Networks Lecture 2 The Network Core ▪ mesh of interconnected routers ▪ packet-switching: hosts break application-layer messages into packets • network forwards packets from one router to the next, across links on path from source to destination Two key network-core functions • Forwarding and Routing: • Routing ▪ global action: determine source- destination paths taken by packets ▪ routing algorithms Routing and Forwarding Packet-switching: store-and-forward
L/R seconds to transmit (push out) example: L-bit packet into link at R bps ▪ L = 10 Kbits ▪ R = 100 Mbps ▪ store and forward: entire packet ▪ one-hop transmission must arrive at router before it can delay = 0.1 msec be transmitted on next link Packet-switching: queueing R = 100 Mb/s A C
D B R = 1.5 Mb/s R = 100 Mb/s E queue of packets waiting for transmission over output link Alternative to packet switching: circuit switching Circuit switching: FDM and TDM Multiplexing in Circuit-switched networks Packet switching vs Circuit switching example: ▪ 1 Gb/s link N ▪ each user: users 1 Gbps link • 100 Mb/s when “active” • active 10% of time
Q: how many users can use this network under circuit-switching
and packet switching? ▪ circuit-switching: 10 users ▪ packet switching: with 35 users, Statistical multiplexing probability > 10 active at same gain by packet switching time is less than .0004 * Packet switching vs Circuit switching • Limitations of packet switching - excessive congestion possible results in packet delay and loss
• Packet switching is good for “bursty” data
- sometimes has data send, but at other times not Internet structure ▪ hosts connect to Internet via access Internet Service Providers (ISPs) ▪ access ISPs in turn must be interconnected • so that any two hosts (anywhere!) can send packets to each other Question: given millions of access ISPs, how to connect them together?
O(N2) connection - will not scale Internet structure Option: connect each access ISP to one global transit ISP? Customer and provider ISPs have economic agreement. Internet structure But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be competitors …. who will want to be connected Internet structure
▪ There are over 600 IXPs in the Internet today [PeeringDB 2020] Packet delay: four sources
dproc: nodal processing
▪ check bit errors ▪ determine output link ▪ typically < microsecs Packet delay: four sources Packet queueing delay “Real” Internet delays and routes ▪ what do “real” Internet delay & loss look like? ▪ traceroute program: provides delay measurement from source to router along end-end Internet path towards destination. For all routers i: • sends three packets that will reach router i on path towards destination (with time-to-live field value of i) • router i will return packets to sender • sender measures time interval between transmission and reply “Real” Internet delays and routes Throughput ▪ throughput: rate (bits/time unit) at which bits are being sent from sender to receiver • instantaneous: rate at given point in time • average: rate over longer period of time Throughput
