PrMments

Pressure Measuring Instruments:
1. Manometer
2. Bourdon Tube.
3. Bellows.
4. Diaphragm.
5. Capsule.
6. Piezoresistive (strain gauge).
7. Differential Capacitance sensor.

Manometer
A very simple device used to measure
pressure
A fluid-filled tube where an applied gas pressure
causes the fluid height to shift proportionately.
This is why pressure is often measured in units of
liquid height (e.g. inches of water, inches of
mercury). As you can see, a manometer is
fundamentally an instrument of differential
pressure measurement, indicating the difference
between two pressures by a shift in liquid
column height.
P high – P low = g × difference in height of the liquid in

the columns.
where g is the specific weight of the liquid in the
manometer.
Bourdon Tube
The Bourdon tube pressure element is a
very robust and time-tested design.
C-tube pressure gauge

Mechanism (taken from the rear of the gauge,
behind the pointer and scale) reveals its
Mechanical Workings:
The dark, C-shaped tube is the bourdon tube
sensing element, while the shiny metal parts are
the linkage, lever, and gear assembly.
Spiral Bourdon
tube
Designed to produce a wider range
of motion than a C-tube bourdon.
Bellows
Constructed from metal
instead of fabric.
Mechanical Working:
A bellows pressure gauge
consists of a flexible metal bellows that expand or contracts in response to
changes in pressure. The expansion and contraction are converted into a readable
measurement by a connected mechanical or digital
display.
Advantages:
These gauges have High accuracy and durability, making
them a popular choice in many industrial and laboratory
settings.
It can measure absolute, differential, or positive components: pointer (A), bellows (B), and inlet (C).
and negative (vacuum) gauge pressure.
Applications:
Low to intermediate system pressures:
HVAC (pressure of the refrigerant or air in the system)
Power transmission (measure the pressure of fluid (oil))
Aerospace (System fuel, pneumatic and hydraulic systems)
Electrical interrupters read the pressure of the insulated gas.
Diaphragm
uses the deflection of a thin,
flexible membrane to
measure fluid pressure in a
system.
Mechanical Working:
Pressure inlet: media enters the pressure gauge
at the pressure inlet.
Diaphragm: The media presses against and
proportionally deflects the diaphragm. The
diaphragm is a thin, circular, flexible, metal disc. It
is typically made of stainless steel for corrosion
and high-temperature resistance.
The disc can be corrugated or smooth. Smooth discs
are only suitable for small deflections and therefore are unlikely to operate well in industrial
applications.
Housing: securing the diaphragm has upper and lower components. The lower
housing connects to the pressure inlet and the upper housing supports the
diaphragm in the case of high pressure.
Pressure element: Typically, the pressure element will be a rack and pinion setup
or a bourdon tube setup. For the latter, the pressure element is filled with fluid to
transfer pressure changes throughout the element.
Pointer: the movement of the pressure element proportionally translates to the
pointer's movement so a user can read the system pressure from the pressure
gauge.
Digital Diaphragm
It is a pressure sensor that utilizes
a diaphragm with piezoresistive
components. When a medium
exerts pressure, the diaphragm
bends, altering the cross-sectional
area of the piezoresistive elements
and leading to a change in their electrical resistance. This
generates a voltage difference, which is then processed by the
sensor's microprocessor to produce pressure reading on the
digital display.
Diaphragm Applications:
• Chemical plants and Power plants.
• Pneumatic and Hydraulic systems.
• Pressure monitoring in gas and liquid storage tanks.
• Pressure measurement in HVAC systems, such as in boilers and air
conditioning units.
• Pressure monitoring in medical equipment, such as in blood
pressure monitors.
• Pressure monitoring in pipelines and other fluid transport systems.
• Pressure testing and calibrating in laboratory settings.
Capsule
The sensing element of a
capsule pressure gauge
consists of two corrugated
diaphragms welded
together at their periphery
to form a capsule.
Mechanical Working:
The pressure to be measured is introduced into
the capsule via an opening in the center of the
first diaphragm. The center of the second
diaphragm is connected to the transmission
mechanism so that the deflection of the
measuring element can be transmitted to the pointer.
When the pressure rises inside the capsule, both diaphragms will slightly
deform. By making use of two diaphragms, the total deflection of the measuring
element is twice as large.
In the pressure gauge animation below, the pressure is going in and out of the
capsule, turning the pointer to the right and back to the left.
Applications
Only used for the measurement of Gas Pressures.
Piezoresistive
(Strain Gauge)
Piezoresistive means “pressure-sensitive
resistance,” or a resistance that changes value with applied pressure. The
strain gauge is a classic example of a piezoresistive element.
Working Principle:
Refers to the change in electrical resistance of a
material when subjected to mechanical stress or
strain. This phenomenon is observed in certain
materials, such as silicon and germanium, which
exhibit a change in resistance when deformed under pressure.
Advantages:
• High sensitivity
• Wide measurement range
• Fast response time
• Compact and lightweight
Disadvantages:
• Temperature dependence
• Long-term stability
• Cost
Differential Capacitance
Sensor
One capacitor is charged positive
with respect to ground, while the
other is charged negative with
respect to ground, as the AC
voltage source alternates positive
and negative. While one capacitor
of the pressure sensor is charging, the other is discharging through R load,
producing an output voltage (Vout).
Working Principle:
If both Capacitances are equal, the output voltage will alternate equally
between positive and negative values, having a DC average value of
zero. If one capacitance is larger than the other, it will store additional
charge on its plates, causing it to sway the output voltage of the Twin-T
circuit in the direction of its polarity.
Thus, Vout becomes more positive as
pressure increases on one side of the
sensor, and more negative as
pressure increases on the other side
of the sensor.
Pressure Measurement:
Pressure is the primary variable for a wide range of process measurements. many
types of industrial measurements are inferred from pressure, such as:
• Flow (measuring the pressure dropped across a restriction)
• Liquid level (measuring the pressure created by a vertical liquid column)
• Liquid density (measuring the pressure difference across a fixed-height liquid column)
• Weight (hydraulic load cell)
Pressure Expression:
Pressure(P): the amount of force (F) distributed across a given area (A).
𝑷 = 𝑭/𝑨
The mathematical relationship between vertical liquid height and hydrostatic

pressure is quite simple, and may be expressed by either of the following
formulae:
𝑷 = 𝝆𝒈𝒉
Where,
P = Hydrostatic pressure in units of weight per square area unit: pascals (N/m2) or lb/ft2
ρ = Mass density of liquid in kilograms per cubic meter (metric) or slugs per cubic foot (British)
g = Acceleration of gravity (9.81 meters per second squared or 32.2 feet per second squared)
γ = Weight density of liquid in newtons per cubic meter (metric) or pounds per cubic foot
(British)
h = Vertical height of liquid column
Specific Gravity of any liquid:
𝑫 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 / 𝑫 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Ideal Gases Pressure given by:
𝑷 𝑽 = 𝒏𝑹𝑻
Where,
P = Absolute pressure (atmosphere)
V = Volume (liters)
n = Gas quantity (moles)
R = Universal gas constant (0.0821 L · atm / mol · K)
T = Absolute temperature (K)
PV∝T
Several “gas laws” are derived from this proportionality. They are as follows:
P V = Constant Boyle’s Law (assuming constant temperature T)
V ∝ T Charles’s Law (assuming constant pressure P)
P ∝ T Gay-Lussac’s Law (assuming constant volume V)
Units of Pressure &

Conversion
There are six terms applied to pressure measurements. They
are as follows:
• Total vacuum: which is zero pressure or lack of pressure, as would be
experienced in outer space.
• Vacuum is a pressure measurement made between total vacuum and
normal atmospheric pressure (14.7 psi).
• Atmospheric pressure is the pressure on the earth’s surface due to the
weight of the gases in the earth’s atmosphere and is normally expressed at
sea level as 14.7 psi or 101.36 kPa. It is, however, dependent on atmospheric
conditions. The pressure decreases above sea level and at an elevation of
5000 ft drops to about 12.2 psi (84.122 kPa).
• Absolute pressure is the pressure measured with respect to a vacuum and
is expressed in pounds per square inch absolute (psia).
• Gauge pressure is the pressure measured with respect to atmospheric
pressure and is normally expressed in pounds per square inch gauge (psi).
shows graphically the relation between atmospheric, gauge, and absolute
pressures.
• Differential pressure is the pressure measured with respect to another
pressure and is expressed as the difference between the two values. This
would represent two points in a pressure or flow system and is referred to as
the delta P.

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Pressure Measuring Instruments:

6. Piezoresistive (strain gauge).

7. Differential Capacitance sensor.

P high – P low = g × difference in height of the liquid in

C-tube pressure gauge

and negative (vacuum) gauge pressure.

The mathematical relationship between vertical liquid height and hydrostatic

h = Vertical height of liquid column

Specific Gravity of any liquid:

n = Gas quantity (moles)

R = Universal gas constant (0.0821 L · atm / mol · K)

T = Absolute temperature (K)

Units of Pressure &

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