EE 309

ANALOG ELECTRONICS and

DESIGN
Yasa Ekşioğlu Özok

E-mail: yasa.eksioglu@altinbas.edu.tr
 TEXT Book:

• Microelectronics Circuit Analysis and Design

Donald A. Neamen -McGrawHill, 4e,2009

Reference Book

• Microelectronic Circuits
Sedra Smith and Kenneth C. Smith-Oxford University
Press, 6/e, 2010.

Altınbaş Üniversitesi Yasa Ekşioğlu Özok yasa.eksioglu@altinbas.edu.tr EE 309 ANALOG ELECTRONICS and DESIGN
 COURSE CONTENTS:
❑ Semiconductors Materials and Diodes

❑ Diode Circuits

❑ The Field-Effect Transistor (FET)

❑ Basic FET Amplifiers

❑ The Bipolar junction Transistor

Altınbaş Üniversitesi Yasa Ekşioğlu Özok yasa.eksioglu@altinbas.edu.tr EE 309 ANALOG ELECTRONICS and DESIGN
 Chapter 1
SEMICONDUCTORS
MATERIALS and DIODE

Altınbaş Üniversitesi Yasa Ekşioğlu Özok yasa.eksioglu@altinbas.edu.tr EE 309 ANALOG ELECTRONICS and DESIGN
Most electronic devices are fabricated by using
semiconductor materials.

Thus, we should firstly understand characteristics of

semiconductors.

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 What is instrinsic semiconductor?
▪ An atom consists of nucleus (protons (+), neutrons) and electrons (-) orbit the
nucleus.
▪ The electrons are distributed in various “shells” at different distances from the
nucleus.

▪ Electrons in the outer shell are called valence electrons which the elements in the
periodic table can be grouped according to the number of valence electrons

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▪ Semiconductor is a material that conducts ‘current’ partly. The conductivity of a
semiconductor is somewhere between an insulator and a conductor.
▪ Semiconductors are most commonly silicon.
14 electrons occupying the 1st
3 energy levels:
1s, 2s, 2p orbitals filled by
10 electrons
3s, 3p orbitals filled by 4
electrons

▪ Each of the four

valence electrons in
each silicon atom is
shared with one
neighboring silicon
atom and form
covalent bonds
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▪ At T = 0 K, each electron is in its lowest
possible energy state, so each covalent
bonding position is filled. If a small electric field
is applied to this material, the electrons will not
move, because they will still be bound to their
individual atoms. So, at T = 0 K, silicon is an
insulator; that is, no charge flows through it.

▪ If the temperature increases, the valence

electrons may gain thermal energy. If electron
gain enough thermal energy it can break the
covalent bond so the valence electron gain a
minimum energy, Eg, called the bandgap
energy. The electrons that gain this minimum
energy now are in the conduction band (free
electrons), this generates a current.

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 T > 0 K covalent bond breaks and electron is created in the conduction band
whereas the positively charged hole is created in the valence band

Energy band diagram

h hole
e–

E𝑣 – Maximum energy of a valence electron or hole

VB E𝑐 – Minimum energy of a free electron
E𝑔 – Energy required to break the covalent bond

(b)
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▪ Materials that have large bandgap energies, in the range of 3 to 6
electron–volts1 (eV), are insulators because, at room temperature,
essentially no free electrons exist (all electrons are in valence band).
▪ In contrast, materials that contain very large numbers of free electrons at
room temperature are conductors.
▪ In a semiconductor, the bandgap energy is on the order of 1 eV.
▪ The net charge in a semiconductor is zero; it is neutral.

1 eV = 1.6 × 10−19 joules.

▪ In semiconductors, we have two types of charged particles;
free electron, and the positively charged hole.

▪ An intrinsic semiconductor : no other types of atoms within the crystal.

intrinsic carrier concentration is used for the free electrons and holes
as well

−𝐸𝑔
𝑛𝑖 = 𝐵𝑇 𝑒 2𝑘𝑇 )
3/2 (

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 −𝐸𝑔
3/2 ( 2𝑘𝑇 )
𝑛𝑖 = 𝐵𝑇 𝑒

𝐵: coefficient related to the specific semiconductor material

𝐸𝑔 : band gap energy (𝑒𝑉)
𝑇: temperature (𝐾)
𝑘: Boltzmann’s constant 86𝑥10−6 𝑒𝑉Τ𝐾

Ex 1 : Calculate the intrinsic carrier concentration in silicon at 𝑇 = 300 𝐾.

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Movement of Holes
In semiconductors, two types of charged
particles contribute to the current:

i. the negatively charged free electron

ii. the positively charged hole.

The concentrations of electrons and holes

are important parameters in the
characteristics of a semiconductor
material, because they directly influence
the magnitude of the current.

For an intrinsic semiconductor the

densities of electrons and holes are equal.
A valence electron in a The notation 𝑛𝑖 as the intrinsic carrier
concentration for the concentration of the
nearby bond can move to fill
free electrons, as well as that of the holes.
the broken bond, making it
appear as if the ‘hole’ shifted
locations.

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Extrinsic Semiconductors (n-type, p-type)
❑ the electron and hole concentrations in an intrinsic semiconductor are
relatively small so that only very small currents are possible.
❑ HOWEVER we can increase these concentrations by adding controlled
amounts of certain impurities.
❑ for this purpose phosphorus and arsenic are commonly used.
❑ phosphorus atoms join right in the crystal structure of the silicon, each
one bonding with four adjacent silicon atoms just like a silicon atom
would. Because the phosphorus atom has five valence electrons, but
only four of them are bonded to adjacent atoms, the fifth electron of
phosphorus is free to become a conduction band electron, adding to the
number of electrons available to conduct current.

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The phosphorus atom is called a donor impurity. When a donor impurity
is added to a semiconductor, free electrons are created without generating
holes. This process is called doping, and it allows us to control the
concentration of free electrons in a semiconductor.
A semiconductor that contains donor impurity atoms is called an n-type
semiconductor.

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Another element is used for doping is boron. When a boron atom replaces a
silicon atom, its three valence electrons are used to satisfy the covalent bond
requirements for three of the four nearest silicon atoms,this leaves one bond
position open and a hole is created that can contribute to a hole current.
Since the boron atom has accepted a valence electron, the boron is called an
acceptor impurity.
A semiconductor that contains acceptor impurity atoms is called a p-type
semiconductor.

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 Electron and Hole Concentrations
The doping process determines the conductivity via concentration of free
electrons and holes
A fundamental relationship between the electron and hole
concentrations in a semiconductor
in thermal equilibrium is given by ni2 = n0  po
𝑛0 :the thermal equilibrium concentration of free electrons
𝑝0 : the thermal equilibrium concentration of holes

❑ At room temperature (T = 300 K), each donor atom donates a free electron to the
semiconductor. If the donor concentration 𝑁𝑑 is much larger than 𝑛𝑖
𝑛0 ≅ 𝑁𝑑 ; ni2
= po
Nd
❑ At room temperature (T = 300 K), each acceptor atom accepts a valence electron,
creating a hole. If the acceptor concentration 𝑁𝑎 is much larger than 𝑛𝑖
𝑝0 ≅ 𝑁𝑎 ; ni2
= no
Na
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Ex 2: Calculate the thermal equilibrium electron and hole concentrations,
𝑛0 , 𝑝0

(a) Consider Si at 𝑇 = 300𝐾 doped with P at a concentration of

𝑁𝑑 = 1016 𝑐𝑚−3 , 𝑛𝑖 = 1.5 × 1010 𝑐𝑚−3

(b) Consider Si at 𝑇 = 300𝐾 doped with B at a concentration of

𝑁𝑎 = 5𝑥1016 𝑐𝑚−3 , 𝑛𝑖 = 1.5 × 1010 𝑐𝑚−3

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Drift and Diffusion Currents
carriers: moving negatively charged electrons and positively charged holes create
current. These charged electrons and holes referred as carriers.

Drift and diffusion cause electrons and holes to move in a semiconductor.

Drift : movement is caused by electric field, the field produces a force that
acts on free electrons and holes, which then experience a net drift velocity
and net movement
Diffusion : the flow caused by variations in the concentration that can be
caused by a nonhomogeneous doping distribution, or by the injection of a
quantity of electrons or holes into a region
Directions of applied electric field and resulting carrier drift velocity and drift current density
in (a) an n-type semiconductor and (b) a p-type semiconductor

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Drift velocity of a n-type semiconductor: An electric field E applied in one
direction produces a force on the
𝑣𝑑𝑛 = −𝜇𝑛 𝐸 electrons in the opposite direction,
because of the electrons negative
charge.
𝜇𝑛 : electron mobility; it is a parameter that indicates how well an electron can move in
a semiconductor
The electron drift produces a drift current density 𝐽𝑛
𝐽𝑛 = −𝑒𝑛𝑣𝑑𝑛 = −𝑒𝑛 −𝜇𝑛 𝐸 , 𝑛: electron concentration
Drift velocity of a p-type semiconductor: An electric field E applied in one direction
produces a force on the holes in the same
𝑣𝑑𝑝 = +𝜇𝑝 𝐸 direction, because of the positive charge
on the holes.
𝜇𝑝 : hole mobility
The hole drift produces a drift current density 𝐽𝑝
𝐽𝑝 = 𝑒𝑝𝑣𝑑𝑝 = 𝑒𝑝𝜇𝑝 𝐸, 𝑝: hole concentration

Since a semiconductor contains both electrons and holes, the total drift current density
is the sum of the electron and hole components.
𝐽 = 𝑒𝑛𝜇𝑛 𝐸 + 𝑒𝑝𝜇𝑝 𝐸, 𝜎 = 𝑒𝑛𝜇𝑛 + 𝑒𝑝𝜇𝑝 ( conductivity Ω𝑐𝑚)−1 )

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Ex 3: Calculate the drift current density for a given semiconductor.
Consider silicon at 𝑇 = 300 𝐾 doped with arsenic atoms at a concentration
of 𝑁𝑑 = 8 × 1015 𝑐𝑚−3 . Assume mobility values of 𝜇𝑛 = 1350 𝑐𝑚2 /𝑉– 𝑠
and 𝜇𝑝 = 480 𝑐𝑚2 /𝑉– 𝑠 . Assume the applied electric field is 100 𝑉/𝑐𝑚.

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Diffusion Current Density
Particles flow from higher to a lower concentration. This is a statistical
phenomenon related to kinetic theory. This is the basic diffusion process.
The diffusion of electrons from a high-concentration to a low-concentration
produces a flow of electrons in the negative 𝑥 direction
Since electrons are negatively charged, the conventional current direction is
in the positive 𝑥 direction.
The diffusion current density due to the diffusion of electrons
𝑑𝑛
𝐽𝑛 = 𝑒𝐷𝑛
𝑑𝑥
The diffusion of holes from a high-concentration to a low-concentration
produces a flow of holes in the negative 𝑥 direction. (Conventional current is
in the direction of the flow of positive charge.)
The diffusion current density due to the diffusion of holes
𝑑𝑝
𝐽𝑝 = −𝑒𝐷𝑝
𝑑𝑥

𝐷𝑛 and 𝐷𝑝 :diffusion coefficient

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Ex 4: Calculate the diffusion
current density for a given
semiconductor. Consider
silicon at 𝑇 = 300 𝐾 .
Assume the electron
concentration varies linearly
from 𝑛 = 1012 𝑐𝑚−3 to 𝑛 =
1016 𝑐𝑚−3 over the distance
from 𝑥 = 0 to 𝑥 =
3𝜇𝑚. Assume 𝐷𝑛 = 35 𝑐𝑚2 /𝑠.

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Ideal p-n Junctions
No Applied Bias : Open Circuit

One side of a sample of Si is doped n-type and the other p-type as shown in
the figure below. In the space charge region=depletion region there are fixed
(immobile) ionized donors and the free electrons (in the CB) in the n-region
and fixed ionized acceptors and holes (in the VB) in the p-region are shown.

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 Ideal p-n Junctions
No Applied Bias : Open Circuit
❑ When the two types of semiconductor materials are joined together, the
electrons from the n-type material diffuse into p-type material and
combines with holes.
❑ Similarly the holes from the p-type material diffuse into n-type material
and combines with electrons.
❑ The junction region becomes depleted of free carriers.
❑ This creates a layer of negative ions near the junction in p-type material
and positive ions near the junction in n-type material. They form the
depletion region.
❑ Electrons leaving the n-side near the junction M leave behind exposed
positively charged donor ions As+, of concentration Nd.
❑ Holes leaving the p-side near the junction M leave behind exposed
negatively charged acceptors ions B-, of concentration Na. There is
therefore a space charge layer around M.

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Ideal p-n Junctions
No Applied Bias : Open Circuit

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 p-n Junctions (BUILT-IN POTENTIAL BARRIER)
• The charges on both sides of the depletion region cause an electric field
E to be established across the region from n-type to p-type. It is an
internal electric field from (+) ions to (-) ions, that tries to drift the holes
back into p-region and electrons back into the n-region.
• As more as more holes diffuse toward the right and electrons toward the
left, the internal field around space charge region will increase until an
equilibrium is reached.
• Thus the resulting electric field opposes the diffusion of holes into the n
region and electrons into the p region. In fact, the voltage drop across
the depletion region acts as a barrier that has to be overcome for holes
to diffuse into the n region and electrons to diffuse into the p region.
• This potential difference is called the built-in potential barrier or built-
in voltage
• The larger the barrier voltage, the smaller the number of carriers that will
be able to overcome the barrier and hence the lower the magnitude of
diffusion current.

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p-n Junctions (BUILT-IN POTENTIAL BARRIER)

𝑉𝑇 ≡ 𝑘𝑇/𝑒, thermal voltage 𝑉𝑇 = 0.026 𝑉 at

𝑇 = 300𝐾
𝑘 = Boltzmann’s constant,
𝑇 = absolute temperature,
𝑒 =the magnitude of the electronic charge,
𝑁𝑎 = acceptor concentrations in p-region
𝑁𝑑 =donor concentrations in n-regions

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The Drift Current 𝑰𝒔 and Equilibrium

• In addition to the current component 𝑰𝑫 due to majority-carrier diffusion, a

component due to minority carrier drift exists across the junction.
• Some of the thermally generated holes in the n material move toward the junction
and reach the edge of the depletion region. They experience the electric field in
the depletion region, which sweeps them across that region into the p side.
• Similarly, some of the minority thermally generated electrons in the p material
move to the edge of the depletion region and get swept by the electric field in the
depletion region across that region into the n side.
• These two current components—electrons moved by drift from p to n and holes
moved by drift from n to p—add together to form the drift current 𝑰𝒔 , whose
direction is from the n side to the p side of the junction
• Since the current 𝑰𝒔 is carried by thermally generated minority carriers, its value is
strongly dependent on temperature; however, it is independent of the value of the
depletion-layer voltage 𝑽𝒃𝒊 .
• When no external current exists the two opposite currents across the junction
must be equal in magnitude: 𝑰𝒔 = 𝑰𝑫

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Ex:5 Calculate the built-in
potential barrier of a p-n
junction. Consider a silicon p-n
junction at T = 300 K, doped at
𝑁𝑎 = 1016 𝑐𝑚−3 p-region and
𝑁𝑑 = 1017 𝑐𝑚−3 in the n-region.

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