacity of an individual during study time. Students find it
difficult sometimes due to the numerous concepts and representations involved in this subject
matter sometimes creating heavy memory burdens within them unlike integral calculus once
upon a time ago where such expectations are inconceivable. Thus, instructional designers need to
reduce cognitive load by breaking down information into bite-size components while at the same
time assisting in the form of pictures or other support materials. Teaching ideas in calculus using
this approach requires scaffolding and incremental guidance.

2.2.3. Affective Domain Theory

The emotional side of learning is the area that Affective Domain Theory focuses on, as noted by
Krathwohl, Bloom, and Masia (1964). This theory is related to the understanding of differential
calculus students’ learning experiences and outcomes based on different affective factors like
motivation, anxiety, or self-efficacy. As per such a theory, helping students become engaged in
their mathematics lessons requires establishing a conducive emotional climate inside schools’
classrooms where positive reinforcement should be given together with addressing issues of
math-related anxiety. Thus teachers need to be sensitive about what their learners feel so that
they can build up much confidence among them but this will also help them develop an
optimistic way of viewing calculus as a whole subject. In 1964, Krathwohl, Bloom, and Masia
introduced a theory called Affective Domain. The main agenda of this theory was to bring forth
the emotional aspects involved in learning. This theory helps understand how, for instance,
motivation affects student’s learning outcomes and experiences during differential calculus
courses. For this reason, it is important to create a positive emotional climate at school to
enhance learners' engagement and performance and provide encouragement and support for
those who feel anxious about mathematics. Therefore, teachers should be mindful of the
affective needs of their students and foster an atmosphere that builds confidence and positive
feelings about calculus.

2.2.4. Social Constructivist Theory

Vygotsky’s theory understands social constructivism as a means by which individuals can learn
from each other and from the culture around them. This means that there are ways of learning
together, where learners as well as their teachers acquire knowledge together. Group discussions
among peers, collaborative learning tasks and joint problem-solving may enhance
comprehension and memorization of terms in differential calculus... The Zone of Proximal
Development (ZPD) is where a student may need assistance in doing tasks he or she cannot do
independently according to Vygotsky. Hence, teachers can assist students by providing
appropriate scaffolding within their ZPD that gradually complicates calculus problems as
students grasp them better.

Constructivist, cognitive load, affective domain, and social constructivist theories provide the
theoretical framework for exploring learners’ struggles with Grade 12 differential calculus.
These theories give a broader understanding of cognitive, pedagogical, and emotional
determinants of students’ learning experiences. Such perspectives allow teachers to come up
with effective techniques that can aid learners in overcoming their difficulties in differential
calculus.

Summary

Chapter 2 provides a thorough examination of the existing literature on the challenges learners
face when solving differential calculus problems. By synthesizing findings from various studies,
the review establishes a foundation for the current research, identifying gaps in the literature and
areas where further investigation is needed. The chapter sets the stage for the subsequent analysis
of the specific challenges encountered by learners in the Emfuleni-Sedibeng region, positioning
the study within the broader discourse on mathematics education in South Africa.