CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction

1.1 Background of Study

Cookies represent the largest category of snack items among baked foods all over the world. It
contains less moisture content. Different verities of cookies are used as one of the fast and
nutritious snacks. Cookies are popular as convenient food (Upadhyay et al., 2010). It conserve as
vehicle for important nutrients if made readily available to the consumer. It consists of three
major components: flour, sugar, and fat, which compose cookie dough and influence the quality
of the final product. The main ingredient of cookie dough is wheat flour (Biniyam, 2010).

Cookies have now become loved fast food products for every age group because they are
easy to carry, tasty to eat, cholesterol free and reasonable at cost. In India about 25% of the
wheat is used in the preparation of baked goods (Kamaljit et al 2010) States that have large
intake of biscuits and cookies are Maharastra, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and
Uttar Pradesh. Cookies are one of the best known quick snack products. They are characterized
by a formula high in sugar and shortening and low in water. The main ingredients of cookies are
wheat, flour, fat, and sugar. Water is also added, helping the process of making cookies but is not
a final ingredient, that is it is not a component of final food product (Sivasankar, 2002).

Cookies are one of the best known quick snack products. They are characterized by a
formula high in sugar and shortening and low in water .The main ingredients of cookies are
wheat , flour, fat, and sugar. Water is also added, helping the process of making cookies but is
not a final ingredient, that is it is not a component of final food product. The chemical
composition of cookies is of significance importance as they contain 22‐30% of fat, 4‐8%protein
contents and 60‐70% carbohydrates. These constituents also impart desirable quality
characteristics to final produce.

Cookies are chemically leavened product. Generally, the name cookies are used in the
USA and biscuit is used in the European countries (Sivasankar, 2002). Cookies and other bakery
products have now become loved fast food products for every age-group, because they are easy
to carry about, tasty to eat, cholesterol-free, containing digestive and dietary principles of vital

8
importance and reasonably cheap . They can be made from hard dough, hard sweet dough or soft
dough. Examples of biscuits made from the above mentioned types of flour include crackers, rich
tea and short cake respectively (Olaoye et al.; 2007; Nwosu, 2013).

Wheat flour has been the major ingredient used in the production of biscuit and other
pastry products. In Nigeria, reliance on wheat flour in the pastry and bakery industries has over
the years restricted the use of other cereals and tuber crops available to domestic use. In recent
years, government has through intensive collaboration with research institutes encouraged the
use of composite flours in the production of bread and related food products such as biscuit. This
initiative has enhanced the use of flours from cassava, sweet potato bread fruit, plantains and
other underutilized crops that are good sources of flour. The adoption of these locally produced
flours in the bakery industry will increase the utilization of indigenous crops cultivated in
Nigeria and also lower the cost of bakery products (Oyeyinka et al., 2014).

Sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L.), orange flesh cultivars (OFSP) is an important
naturally bio-fortified crop with great potentials to be used in food-based intervention programs
to address vitamin A deficiency (Henok, 2015). It is an extremely versatile and nutritious crop
(Parle and Monika, 2015) that serves as a very good vehicle for addressing some health related
problems. It is a source of macro- and micronutrients such as carbohydrates, carotenes, thiamine,
riboflavin, niacin, potassium, zinc, calcium, iron, and vitamin C (Oke and Workneh, 2013). It
can also be consumed in different forms such as boiled, fried or cooked with other staple foods
like beans (Ubbor et al., 2022c). Despite its potentials, it is highly underutilized (Sanoussi et al.,
2016). Orange fleshed sweet potatoes (OFSP) can provide β-carotene in sufficient amounts to
meet the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) of vitamin A in the diet (Kolawole et al.,
2017).
Almond nut(Terminalia catappa) commonly called tropical almond nut or Indian
almond, is a medium to large deciduous tropical tree that grows to 75 - 90 feet tall (often lower
in cultivation) with a spreading crown featuring horizontal branching in tiers. It belongs to the
family Combretaceae with typically one to five fruits developing on the basal part of the flower
spike. The fruit is a sessile, laterally compressed, ovoid to ovate, smooth-skinned drupe. During
maturation, it changes skin colour from green through yellow to bright red or dark purplish red at
full maturity. Fruit size varies considerably, with the kernel consisting of two delicate and

9
intricately entwined cotyledons enclosed in an inconspicuous cream-colored, rarely red, testa.
The fruit is edible, tasting slightly acidic (ABB, 2020). Edible nuts are valued for their sensory,
nutritional and health attributes. They are rich sources of lipids and proteins, containing certain
vitamins and minerals in appreciable amounts (Olatidoye et al., 2011).
Composite flour has been defined as a mixture of several flours obtained from roots and
tubers, cereals, legumes etc with or without the addition of wheat flour; that is created to satisfy
specific functional characteristics and nutrient composition. Flour confectionery preparations are
exorbitant baking operations in the food industry, premised on the costly nature and insufficiency
of their constituents which are predominantly imported in Nigeria, particularly when restrictions
are placed on the importation of some of these ingredients (Ohaegbulam et al., 2021).
Composite flours are binary or ternary mixtures of flours from some other crops, with or
without wheat flour. Composite flour is a welcomed development in developing countries to
promote high yield of native plant species and better use of domestic agricultural product and
thus prevent them from going into extinction (Adeboye et al., 2014). The use of composite flour
to produce baked goods, where feasible, helps to lessen total dependence on imported wheat
(Hasmadi et al., 2020). Composite flour is desirable in this regard because it improves the
nutritional value of food products such as bakery products (Popoola et al., 2019).

1.2 Statement of the problem

In cookies there are numerous problems encountered which lead to its unacceptability by the
consumers. In Nigeria, reliance on wheat flour in the confectionery industries has over the years
restricted the use of other cereals and tuber crops available to domestic use. Several studies have
reported the use of composite flour but none has revealed the proximate and sensory properties
of cookies from composite flour of orange fleshed sweet potato (OFSP) and almond nut. In spite
of the nutritional and economic benefits of OFSP, it remains under-utilised in Nigeria because of
its bulkiness and steady but sure rate of deterioration. Almond nut is still one of the lesser-
utilized legumes in Nigeria. It has not been adequately exploited as edible human food or made
widely-consumable to humans, because of the poor dehulling and milling characteristics. This
vacuum in knowledge negatively impacts on the applicability of the flour on an industrial scale
and research study.

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1.3 Aim of the study
The aim of this project will be to produce cookies from composite wheat flour, orange fleshed
sweet potato fortified with almond nut.
To determine the functional properties and sensory evaluation of cookies produced from wheat
and orange fleshed sweet potato fortified with almond nut composite flour.
1.4 Objectives of the study
i. To obtain the raw materials required for the cookies production
ii. To process the orange fleshed sweet potato and almond nut into flour
iii. To produce the cookies from composite flour blends of wheat orange sweet potato flesh and
almond nut flour in varies proportion
iv. To determine the proximate composition of the cookies
v. To ascertain the sensory characteristics of the produced cookies
1.5 Scope of the study
This research work is focused on the procurement of the tropical almond fruits and orange
fleshed sweet potato (OFSP), processing of the seeds into flour and the proximate composition
and sensory evaluation will also be determined. This work however does not involve storage test,
no mineral assessment of the samples.
1.6 Justification of the study
This project is of importance in the following ways: It will strongly encourage the reduction in
the wastage of tropical almond and its seed which occurs due to poor consumption and under-
utilization/poor diversification of use. It is also hoped that the use of blends of wheat flour OFSP
flour and almond seeds flour will result in the production of cookies loaves that are less
expensive, acceptable and highly nutritive than those produced from wheat only. This research
work would also serve economic benefits at the industrial level by adding value to an item
(tropical almond) which, otherwise, would have been disposed off; as well as improving the
sweetness of the biscuit due to the inclusion of orange fresh sweet potato.

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Origin of cookies

According to culinary historians, cookies evolved from test cakes used to test oven temperature.
Small amounts of cake batter were dropped onto pans to test the temperature of the oven before the
cakes were baked. Cookies are believed to date back to 7th century Persia (one of the first
countries to cultivate sugar) and spread throughout Europe as a result of the Muslim conquest of
Spain. By the 14th century, cookies were common throughout all of Europe. By the 1800s, cookie
recipes were being published in cookbooks as 'small cakes.' In fact, the term 'cookie' comes from
the Dutch word koekje or koekie which means little cake! What we call 'cookies' in the United
States are called biscuits in the United Kingdom and Australia, galletas in Spain, kels in Germay,
and biscotti or Amaretti in Italy (Kamaljit, et al., 2010).
Cookies continued with their journey to America during English and durch settlement in the 1600s.
Throughout the 19th century, most cookies were baked at home as special treats because of the
because of the high cost of sugar. Many early cookbooks included recipes for for macaroons,
jumbles and gingerbread. Recipes for cookies in a variety of styles and flavors increased in the
early 1900s and continued today. Ninety percent of home baked well. Half all home cookies are
cookies are chocolate chip. (Kamaljit, et al., 2010).
2.1.1 Description and Benefits of Cookies

Cookies are one of the best known quick snack products (Farheena et al.; 2015). Olaoye et al.;
(2007) described cookies as nutritive snacks produced from unpalatable dough that is
transformed into appetizing product through the application of heat in an oven. They are
popular examples of bakery product of ready-to-eat snack that possess several attractive features
including wide consumption, more convenient with long shelf-life and have the ability to serve
as vehicles for important nutrient (Ajibola et al.; 2015).

Cookies are chemically leavened product (Hanan, 2013). Generally, the name cookies are used
in the USA and biscuit is used in the European countries (Sivasankar, 2002). Cookies and other
bakery products have now become loved fast food products for every age-group, because they
are easy to carry about, tasty to eat, cholesterol-free, containing digestive and dietary principles

12
of vital importance and reasonably cheap (Farheena et al.; 2015). They can be made from hard
dough, hard sweet dough or soft dough. Examples of biscuits made from the above mentioned
types of flour include crackers, rich tea and short cake respectively (Kulkarni, 2007; Olaoye et
al.; 2007; Nwosu, 2013; Farheena et al.; 2015). Cookies are characterized by a formula high in
sugar and shortening and low in moisture content. They differ from other baked foods like
bread and cakes because they have low moisture content, making them comparatively free from
microbial spoilage and having long shelflife (Hanan, 2013). The main ingredients of cookies are
wheat flour, fat (margarine) and sugar and water, while other ingredients such as milk, salt,
aerating agent, emulsifier, flavor and colour can be included. They can also be enriched or
fortified with other ingredients in order to meet specific nutritional or therapeutic needs of
consumers (Ajibola et al.; 2015).

Flour used in making cookies is basically from wheat or composite flour which forms the basic
ingredients of bakery products including bread, rolls, cakes, cookies and other bakery products
(Giwa and Ikujenlola, 2010).

However, recent epidemiological studies have shown that the consumption of whole wheat
grains and whole wheat flour sometimes called graham flour and grain-based products is
associated with the reduced risk of oxidative stress related to chronic diseases and age related
disorders, such as cardiovascular diseases, carcinogenesis, type II diabetes and obesity (Lilei et
al.; 2013). Whole grain flours from whole Kernel grains conceal an array of health benefits
attributed to the presence of antioxidants such as vitamin C, vitamin E (tecopherols and
tocotrienols) and Carotenoids (Lilei et al.; 2013).

2.1.2 Classification of cookies

Cookies are broadly classified according to how they are formed or made, including at least
these categories: Bar cookies consist of batter or other ingredients that are poured or pressed
into a pan (sometimes in multiple layers) and cut into cookie-sized pieces after baking.

Bar cookies: Bar cookies consist of batter or other ingredients that are poured or pressed into a
pan (sometimes in multiple layers) and cut into cookie-sized pieces after baking. In British
English, bar cookies are known as "tray bakes”.Examples includes brownies, fruit squares, and
bars such as date squares.
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Drop cookies: they are made from relatively soft dough that is dropped by spoonfuls onto the
baking sheet. During baking, the mounds of dough spread and flatten. Chocolate chip
cookies (Toll House cookies), oatmeal raisin (or other oatmeal-based) cookies, and rock
cakes are popular examples of drop cookies. This may also include thumbprint cookies, for
which a small central depression is created with a thumb or small spoon before baking to contain
a filling, such as jam or a chocolate chip.[16] In the UK, the term "cookie" often refers only to this
particular type of product.

Filled cookies: they are made from rolled cookie dough filled with a fruit, jam or confectionery
filling before baking. Hamantashen are a filled cookie.

Molded cookies: They are also made from stiffer dough that is molded into balls or cookie
shapes by hand before baking. Snickerdoodles and peanut butter cookies are examples of molded
cookies. Some cookies, such as hermits or biscotti, are molded into large flattened loaves that are
later cut into smaller cookies.

No-bake cookies: They are made by mixing filler, such as cereal or nuts, into a melted
confectionery binder, shaping into cookies or bars, and allowing to cool or harden. Oatmeal
clusters and rum balls are no-bake cookies.

Pressed cookies: They are made from soft dough that is extruded from a cookie press into
various decorative shapes before baking. Spritzgebäck is an example of a pressed cookie.

Refrigerator cookies: Also known as icebox cookies are made from a stiff dough that is
refrigerated to make the raw dough even stiffer before cutting and baking. The dough is typically
shaped into cylinders which are sliced into round cookies before baking. Pinwheel cookies and
those made by Pillsbury are representative.

Rolled cookies: are made from stiffer dough that is rolled out and cut into shapes with a cookie
cutter. Gingerbread men are an example.

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Sandwich cookies: are rolled or pressed cookies that are assembled as a sandwich with a sweet
filling. Fillings include marshmallow, jam, and icing. The Oreo cookie, made of two chocolate
cookies with a vanilla icing filling, is an example (Lee et al., 2010).

2.1.3 Methods of Cookies Production

There are three main stages to cookie dough production:
Creaming – The fat or shortening is creamed with the sugar to entrap air cells and create a fluffy
texture. Other ingredients like salt, dry eggs, and baking powder are also added at this stage to
improve homogenization of the dough.
Incorporation of liquids – The addition of liquids at this stage helps disperse and homogenize
the dough, and aeration continues.
Incorporation of dry ingredients – The last stage of flour addition, or folding in of the flour,
gently introduces the flour into the dough without destroying the air cells. Adding flour at the
last stage also prevents a gluten matrix from forming, thereby producing a short bite for the
cookie. This results in a short bite for the cookie.
Cookies are produced according to varied formula compositions, in many different shapes and
sizes, and by various manufacturing procedures. The main components are flour, water, fat,
sugar and chemical leavening (Karatay, et al., 2014).
2.1.4 Ingredients used in cookies production
Flour, water, and leavening agents are the ingredients primarily responsible for the characteristic
appearance, texture, and flavour of most bakery products. Eggs, milk, salt, shortening,
and sugar are effective in modifying these qualities, and various minor ingredients may also be
used. The works of the main ingredients includes;
Flour: flour is the major ingredient for any bakery product; it provides the structure of the

cookies and influences its texture and taste. Flour contains proteins that interact with each other
when mixed with water, forming gluten. It is this elastic gluten framework which stretches to
contain the expanding leavening gases during rising (Annongu, et al., 2006).

Butter: The job of butter in baking (besides being delicious) is to give richness, tenderness and
structure to cookies. We alter the way butter works in a recipe by changing its temperature and
choosing when to combine it with the other ingredients. Butter also plays a critical role in cookie

15
structure; the fat and moisture can enhance or inhibit gluten development, which directly impacts
the shape, spread, and texture in your cookies (Annongu, et al., 2006).
Eggs: Egg whites entrap more air while contributing more water, encouraging steam and gluten
formation: perfect conditions for lean cookies that are thick and puffy. Eggs promote puffiness
and spreading in cookies, while also holding the cookie together during baking. Egg also aids in
producing cookies that are dense, tender, and rich (Hari et al.,2012).
Milk : One of the main roles of milk in baking is to provide moisture. It helps to keep baked
goods from becoming too dry and crumbly, and can also add tenderness to the texture. In
addition to adding moisture, milk also helps to create a softer crumb in cookies. Milk encourages
the browning reactions characteristic of cookies, pastry, and crusts. Milk contributes to the
keeping quality of bread and gives it a soft crust. Additional protein and sugar (lactose) in milk
adds more sweetness and a browner color to cookies than water.
Baking powder: Baking powder simply adds carbon dioxide to the equation, providing a more
forceful pressure that encourages dough to spread up and out. Without the well-developed
elasticity of dough, the strands of gluten in cookies would sooner snap than stretch, cracking
along the surface. Baking powder is used to increase the volume and lighten the texture of baked
goods. It works by releasing carbon dioxide gas into a batter or dough through an acid–base
reaction, causing bubbles in the wet mixture to expand and thus leavening the mixture (Akpabio,
2012).
Shortening (Nutmeg)
Fats and oils are essential ingredients in nearly all bakery products. Shortenings have a
tenderizing effect in the finished product and often aid in the manipulation of doughs. In addition
to modifying the mouth feel or texture, they often add flavour of their own and tend to round off
harsh notes in some of the spice flavours. The common fats used in bakery products are lard,
beef fats, and hydrogenated vegetable oils.
Sweeteners (sugar)
Powdered sugar is used for several purposes in cookies and other baked goods;
Sweetener: provides a sweet flavor. Tenderizer: interferes with gluten formation, protein
coagulation and starch gelatinization. Shelf life improvement: reduces the amount of water
available for microbial deterioration.

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Flow Chart for Cookies Production
Weighed all ingredients

Creaming of sweeteners(sucrulose) and shortening for 10 mins

Mix samples flour and other ingredients for 3 minin mixer

Kneading

Resting of dough for 30 mins

Cutting dough into small parts

Molded in desired shapes

Placed in greased trays

Baked inpreheated oven(180oc for45 mins)

Cooling for 5 -10 mins

Packaging
Fig.2.1 Flow chart for cookies production(Basher et al.,2015)

2.2 History and Description of Wheat

The history of wheat from about 10,000 B.C. is an important part of the history of agriculture.
Wheat is thought to have first been cultivated in the Fertile Crescent, an area in the Middle East
spreading from Jordan, Palestine, and Lebanon to Syria, Turkey, Iraq, and Iran . The earliest
cultivated species are hulled (glumed) wheats and comprise all three polyploidy levels known
in Triticum spp., diploid, tetraploid, and hexaploid [Arzani et al.,2017].

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2.2.1 Processing Of Wheat
Wheat is processed into various grades of flour by cleaning, tempering, grinding, sifting, and
purifying to obtained fine wheat flour.
2.2.2 Classes of Wheat:

The seven official classes of wheat are soft white, soft red spring, soft red spring, and durum.
Classes are divided by hardship, color of kernels, and planting period. Each class has specific
baking properties. The most common wheat by products are wheat screenings and wheat
middling. The more fibrous and coarser fractions are used as animal feed ingredient. (Potential
field safety hazards associated with wheat or wheat by-products include non-grain material,
pesticides, chlorine and vomitoxin)

Equipment:

Receiving separators, rollers mills, sifters, and purifiers are important equipment in the wheat
processing industry (Reichenberger, 2011).

2.2.3. Side Effect of Wheat

A few side effect observed on consuming wheat are;

 It may cause nausea and vomiting

 It may cause indigestion
 It may cause diarrhea
 It may cause sneezing
 It may cause stuffy or runny nose
 It may cause headaches

2.2.4 Precautions to take before eating Wheat:

General precaution should be taken while eating wheat pregnant woman and lactating
mothers should take special care. One most consult a doctor before eating wheat. Precaution
should be taken before given wheat to the elderly or children. In such cases, one must have
wheat only if the doctor prescribes it (Rachana poudel et al; 2017). Interaction with other drugs,

18
It may interact with the levodopa (A drug taken for parkinson’s disease), wheat may interact
with digoxin (A drug used for heart diseases)

2.2.5. Health Benefits of Wheat

 Whole Wheat effect on Skin and Hair:

The main benefit of wheat flour is that it has a positive effect on our body. It contains selenium,
an antioxidant that is an essential element to fight against harmful infections. It also helps the
scalp from getting dry and dandruff. Whole wheat grain or flour has a zinc and vitamin E
element that helps in getting the lustrous hair, nourishes the hair and protect them from damage,
It also helps in skin tightening and anti-ageing.

 Aids Digestion:

The richness of fiber present in the whole wheat grain/flour has multiple-dimensional effects on
the body. It helps in cleaning harmful toxins from the body. The anti-bacterial properties of the
whole wheat grain help in the reduction of the adverse effect of digestive tracks and help to
improve the interstitial health track (Dietary fiber, DF) birt et al; 2013. Hasjim et al; 2010).

 Prevent Weight Grain

Eating rich fiber food can help in the reduction of weight lose and lower the risk of obesity.
Whole wheat grain helps to reduce the bad fat from the body.

 High in Nutritious and Fiber

Whole wheat flour is rich in vitamins fibers, magnesium zinc and proteins. It is also rick source
of vitamin B. it contains a good amount of mineral such as zinc, iron, magnesium, and
manganese. Antioxidants are also found in whole wheat. The UK national diet and nutrition
survey (NDNS) (Bates et al; 2014 a&b).

 Reduce the risk of cancer

Wheat diet helps in reducing the risk of skin cancer. The presence of selenium in whole wheat
helps in that process. It also helps in nourishing the skin and maintaining radiance. Wheat has
the benefit of eliminating colorectal cancer which is a common type of cancer.

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  Wheat helps in regulation of pre menstrual syndrome(PMS) symptoms

The fact that presence of vitamin B in whole wheat helps in easing the PMs Symptoms. The
presence of magnesium content in the whole wheat relieves anxiety and pain caused by PMS
symptoms. Studies have Shed light on the positive effects of wheat germ compounds (Vitamin
B6 and E, calcium and essential acid) which causes reducing in PMs symptom

 Wheat improves mental health

The fact that vitamin B and E which is present in whole wheat help in energy generation and also
maintains the health DNA in the body. Vitamin B complex in diet is good for inflammatory
regulations in the brain and sub-chemical mental illness. Whereas vitamin E is a good source of
preventing memory related disease (Gopalan et al. 2012).
 Regulate immune system
Wheat germ is abundant in fiber, its high fiber diet can help regulate immune function (i.e
reduces constipation) and may be suggested for individuals who are at risk for colon disease,
heart disease, or diabetes.

2.2.6. SCIENTIFIC CLASSIFICATION OF WHEAT

Triticum aeastivum is the scientific name of wheat (Common wheat). Wheat is the most
popular and significant cereal in the world for both human and animal nutrition. Triticum
aestium (Common wheat) wheat scientifically.

 The most frequently grown hexaploid species is common wheat, sometimes known as
bread wheat (T. aestivum).
 Durum (T. durum) is the second most extensively grown variety of tetraploid wheat in
the world today.
 Emmer (T. dicoclum) is a tetrapoid species that was once widely used but is no more.
 Tetrapoid wheat is known as khorasam (T. turgidum ssp. Turaricum, commonly known
as T. turanicum)
 A diploid species having both wide and domesticated varieties as einkorn (T.
monococcum). Associated with the domestication of emmer wheat

Wheat is based on the following taxonomy tree (walia, 2015).

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Kingdom Planate
Claude Tracheophtes
Claude Angiosperius
Claude Monocots
Claude Commelinds
Order Poales
Family Poaceae
Sub-family pooideac
Tribe Triticeac
Genus Triticum
Species Triticum aeastivum

2.2.7 CULTIVATION OF WHEAT

Wheat (Triticum spp) is world’s most widely cultivated food crops. it is mainly a rabi-season
crop in india. It has played very vital role in stabilizing the food grain production in the country
over the past few years. In india, it is the second important stable cereal food. Wheat is being
cultivated since pre-historic times. From all possible record, it seems that its centre of origin is
south-western Asia. (kishii et.2019).wheat has wide adaptability. it can be grown not only in
typical and sub-typical zones but also in temperate zone and the cold tracts of the far north
beyond even the 6th north latitude. wheat can be cultivated from sea level to as high as.3.300m,
it parameters are follows; optimum temperature range 20˚c-250.germination of seed
3.5˚-35˚c (Seed germination temperature range)14-15˚c (optimum average temperature at the
time of maturity).
a). Rainful-25-15cm/year
b). Humidy-50-60%
Wheat is best grown as a winter season crop since the condition during that time are conductive
for growth and ensures maximum yield soil requirement. Amount of water holding capacity,
well drained loams and clay loans are considered to be good for wheat (Michael hogal, 2013).
2.2.8. USE OF WHEAT:
Wheat is typical milled into flour which is then used to make a wide range of foods including;
Bread, crumpets, muffins, noodles, pasta, biscuits, cakes, pastries, cereals bars, crackers, crisp-

21
bread, sauces and confectionary (e.g Liquorice). Wheat is used also for fermentation to make
beer, whisky, vodka, industrial alcohol or biofuel. The products of the wheat flour milling ,
brewing and distilling industries are used as feed for livestock.
2.2.9. VARIETIES OF WHEAT
Wheat is a unique grains its ability to make the fully elastic dough required for he-evened
products. This is achieved from gluten forming proteins it contains. The grain is made of a
succession of different layers (bran) protecting the endosperm and the germ. A particularity of
the wheat is the presence of a crease that extends the full length of the grain and this
complicates the process of separating the endosperms from the other layer during milling into
flour. Wheat varieties are often classed based on their.

a). Endosperms texture (hard or soft)

b). Sowing season (winter or spring)

c). Seed coat color (eg. Red, white).
The function ability of the gluten is also frequently used to differentiate wheat varieties
(Awuchi et al; 2019)

2.2.10. CHARACTERISTICS OF WHEAT

Wheat is a bunch grass with upright tillers. The leaves are roiled in the whole leaf blades are
smooth near the base and rough near tip on the upper side. Lower side entirely smooth, leaf
Sheath is round and split with over lapping margins and may be smooth or hairy. Leaf collar is
broad and curricles are small and appears frayed. Wheat has a fibrous root system seed, light to
brown color. It has a ribbed front and smooth back surface (uthayakumaran & Wrigley,2010).

There are characteristics of wheat such as

Their fibrous root structure consist of several secondary roots that quickly replace the original
root.

It is a monocot as it contains only one cotyledon

The protective covering or husk of wheat mainly consists of fibers removed when wheat is
milled or refined.

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2.2.11 IMPORTANT OF WHEAT

1. Carbohydrate of wheat: A maturity, the wheat grain consist of 85% (W/W) carbohydrate,
80% of which is starch (present only in the starchy eudersoperm). Approximately 7% low
molecular mass mono-,di-,and oligosaccharides (present in the aleuronic, starchy endosperm
and tissues of the embryonic axis) and fructarts (present in the starchy endosperm and brain)
and about 12%cell wall polysaccharides(present in all tissues).the fructant content of whole
wheat grain has been reported to any form of 0.84% to 1.85% (mean 1.28%) in 129 wheat
varieties grown on a single site (Anderson et al.2013).

a). Free Amino Acids: the pools of free amino acids in wheat grain are small (generally
regarded as 5% or less of total grain nitrogen).

2. Protein content: Protein content of wheat determined by genetic and environment factors,
notably the availability of nitrogen fertilization. The protein content of 12,600 lines in the
USDA world wheat collection has been reported to range from 7% to 22% of the dry weight.

2.2.12. IMPROVING GRAIN QUALITY OF WHEAT

In most of the developing countries, wheat improvement for end-use quality is not a priority
most of the focuses are in improving grain yield potential and resistance to diseases. However,
some developing NARS are critically looking for high quality varieties suited for the
preparation of a range of end product. For farmers in the developed world, improved wheat
equality provides increased market price and therefore better revenues for farmers. For instance,
a 2% increase in grain protein. (From 13.5% to 15.5%) of western red spring wheat in Canada
resulted in 2011-an unfavorable year for wheat quality in that country-in an average premium of
almost $90 per ton (Canadian wheat board, 2011), About 25% extra compared to the price at the
time. Besides grain protein content, increases in other micro-nutrients grain content like, Fe and
Zn, could greatly improve the livelihood and health of people in developing countries where
wheat is the main source of calories, especially for woman and children. The introduction of
the semi-dwarf varieties during the green revolution led to high yield increase. However, it also
had a negative effect on Zn and Fe grain content. The negative correlation between grain yield
and quality might have been a factor for the low priority of wheat improvement for better
quality especially in the developing world (Garcia et al; 2015). Genetics resources, such as

23
landraces, wild relatives, and synthetic wheat, have been reported as novel sources for
improving wheat grain quality (Davies et al; 2006, Ogbonnaya et al; 2013; Rashid et al; 2014).
Several studies assessing the diversity across wheat-gene pools for Zn and Fe grain content have
been carried out.

2.2.13. NUTRITIONAL CONTENTS/VALUE OF WHEAT:

Wheat is essential for the health of people due to its large number of diet contents and
nutritional value. It important can be guessed to see the development countries that can use only
bread, noodles, cakes, pastry, and confectionery. Carbohydrates 55% and 20% of food calories
are present in the wheat grains. Carbohydrates 78%, protein 14%, fat 20%, minerals 2.5%, and
vitamins such as zinc and iron, selenium, and magnesium make up a small percentage of the
diet (14, 15, 16, ). Wheat has per-cap that is classified as true seed. Protein is stored in the
endosperm, the protein contents are about 72%. Wheat grains are also rich in pathogenic acid,
riboflavin and some minerals, sugars, etc. the barn which consists of per-carp test and aleuronic,
is also a dietary source for fiber, potassium, phosphorous, magnesium, calcium, and niacin in
small quantities. Wheat kernels are a treasure trove of nutrients importance to human nutrition.
Endosperm account for around 83% of the weight of the kernel and is the origin of white flour.
The endosperm comprises the majority of the protein, carbohydrates, iron, and numerous B-
complex vitamin such as riboflavin, niacin, and thiamine in the total kernel. Bran makes up
roughly 14.5% of the weight of the kernel (17, 18, 19, 20) bran can be presented in the whole
wheat from and can also be purchased individually. Protein is present in small amounts of the
bran and significant amounts of the B-complex vitamins describe above trace minerals, and
indigestible cellulose fiber formed dietary flour, among the nutrients in the whole wheat. Wheat
germ is the wheat kernels embryo. High amount of protein, lipids, and numerous B vitamins is
present in wheat germs and embryo. Wheat germ is high in minerals and low in salt and
cholesterol. It is high in vitamin E, magnesium (Mg), thiamin, pantothenic acid, niacin
phosphorous and zinc (Zn) as well amount of ubiquinone (ubiquinone) and PABA (para-
aminobenzoic acid) are found in it.

24
2.2.13. STORAGE OF WHEAT:

Wheat should be stored in an airtight container in a cool, dry dark location. The cooler
temperature, the longer the wheat will retain its original quality. Ideally, wheat should be stored
between 40-60˚F, which is just about the temperature in a good root cellar.

Storage at 4-60˚F is optimal for most home stored grains but is usually impractical in
most homes except during winter months. Freezing or sub-zero temperature do not damage
stored grains. Storage at temperature above 60˚F causes a more rapid decline in seed viability
(Ability to germinate) but only a slightly faster loss in food value. A moisture level more that
12% encourage mold growth and chemical degradation of all grains (Barley, corn, millets, oats,
rice, sorghum, triticale, and wheat). Moisten levels of more than 12% may allow grains to start
to respire causing chemical degradation. Moisture level of more than 15% will allow molds to
glow. When the moisture reaches 20% some bacteria can start to glow. The results are spoiled
grain until for use, store containers off the flour especially off concrete floors. Concrete can
wick moisture to store containers very easily inspect grain often for insect activity. Treat for
insects or discard affected lots (Hattha et al; 2018).

2.3 Historical development of Orange Fleshed Sweet Potato (OFSP) in

Nigeria

The first released orange fleshed sweet potato (OFSP) varieties in Nigeria were liberated in the
year 2012. Before then, OFSP was so little known in Nigeria up till that year. The only known
registered sweet potato varieties were developed by the International Institute for Tropical
Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan, developed by Dr. Hahn of the IITA and released in 1992 but
registered by the National Root Crops research Institute (NRCRI), Umudike, in 2001. The three
varieties registered that very year were all white-fleshed varieties. The OFSP genotypes released
in Nigeria in 2012 by the Sweet potato breeding unit of NRCRI, Umudike, were OFSP varieties
selected from exotic varieties for cross-breeding by Dr. Nwankwo Innocent Ifeanyi Maxwell of
the NRCRI, Umudike, Umuahia in Abia State, Nigeria which led to the official release of these
varieties in 2012. The first OFSP released in Nigeria is known as UMUSPO/1 (Umudike Sweet
potato orange one) fondly called King J. The name was given to it by Dr. Jan Low at the 11th
Sweet potato Breeders' Annual Meeting at Kigali, Rwanda, in April 22-26, 2013 being organized

25
by the International Potato Center (CIP) and the Rwanda Agriculture Board (RAB) as part of the
Sweet potato Action for Security and Health in Africa (SASHA) Rwanda. It was named in
honour of the President of Nigeria - Goodluck Ebele Jonathan. King J yields very highly with
potential yield of 63.63t/ha. Semi – erect plant with thick vine and very vigorous growth of dark
green leaves. It has wide adaptation both in the rainforest up to the northern Guinea Savannah. It
matures in about 120 days after planting. One of its outstanding characteristics is that it is
resistant to Sweet potato virus disease (SPVD), and tolerant to Cylas spp. weevil (Nwankwo et
al., 2019).

2.3.1 Nutrient, health and economic potentials of Orange fleshed sweet potato

Orange-fleshed sweet potato tubers are rich in starch, sugars, minerals and vitamins. Being rich
in β-carotene, the orange-fleshed sweet potato is gaining importance as the cheapest source of
antioxidant having several physiological attributes like anti-oxidation, anti-cancer and protection
against liver injury and is most suiting as the bio-fortified crop to combat malnutrition in small
and marginal farming communities. Orange-fleshed sweet potato has considerable potential to
contribute to a food based approach to tackle the problem of vitamin A deficiency, a major
public health concern of the poorer sections. Thus, there is a great possibility of this subsistence
crop for being adopted as regular diet of the consumer food chain to supplement as an alternative
staple food source for resource poor farmers in the present era of extensive population growth
and nutrition crisis (Mitra, 2012).
Even though sweet potato (SP) is a good source of carbohydrates (20%), the joint FAO-WHO
Committee has acknowledged it as the root crop with “antidiabetic” activity. In vivo studies
concluded that carbohydrate from SP stabilizes the sugar levels in blood and decreases the
resistance to insulin. Studies have reported that SP also provides the substantial quantities of
selected vitamins (Vit. C and pro-vitamin A), specific minerals (potassium, magnesium, and
calcium), and various bioactive compounds (phenolic acids and anthocyanins [ACN]) for
consumers. Researchers have also reported the clear role of variety differences in physical
properties and chemical compositions of SP; for instance, reports have it that purple‐ and orange‐
fleshed cultivars possess higher quantities of ACN and carotenes in comparison with white‐
fleshed cultivars. In recent times, demand and attention on orange‐fleshed sweet potato (OFSP)

26
are raised due to the high levels of β‐carotene (BC) and non‐pro‐vitamin A carotenoids
(NPVAC).
Studies have reported that OFSP has high potential to address vitamin A deficiency (VAD) by
food‐based intervention programs in targeted nations. OFSP has been given credit in recent
scientific reports for its role in bakery, snack, and confectionery foods (Satheesh and Workneh,
2019).
2.3.2 Processing and uses of Orange fleshed sweet potato

OFSP tubers have been utilized as food in their fresh forms after cooking, as flour, and in the
grated and mashed (commonly known as puree) forms. OFSP flour has been used locally at
domestic level and in industrial production of bakery products. Some of the bakery products in
which OFSP flour is incorporated as an ingredient are cakes, bread, muffins and buns. Mashed
OFSP has also been used for flour substitution in bread. OFSP is being promoted as a nutrition
intervention to tackle vitamin A deficiency (VAD) and food insecurity in many countries. In
industrial production, OFSP has been used to produce products such as chips, crisps, flour,
puree, juice, bread and other bakery products. In Asian countries, orange-fleshed sweet potato
pickles and cubes are produced commercially and are known for their β-carotene rich property.
Some OFSP roots, which are high in moisture, are not consumed directly as roots but in
derivative products, being processed to serve as functional ingredients. Production and use of
OFSP puree as functional ingredients in food processing has been done for over three decades in
the United States (US). OFSP roots have also been exploited in stock feeds as root meal
especially in the raising of pigs and in other food processing such as starch extraction in Asian
countries. The use of OFSP roots for starch extraction is, however, limited as the dry matter
content of these roots are quite low. OFSP puree is incorporated into bread as a functional
ingredient to increase the provitamin A composition of this bread. The substitution of wheat
flour with OFSP puree in bread baking has been done at varied levels in different studies. The
use of OFSP to substitute wheat flour in bread is aimed at increasing the uptake and utilization of
OFSP roots. (Owade et al., 2018).
Orange fleshed sweet potato has been reported to increase children's levels of vitamin A and
serum retinol concentration, and has been used to fight global vitamin A deficiency. In Nigeria,
Orange fleshed sweet potato is eaten mostly as a snack, fried, cooked, used in pounded yam, and
as a sweetener in beverage production (Pessu et al., 2020).

27
Orange fleshed sweet potato can be termed as a “three in one” tuber, as it integrates the qualities
of cereals (high starch), fruits (high content of vitamins, pectins, etc.) and vegetables (high
content of vitamins, minerals, etc.). These tubers are extensively eaten after boiling, baking and
roasting by Asian and South East Asian population. The beneficial effects of these ingredients
have been appropriately put to use by converting the roots into a number of intermediary food
products like jam, jelly, soft drinks, pickles, fried chips, bakery items sauce, candies, etc.
(Padmaja et al., 2012). Orange fleshed Sweet potato has been processed into a dry cubes type
food product. They are prepared after peeling, slicing into long pieces, soaking them in 2 %
(w/v) potassium metabisulphite solution and cooking in a 60° Brix syrup containing 0.8-1.0 %
citric acid. This is then dried and packed. Sweet potato contains water-soluble pectin, which
enables its use in making jams and jellies. Pickles have been also made from orange fleshed
varieties in Bangladesh, Philippines and also in India (Tan et al. 2005).
Orange fleshed Sweet potato based composite flours have been used in many countries for
making small baked goods like cakes, cookies, biscuits, buns, muffins, doughnuts etc (Teferra et
al., 2015). French fry type products have been also prepared from sweet potato in Thailand
(Reungmaneepaitoon et al. 2005). Ready-to-eat and Ready-to-cook breakfast food and snacks
have also been made from orange fleshed sweet potato tubers (Lee, 2005). Orange fleshed
Sweet potato varieties were used to prepare curd having high nutritive value. The β-carotene rich
variety yielded curd with a carotene content of 2.6 mg per 100 g (Ray et al. 2005). The sensory
evaluation of this curd also gave high scores for taste, aroma and texture (Panda and Ray, 2007).
Orange fleshed Sweet potato tubers are dehydrated and converted into flour to increase the shelf
life of stored tubers and also its further use in starch, pasta, noodle and alcohol factories
(Wiersema et al. 1989 and Chen, 2003). Orange fleshed Sweet potato flour was also attempted as
a replacer of flour and starch in making of candy (Samsiah et al., 2005). These crops flour can
also be utilized to make gulab jamun by mixing it with refined wheat flour and milk powder
(Padmaja and Premkumar, 2002). The high quality puree made from Orange fleshed Sweet
potato is used directly as a baby food or used for mixing various food items like patties, flakes,
reconstituted chips, etc. (Woolfe, 1992). Puree making also ensures round the year availability
and better storage life. Restructured sweet potato sticks were made from cooked and mashed
orange fleshed sweet potato using extrusion technology (Utomo et al. 2005).

28
Non-alcoholic beverage has been also prepared from orange fleshed variety of sweet potato by
mixing the cooked and mashed pulp of sweet potato with pulp of ripe mango or fruit juices from
orange, lemon, pineapple etc. in India (Padmaja and Premkumar 2002). However, a large number
of consumers are not aware about nutritional importance of this crop. It is possible only when
low cost diverse technologies for value added products from orange fleshed sweet potato will be
developed. Thus, there is a great possibility of this subsistence crop for being adopted as regular
diet of the consumer food chain to supplement as an alternative nutritious food source for the
resource poor farmers in the era of extensive population growth and nutrition crisis. In addition
to the promotion of orange-fleshed sweet potato in household diets, the nutrition education
regarding the function and importance of vitamin A in the diet could improve the vitamin A
status to combating night blindness, the major public health concern in unprivileged areas.

2.3.3 Limitations to the utilization of Orange fleshed sweet potato

Jenkins (2015) identified certain factors accounting for the slow adoption and utilization of
orange-fleshed sweet potato. Some of them include:

Knowledge: The large majority of people have reported learning about OFSP through the
government or an NGO, while a small number reported learning through a friend or family
member.
Genetic variation: Cultivators have noted the variation between the OFSP varieties they have
received, noting differences in flavour, colour, root size, and leaf shape. Some farmers prefer
specific varieties, depending upon the recipe.
Natural bias: Many participants use the phrase “our potato” to describe the white/cream fleshed
sweet potato (WFSP), while this terminology was not used to describe OFSP. WFSP was also
repeatedly referred to as “the old potato”, “natural”, “local”, “regional”, “original”, or
“traditional”; while OFSP was referred to as a “novelty”, “new potato”, or “thing of honour”.
The tendency to use such terminology to distinguish between sweet potato flesh colours indicates
a lack of perceived ownership of OFSP that could potentially have a significant impact on
adoption levels.
Persuasion (on the basis of Human Health): Participants stated their familiarity with OFSP
and its relative advantage over WFSP in terms of nutritional value and vitamin content; with
many reporting that OFSP is good for pregnant women and children and should be used in a

29
variety of recipes including enriched porridge, juice, bread, and cookies. WFSP is consumed
after boiling or roasting and is not used to create such by-products to promote human health.
Several participants and market informants mentioned that OFSP is “medicine,” a belief that
stems from the fact that it is promoted as a food to help prevent blindness and promote immune
health and proper growth and development, especially in pregnant women and young children.
The perception that individuals with outward signs of sickness should consume OFSP could lead
to the formation of negative attitudes (persuasion) toward OFSP among individuals who do not
display sickness. Conversely, the belief that OFSP is medicine could potentially lead to the
formation of positive attitudes (persuasion) and increase consumption levels among those who
believe OFSP prevents certain illnesses, increasing its relative advantage over WFSP.
OFSP Organoleptic Qualities: Many participants have reported a preference for OFSP roots
and leaves due to superior flavour; however, relatively few mentioned texture or wateriness as a
factor distinguishing OFSP from WFSP. Participants noted negative side effects of eating WFSP
leaves and roots, including a bitter taste, stomach pain, and sores on the lips or “gluing” of the
lips resulting from contact with the sweet potato sap, which contains latex. These participants
reported that consuming OFSP does not provoke such discomforts, further contributing to
perceptions of relative advantage. Multiple participants also noted a pleasant aroma associated
with cooking OFSP roots. Still others reported that the use of fertilizers negatively affected the
flavour and texture of any variety of sweet potato (SP).
OFSP Respectability: Previous research has suggested that SP may be perceived as a poor
person’s crop. There may be the need to explore this potential change in perception further, as it
is an important aspect of attitude formation towards the adoption of OFSP.
OFSP Important for Business: OFSP is increasingly been seen as a crop for business and not
just home consumption, especially OFSP which was reported by nearly all participants to be of
higher value and more competitive than WFSP. The challenge is in establishing sustainable and
effective marketing channels to maximize these profitability potentials.
Culinary Practices: The majority of participants reported that sweet potato is a breakfast or
snack food, and some feel that since sweet potato is a sweet food, it does not pair well with
savoury items such as fish or meat. However, others said OFSP could be eaten at any time of
day, even mentioning recipes that involve onion and tomatoes cooked with sweet potato roots or
leaves. Still others reported that sweet potato might be eaten for lunch or dinner, but only when

30
other more typical food items are not available. Several interviewees compared sweet potato to
bread, indicating that it was an important substitute in areas that do not have access to a bakery
or the ingredients to make bread. It is often consumed as an accompaniment to tea, as bread
would be, and is considered a snack food that is quick and easy to prepare. This difference in use
of SP flesh colours could have a negative or positive impact on OFSP consumption levels.
Several participants often display confusion surrounding the preparation of OFSP, asking “What
can I do with this potato?” or “How can I prepare it?”, indicating that they considered it to be a
distinct food from WFSP and perhaps more complex. If not resolved, this perception could result
in diminished consumption of OFSP roots. However, as participants learn to use OFSP in a
diverse set of preparations, consumption levels could increase.
Agricultural Inputs: Multiple participants voiced concern that they cannot expand their
production due to a lack of inputs, particularly labour and fertilizers, and requested help for
acquiring these inputs. This constraint seems to describe their overall experiences as subsistence
farmers rather than specifically with OFSP; however, several participants noted that all SP
varieties are labour-intensive due to the need to dig furrows, and therefore difficult to plant in
large quantities. Others noted that the work of multiplying vines is difficult when beginning with
a small amount, and requested support to receive larger quantities of vines. Some stated that even
without expensive fertilizers, they managed a successful SP crop (Jenkins, 2015).

2.3.4 Pest and Disease Control of Orange Fleshed Sweet Potato

Fungal Diseases of Sweet Potato
Sweet potato is affected by many fungal diseases and more than 40 pathogens have been
reported to attack sweet potato both in field and storage in different sweet potato growing areas
all over the world. Among them, leaf spots caused by Cercospora, Alternaria and
Helminthosporium, stem rots, white rust and storage rots are the major diseases (Thankappan,
2008).
Bacterial Diseases
Bacterial diseases of sweet potato are reported from a few countries like USA, Japan and China
(Zhang et al. 2009). Root rot or stem rot caused by Dickeya dadantii, wilt caused by Ralstonia
solanaceraum and soil rot caused by Streptomyces ipomoeae are the three bacterial diseases
reported on sweet potato. Though the diseases are severe wherever they occur, their geographic

31
distribution is limited. The bacterial wilt of sweet potato is confined to China whereas stem rot
and root rot are mainly reported from USA. Bacterial stem and root rot caused by Dickeya
dadantii can be economically important because it destroys plants in the field and tubers after
harvest. The pathogen was earlier identified as Erwinia chrysanthemi, which is reclassified into
six new Dickeya species (Thankappan (2008). The bacteria attacks several hosts in different
regions of the world, however the disease on sweet potato has only been reported from USA
(Clark et al. 2009). Wounding during any stage of crop production should be minimized. Disease
free planting materials should be used and the cuttings obtained from the upper most portion or
tips of vines are essential to avoid bacterial inoculums on the base of the stem. Cultivars varying
in their susceptibility are identified and selection of resistant and less susceptible cultivars will
also be useful in avoiding loss due to the disease
Virus and Phytoplasma Diseases
Several viruses on sweet potato were reported worldwide (Lozano et al. 2009), but only a few
have been well studied and characterized. The first report on viral infection in sweet potato was
made by Hansford (1944) and later on by Thankappan 2008) Worldwide, up to 20 different
viruses have been described to infect sweet potato (Loebenstein et al. 2004; Valverde et al. 2007)
and 12 of them are currently recognized by the International Committee of Taxonomy for Virus
(ICTV).
Traditional cultivation practices such as the piece meal harvesting and exchanging the planting
material freely between neighbouring farmers are the major factors favouring the spread and
survival of sweet potato viruses. Information on the control of virus and the method of infection
through planting material is lacking in resource 74 Sweet potato diseases. The control of virus
relies mainly on preventing the establishment, development and dispersal of the viruses.
Prevention of sweet potato viral diseases involves a wide variety of measures such as eradication
of sources of infection, elimination of alternate hosts as well as vectors. At present, the best way
to control virus diseases in sweet potato is to supply the farmer with virus indexed propagation
material. Such plantlets can be obtained from meristem, shoot tip cultures in combination with
cryotherapy (Wang and Valkonen 2008)
2.3.5 Health benefits of Orange-fleshed Sweet Potato
There are a surprising number of nutrients responsible for the health benefits of orange fleshed
sweet potato tuber. Among these some are antioxidants, anti-inflammatory nutrients and blood

32
sugar-regulating nutrients (Whfoods, 2014). Being rich in β-carotene, the orange fleshed sweet
potato is gaining importance as the cheapest source of antioxidant having several physiological
attributes like anti-oxidation, anti-cancer and may help in protection against liver injury and
coronary heart disease (Choi et al., 2009).
Antioxidant Nutrients
Orange Fleshed Sweet Potato contains a wealth of orange-hued carotenoid pigments. In many
countries, sweet potatoes are available on a virtual year-round basis and their ability to provide
an antioxidant nutrient like beta-carotene makes them a standout antioxidant food (Han et al.,
2007). Recent research shown that during the digestion process, while passing through digestive
tract, phytonutrients present in these crops may be able to lower the free oxygen radicals heavy
metals toxicity (Xie et al., 2010). That risk reduction might be important not only for individuals
at risk of digestive tract problems but for all persons wanting to reduce the potential risk caused
by the presence of heavy metal residues in their diet. The Storage proteins i.e., sporamins present
in sweet potato also have some important antioxidant properties (Ozaki et al., 2010). These
storage proteins produced by sweet potato plants, whenever they are subjected to physical
damage. Their ability to help the plants heal from this damage is significantly related to their role
as antioxidants (Chang et al., 2010). Especially when sweet potato is being digested inside of our
gastrointestinal tract, we may get some of these same antioxidant benefits (Filla et al., 2009).

Anti-Inflammatory Nutrients The colour-related pigments (carotenoids, anthocyanin etc.)

present in orange flesh sweet potato are equally valuable for their anti-inflammatory health
benefits. In animal studies, activation of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-kB), activation of inducible
nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and formation of malondialdehyde
(MDA) have all be shown to get reduced by consumption of either sweet potato or its colour-
containing extracts( Hwang et al., 2010). The colour-related sweet potato phytonutrients also
have their impact on fibrinogen (Ludvik et al., 2008). Balanced amounts of fibrinogen, thrombin
and fibrin are a key part of the body's health and its ability to close off wounds and stop loss of
blood. However, excess amounts of these clotting-related molecules may sometimes pose a
health risk. In animal studies, excess fibrin in the central nervous system has been associated
with increased demyelination process in neurons and can also trigger unwanted inflammation in
nerve tissues (Zhang et al., 2009). In preliminary animal studies, intake of sweet potato coloured

33
extracts has been shown in reduction of inflammation and also simultaneous reduction of
fibrinogen levels (Wang et al., 2010).

Hypoglycaemic Effect
These tubers have their ability to potentially improve blood sugar regulation in type-2 diabetic
persons in spite of their medium glycemic index (Ozaki et al., 2010). Recent research has also
shown that sweet potatoes extracts can significantly increase the blood adiponectin levels in
persons having type 2 diabetes (Ludvik et al., 2008). Adiponectin is a protein hormone produced
by fat cells of body, and it serves as an important modifier of insulin metabolism. These tubers
has high fiber, antioxidant nutrients like Vitamin A, Vitamin C, zinc and other micronutrients
like potassium, magnesium, iron and Vitamin B, which help in diabetes management and
prevention of other complications such as heart attacks and stroke (Han et al., 2007).

Other potential health benefits of OFSP

One of the more challenging nutrient groups provided by orange flesh sweet potato is the resin
glycosides, called batatins (including batatin I and batatin II) (Yin et al., 2008). But, recently
researchers discovered a related group of glycosides in sweet potato called batatosides (including
batatodide III, batatoside IV, and batatoside V) (Philpott et al., 2009). In labotarory studies, most
of these sweet potato glycosides have been shown to have antibacterial and antifungal properties
(Noda and Horiuchi, 2008).

2.4 Description of Tropical Almond

Tropical almond (Terminalia catappa) is a large, spreading tree now distributed throughout the
tropics in coastal environments. The tree is tolerant of strong winds, salt spray, and moderately
high salinity in the root zone. It grows principally in freely drained, well aerated, sandy soils.
The species has traditionally been very important for coastal communities, providing a wide
range of non-wood products and services. It has a spreading, fibrous root system and plays a vital
role in coastline stabilization. It is widely planted throughout the tropics, especially along sandy
seashores, for shade, ornamental purposes, and edible nuts. The timber makes a useful and
decorative general-purpose hardwood and is well suited for conversion into furniture and interior

34
building timbers. Fruits are produced from about 3 years of age, and the nutritious, tasty seed
kernels may be eaten immediately after extraction (Thomson and Evans, 2006).
The tropical Almond (Terminalia catappa) is one of the lesser known legumes found in the
tropics and in Nigeria’s ecosystem. Almond is a large deciduous tree that thrives as an
ornamental tree. The leaves are arranged in close spirals. The leaf blade is simple broadly
obviate, the leaf top is rounded and blunt, gradually tapering to a narrowing substrate base. The
tree is slightly deciduous during dry season, and in some environments may lose their leaves
twice in a year. Due to the phytochemical properties of T. catappa, the leaves, bark and fruits are
useful in the treatment of dysentery, rheumatism, cough and asthma. The fruits are also to treat
leprosy and headaches. The leaves are specifically used to treat intestinal parasites, eye
problems, wounds and liver ailments. The seed is edible and highly cherished by children. It is
also used by many rural dwellers in southern Nigeria to fortify the local complimentary foods,
which are usually low in protein. The T. catappa tree produces fruits whose pulp is fibrous,
sweet and edible when ripe. The fruit is widely eaten by children as forage snack with the nuts
and seeds often discarded (Mbah et al., 2013).
T. catappa is widely grown in tropical regions of the world as an ornamental tree, grown for the
deep shade its large leaves provide. The fruit is edible, tasting slightly acidic. The wood is red
and solid and has high water resistance; it has been used in Polynesia for making canoes. The
leaves contain several flavonoids (such as kaempferol or quercetin), several tannins (such as
penicillin, punicalagin or teracatain), saponins and phytosterols. Due to this chemical richness,
the leaves (and the bark) are used in different herbal medicines for various purposes. For
instance, in Taiwan, fallen leaves are used as an herb to treat liver diseases. In Suriname, an
herbal tea made from the leaves has been prescribed against dysentery and diarrhea. The leaves
may contain agents for prevention of cancers (although they have no demonstrated
anticarcinogenic properties) and antioxidants, as well as anticlastogenic characteristics. The
leaves contain phytosterols, saponins, flavonoids such as quercetin and kaempferol as well as
tannins such as teracatain, penicillin and punicalagin. The leaves can be used for treating and
preventing diarrhoea, dysentery, cancer, and liver diseases. Extracts of T. catappa have shown
activity against Plasmodium falciparum chloroquine (CQ)-resistant (FcB1) and CQ-sensitive
(HB3) strains. Keeping the leaves in an aquarium may lower the pH and heavy-metal content of
the water. It has been used in this way in aquaculture/fishery by fish breeders for many years and

35
is active against some parasites and bacterial pathogens. It is also believed to help prevent fungus
forming on the eggs of fish (ABB, 2020).

2.4.1 Cultivation of Tropical Almond

The Tropical almond is cultivated extensively in certain favorable regions, though nut crops are
uncertain wherever frosts are likely to occur during flowering. While more than 25 types of
almonds are grown in California, Marcona and Valencia almonds come from Spain, and
Ferragnes are imported from Greece. Old World almond cultivation was characterized by small
plantings mainly for family use; trees interplanted with other crops; variability in age, condition,
and bearing capacity of individual trees; and hand labur, often with crude implements. Modern
almond growers are typically more industrial, with vast orchards of at least three types of trees
the same age. Mechanized tree shakers are often used to expedite harvesting, and many growers
must rent hives of western honeybees during flowering season to pollinate their trees. Indeed, the
annual pollination of the almonds in California is the largest managed pollination event in the
world, with more than 1.1 million beehives brought to the state each year. Colony collapse
disorder (CCD), which has led to a global decline of honeybee populations, threatens the
multibillion dollar industry.

2.4.2 Health Benefits of Almond seed nut

There are several potential health benefits that scientists have associated with almonds.
 Almonds and cholesterol
Almonds are high in fat, but it is unsaturated fat. This type of fat does not increase the risk of
low-density lipoprotein (LDL) or “bad” cholesterol. In moderation, the American Heart
AssociationTrusted Source (AHA) notes that unsaturated fats may improve a person’s blood
cholesterol status. In addition, almonds contain no cholesterol. A studyTrusted Source from 2005
suggests that consuming almonds may increase vitamin E levels in the plasma and red blood
cells, lower overall cholesterol levels. According to these researchers, vitamin E is
an antioxidant that can help stop the oxidization process that causes cholesterol to clog the
arteries.
Further studies have found similar results. Almonds may help boost or maintain levels of high-
density lipoprotein (HDL) or “good” cholesterol.

36
  Almonds and cancer risk
It is identified that a two to three times consumption of almond lower risk of breast
cancer among individuals who consumed higher quantities of peanuts, walnuts, and almonds,
compared with those who did not. They concluded that “peanuts, walnuts, and almonds appear to
be a protective factor for the development of breast cancer.”
 Almonds and heart disease
Almonds, along with other nuts and seeds, may help improve lipid, or fat, levels in the blood.
This can benefit heart health. In a study from 2014, scientists found that almonds significantly
increased the levels of antioxidants in the bloodstream, reduced blood pressure, and improved
blood flow. The participants were all healthy males from 20–70 years of age who took 50 g of
almonds per day for 4 weeks. The researchers believe this may be due to: vitamin E, healthy fats,
and fiber, which help a person feel full the antioxidant impact of flavonoids. They recommend
eating a handful of almonds a day to obtain these benefits. High blood pressure increases the risk
of heart disease.
 Almonds and vitamin E
Almonds contain relatively high levels of vitamin E. Vitamin E contains antioxidants, such as
tocopherol. One ounceTrusted Source (28.4 g) of plain almonds provides 7.27 milligrams (mg)
of vitamin E, which is around halfTrusted Source a person’s daily requirement. Vitamin E and
other antioxidants help prevent oxidative damage in the body. This damage can occur when too
many free radicals accumulate. Free radicals result from natural bodily processes and
environmental stresses. The body can eliminate many of them, but dietary antioxidants help
remove them, too. High levels of free radicals can cause oxidative stress, resulting in damage to
cells. This can lead to various diseases and health problems. Scientists have also tentatively
linked a higher vitamin E intake with a lower risk of Alzheimer’s disease. A 2016 reviewTrusted
Source notes that one antioxidant in vitamin E, alpha-tocopherol, may play a role in reducing the
risk of cancer.

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  Almonds and blood sugar
There is some evidence that almonds may help manage blood sugar levels. Many people
with type 2 diabetes have low magnesium levels. A deficiency is common among those who
have difficulty managing their blood sugar levels. Scientists have suggested there may be a link
between magnesium deficiency and insulin resistance. In a 2011 study, 20 people with type 2
diabetes ate 60 g of almonds a day for 12 weeks. Overall, they saw improvements in: blood sugar
levels and blood lipid, or fat, levels.
 Almonds help manage weight

Almond is low in carbohydrates but high in protein, healthful fats, and fiber. According
to research appearing in 2015, eating almonds as a mid-morning snack can leave a person feeling
full for some time. People consumed either 28 g (173 calories) or 42 g (259 calories). The extent
to which the participants’ appetites remained low was dependent on the quantity of almonds they
consumed. Feeling full can help people lose weight, as they will be less tempted to seek more
snacks. Nuts often feature in breakfast cereal.
 Almonds boost bone health
Almonds contain calcium, magnesium, manganese, copper, vitamin K, protein, and zinc, all of
which contribute to bone health. Expert has recommended almonds as a way to obtain some of
these nutrients.
2.4.3 Nutritional Value of Almond seed nut
Ezeokonkwo and Dodson (2004) investigated the nutritional values of Terminalia catappa seed.
The study shows that the seed is a rich source of protein (25.81%) and amino acids such as
leucine, phenylalanine, isoleucine, histidine, valine, tryptophan, threonine, methionine, lysine
and tyrosine.
Nutrient Amount in 1 ounce Daily adult requirement
Energy (calories) 164 1,800–3,000
Carbohydrate (g) 6.1, including 1.2 g of sugar 130
Fat (g) 14.2, of which 12.4 g is 20%–35% of daily
unsaturated calories
Fiber (g) 3.5 25.2–30.8
Protein (g) 6.0 46–56

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 Calcium (mg) 76.3 1,000–1,200
Iron (mg) 1.0 8–18
Magnesium (mg) 76.5 310–420
Phosphorus (mg) 136 700
Potassium (mg) 208 4,700
Zinc (mg) 0.9 8–11
Copper (mcg) 300 900
Manganese (mg) 0.6 1.8–2.3
Selenium (micrograms or 1.2 55
mcg)
Folate (mcg, DFE) 12.5 300–400
Vitamin E (mg) 7.27 15
Cholesterol 0 No data
Ezeokonkwo and Dodson (2004)

2.4.4 Phytochemical Properties of almond seed nut

Praveena (2014) reported that tropical almond contains phytochemicals such as steroids,
triterpenes, carbohydrates, triterpenoid saponins, alkaloids, polyphenols, flavonoids, tannins and
glycosides.

2.4.5 Mineral Composition of Almond seed nuts

Almonds contain more alkaline forming minerals than acid forming minerals, which makes them
a rare protein-rich, bone protecting, alkalizing food. Phosphorous, potassium and calcium are
present in high amounts in almonds. Phosphorus is a mineral found in many foods. Phosphorus
builds up in your blood (Dawson et al. 1997) and works with calcium to build bones. Your body
works best when these minerals are in balance. When calcium and phosphorus are out of balance
one may have the risk of bone tissue forming in your heart, liver, and blood vessels. Some
common symptoms of high phosphorus include bone & joint pain, weakness, itching, bone
weakness and red eyes (Salpietro, 2005).
Calcium is essential for living organisms. Almost 99 percent of the body’s calcium is store in
bones and teeth. Humans absorb about 30 % of the calcium in foods, but this depends on the type

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of food consumed. Inadequate intakes of dietary calcium from food can produce hypocalcaemia.
To ensure adequate calcium intakes, Almonds are considered a high value food regarding to this
aspect (Iaconoa, 2008). Data on six minerals determined in four almond species from India are
given in Table 2. The study of mineral composition was conducted by Agunblade and Olanlokun
(2006) of Indian almond (Prunus amygaldus) which showed the phosphorus (0.19%), potassium
(0.17%), iron (70.62ppm), magnesium (0.25%), calcium (845.45ppm) and sodium (245.65ppm).
Yada et al, 2011 also reported the phosphorus in the range of (440 to 510 mg/100g), potassium
(390 to 810 mg/100g iron (3.8 to 4.9 mg/100g), magnesium (230 to 300 mg/100g), calcium (280
to 300 mg/100g) and sodium (1 to 2 mg/100g).
Another study was conducted by Akpakpan and Akpaboi (2012) for almond (Terminalia
Cattapa) seeds revealed the phosphorus (10.00 mg/100g), potassium (350.00 mg/100g), iron
(375.00 mg/100g), magnesium (26.40 mg/100g), calcium (36.10 mg/100g) and sodium (5.00
mg/100g). Another study was reported by Yada et al., 2013 of California Almonds which
showed phosphorus (462 to 526 mg/100g), potassium (664 to 773 mg/100g), iron (3.27 to 3.84
mg/100g), magnesium (260 to 278 mg/100g) and calcium (234 to 290 mg/100g).
2.4.6 Economic Importance of Almond seed nut
Pharmaceutical and Cosmetic Industry: Almond oil can be extracted for food flavourings and
the cosmetics industry. The oil of bitter almonds is used after the poisonous acid (prussic acid)
that gives the bitter taste has been removed. Bitter-almond oil is used as a flavoring in foods, soft
drinks, and medicines, and as a fragrance for perfume, soaps, and cosmetics. Medically, has been
shown that almond contains health promoting compounds in its seed, hull, shell, skin, leaves and
bark. The fruit has demonstrated anti-diabetic activity, the leaves antisickling activity, the bark
and root showed strong antimicrobial activities. It contains antioxidants such as terpenoids,
triterpenoids, proanthocyanidins, flavonols and phenolic compounds. Almond extract helps to
slow down oxidative processes in food products and have great potential to become food
preservation additives and dietary/nutriceutical supplements (Matos, et al., 2009).

Food Industry: While the sweet almond is most often eaten on its own, raw or toasted, it is used
in some dishes. It, along with other nuts, is often sprinkled over desserts, particularly sundaes
and other ice cream based dishes. Almonds can be processed into a milk substitute simply called
almond milk; the nut's soft texture, mild flavor, and light coloring (when skinned) make for an

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efficient analogy to dairy, and a soy-free choice, for lactose intolerant people, vegans, and so on.
Raw, blanched, and lightly toasted almonds all work well for different production techniques,
some of which are very similar to that of soymilk and some of which actually use no heat,
resulting in "raw milk." Almond residues have been used directly or after some treatments as
absorbents for removal of metals and dyes, feed (The hulls of sweet almonds can be fed to
livestock and the shells can be used for roughage in cattle feed) culture media, and raw materials
for extraction of xylo-oligosaccharides, polysaccharides, and dietary fibers.

Bioenergy Industry: Indeed the use of agricultural waste as an energy source has received in
the last decades a great importance because they have many economic and environmental
benefits. In developed nations (e.g. Europe and United States) as well as several developing
countries, there is intense effort towards cultivating energy crops specifically for the production
of biomass as a fuel. The potential for energy production from biomass throughout the world is
enormous (Otiti et al.,2010).

2.5 Flour: Meaning, origin and history

Flour is a powder made by grinding raw grains, roots, beans, nuts, or seeds. Flours are used to
make many different foods. Cereal flour, particularly wheat flour, is the main ingredient of
bread, which is a staple food for many cultures. Corn flour has been important in Mesoamerican
cuisine since ancient times and remains a staple in the Americas. Rye flour is a constituent of
bread in both Central Europe and Northern Europe. Cereal flour consists either of the endosperm,
germ, and bran together (whole-grain flour) or of the endosperm alone (refined flour). Meal is
either differentiable from flour as having slightly coarser particle size (degree of communition)
or is synonymous with flour; the word is used both ways. For example, the word cornmeal often
connotes a grittier texture whereas corn flour connotes fine powder, although there is no codified
dividing line. The CDC has cautioned not to eat raw flour doughs or batters. Raw flour can
contain bacteria like E. coli and needs to be cooked like other foods (CDC, 2021).
The English word flour is originally a variant of the word flower, and both words derive from the
Old French fleur or flour, which had the literal meaning "blossom", and a figurative meaning
"the finest". The phrase fleur de farine meant "the finest part of the flour", since flour resulted

41
from the elimination of coarse and unwanted matter from the grain during milling (Palmatier,
2000).
Corn flour has been important in Mesoamerican cuisine since ancient times and remains a staple
in the Americas. Rye flour is a constituent of bread in central and northern Europe.
Archaeological evidence for making flour dates to at least 6000 BC. In 2018, archaeologists
reported finding evidence of bread making at Shubayqa 1, a Natufian hunter-gatherer site more
than 14,000 years old in northwest Jordan (Arranz-Otaegui, 2018). The Romans were the first to
grind seeds on cone mills. In 1786, at the beginning of the Industrial Era, the first steam-powered
flour mill, Albion Mills, Southwark, was completed in London. In the 1930s, some flour began
to be enriched with iron, niacin, thiamine and riboflavin. In the 1940s, mills started to enrich
flour and folic acid was added to the list in the 1990s.

2.5.1 Composite flour

Composite flour has been defined as a mixture of several flours obtained from roots and tubers,
cereals, legumes etc with or without the addition of wheat flour; that is created to satisfy specific
functional characteristics and nutrient composition. Flour confectionery preparations are
exorbitant baking operations in the food industry, premised on the costly nature and insufficiency
of their constituents which are predominantly imported in Nigeria, particularly when restrictions
are placed on the importation of some of these ingredients (Ohaegbulam et al., 2021). It could be
a mixture of wheat flour with other flours such as maize, rice, sorghum etc. Composite flours are
relatively different from the ready-mixed flour familiar to millers and bakers (Seibel, 2009).
Composite flour has better nutritional value, bearing elements of minerals, vitamins, fibres and
proteins than flour milled from any specific cereal alone. The functional properties of composite
flours play an essential role in the manufacturing of food products. The functional properties
determine whether the blends would be useful in bakery products where hydration to improve
handling is desired (Hasmadi et al., 2020).

2.5.2 Advantages of composite flour

The use of composite flours have a few advantages for developing countries in terms of; the
saving of hard currency, promotion of high-yielding, inactive plant species, a better supply of
protein for human nutrition, better overall use of domestic agriculture production. Composite

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flour is considered advantageous in developing countries at it reduces the importation of wheat
flour and encourages the use of locally-grown crops as flour. Local raw materials’ substitution
for wheat flour is increasing due to the growing market for confectionaries. Thus, several
developing countries have encouraged the initiation of programmes to evaluate the feasibility of
alternative locally available flours as a substitute for wheat flour (Noorfarahzilah et al., 2014).

2.5.3 Challenges of the use of composite flour/blends of wheat-less flours

Adeboye et al. (2014) opined that there existed possible challenges that may likely arise if the
use of composite and wheatless flours were enforced for making of leavened and unleavened
baked products in Nigeria. These include:
i. There may not be adequate and ready availability of the non-wheat crops (e.g.
cassava) for the production of composite flour.
ii. Unwillingness of multinational companies operating in Nigeria to incorporate non-
wheat flours for composite flour productions, as this will reduce the quantity of wheat
they import and the profit their parent companies make from the sale of wheat.
iii. Detoxification to low and safe levels of the cyanide content of cassava and other
locally-available crops, if the crop flour is to be used as a component in the composite
flour.
iv. Competition between the consumers and processors of the non-wheat crop, if the crop
is consumed as a staple food. This would no doubt increase the cost of the staple
food.
Possible sabotage from multinational flour-milling companies through importation of low quality
wheat for their mills since the percentage of non-wheat flour incorporated with wheat flour to
form composite flour suitable for bread making depends on the quantity and quality of gluten
protein (Adeboye et al., 2014).

2.5.4 The Benefit of composite flour in baking

Flour confectionery preparations are exorbitant baking operations in the food industry due to the
costly nature and insufficiency of their constituents which are predominantly imported in
Nigeria, particularly when restrictions are placed on the importation of some of these ingredients
(Ohaegbulam et al., 2021). In most cases, the wheat or wheat flour needed for making bread,

43
rolls and pastry goods have to be imported since the climatic conditions and soil do not permit
wheat to be grown locally, or make it very difficult in developing countries. The imports of
wheat have had an increasingly adverse effect on the balance of trade. For these reasons, the
FAO and developing countries have shown interest in the possibility of replacing the wheat
needed for making baked goods and also pasta, wholly or partly, with flour obtained from home-
grown products. Possible sources are tuberous plants rich in starch such as cassava, yam, sweet
potatoes; protein-rich flours such as soy and peanuts; and other cereals including maize, rice,
millet, and sorghum. Although it is well-known that no other crop can achieve the baking
properties of wheat, composite flours have become the subject of numerous recent studies
(Seibel, 2009).

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