UNIT I

DEMOCRATIC VALUES
Understanding Democratic values: Equality, Liberty, Fraternity, Freedom,
Justice, Pluralism, Tolerance, Respect for All, Freedom of Expression, Citizen
Participation in Governance – World Democracies: French Revolution,
American Independence, Indian Freedom Movement. Reading Text: Excerpts
from John Stuart Mills’ On Liberty

1.1 Understanding Democratic Values

Democratic values refer to principles and beliefs that strengthen democratic

governance and society .These values are fundamental to the functioning of
democratic systems and are considered essential for ensuring the rights,
freedoms and well-being of individuals within a society.

Key democratic values include:

1. Equality

2. Liberty

3. Fraternity

4. Freedom

5. Justice

6. Pluralism

7. Tolerance

8. Respect for All

9. Freedom of Expression

10.Citizen Participation in Governance

1. EQUALITY:

Definition: Equality is the state of being equal, especially in status, rights,

opportunities and treatment under the law. It is a fundamental democratic value
 that ensures all individuals have the same rights and access to opportunities
regardless of their personal characteristics such as gender, race, ethnicity,
religion, or socioeconomic status.
Types Of Equality:

1. Social Equality

2. Economic Equality

3. Natural Equality

4. Political Equality

5. Legal Equality

6. Civil Equality

7. Educational Equality

Social Equality:
Social equality indicates that no citizen of the nation should be denied rights,
privileges, or opportunities because of their birth, class, caste, religion, colour,
race, gender, or social standing. Each person should be given an equal chance to
develop his or her personality. Social equality entails a few key elements. They
are the:

Elimination of discrimination based on socioeconomic position

Elimination of special advantages for a select few
Ensuring equitable access to education

Economic Equality:
It advocates for all people to have equal access to employment and chances to
make a living. The difference between rich and poor people should be as little as
possible. Economic equality also signifies that in a society, wealth and resources
should be distributed fairly.

Natural Equality:
Natural equality indicates that all men are born free and equal, with equal
abilities and gifts. So, the government should work to create social and
economic opportunities that provide everyone with a fair opportunity.
Political Equality:
Political equality refers to the belief that everyone should be able to participate
in the political process in a country and have an equal chance of running for
office.

Legal Equality
Legal equality means that everyone is treated equally before the law, that
everyone is subjected to the same legal code, and that everyone has the same
chance to have their rights and freedoms legally protected.

Civil Equality:
Civil equality refers to each citizen having the same civil rights and privileges.
It means that all citizens have the same civil liberty and civil rights. According
to this, all individuals should be treated equally under civil laws.

Educational Equality:
Providing equal access to quality education for all Individuals, regardless of
their background. Government policies may include initiatives such as
scholarships, grants and favourable action programs to ensure equal access to
education for all citizens.

Significance:
Social Justice: Equality is crucial for achieving social justice. It ensures that
every individual is treated fairly and without discrimination, which helps in
building a just society.
Economic Development: Societies that promote equality are likely to have
higher levels of economic development. When everyone has equal access to
education and employment opportunities, the overall productivity and economic
output of a society increase.
Political Stability: Promoting equality helps in reducing social tensions and
conflicts.peope feel that they are treated equally and have equal opportunities,
they are more likely to support and trust their government.

Historical Context:

 Civil Rights Movement in the United States: This movement aimed

to end racial segregation and discrimination against African
Americans. Key figures like Martin Luther King Jr. advocated for
 equality and equal rights.
 Gender Equality Movements: Throughout history, movements such
as the women's suffrage movement and the feminist movement have
fought for equal rights for women, including the right to vote, equal
pay, and equal opportunities in education and employment.

1.EQUALITY:

Mill emphasizes the importance of equality as a democratic value,

particularly in terms of political equality. He argues that all individuals
should have equal opportunities to participate in the political process
and influence the decisions that affect their lives.

However, Mill also acknowledges the limitations of political equality,

recognizing that individuals may have differing levels of intelligence,
knowledge and ability to contribute to the political sphere. He
advocates for a system that balances political equality with
meritocracy, where those with expertise and qualifications play a
greater role in decision-making.

2. LIBERTY:

 Liberty or individual freedom is the principle that individuals should have the
right to pursue their own interests, make choices about their lives and express
themselves freely, without too much interference from the government or other
individuals.

 Liberty means the absence of limitations on an individual’s activities and, at

the same time, providing opportunities for the development of the personality
of the individual.

 However, liberty is not absolute and may be limited by laws that protect public
safety, national security and the rights of others.

Liberty is defined in two ways:

Negative liberty:
 Liberty in negative sense means absence of restrictions. Negative liberty is not
accepted by the society as only the strong one could enjoy it.

Positive liberty

Positive liberty means freedom with certain restrictions which is necessary for
the good of the society. These restraints are necessary so that everyone
irrespective of the caste, creed, gender or any other societal factors could enjoy
the liberty. Positive liberty is happily accepted by the society and no person is
denied to enjoy the opportunity.

Types of Liberty:

1. Natural liberty

2. Civil liberty

3. Political liberty

4. Individual liberty

5. Economic liberty

6. National liberty

7. Religious liberty

8. Moral liberty

1. Natural liberty refers to an individual’s natural freedom that exists without

any restrictions. It is justified because a man, being born free, is able to enjoy
freedoms as he wills. It is believed that man has got liberty from nature. But in
today’s times, natural liberty can’t be present in a society.

2. Civil liberty is the one followed by society, and each individual can enjoy it.
It has some restrictions based on the laws; people can enjoy it only under certain
restrictions.

3. Political liberty is related to the enjoyment of liberty by the people. People

have freedoms like the right to vote, the right to contest elections, the right to
criticise and oppose the government, and the right to change the government
through constitutional means.
 4. Individual liberty is the enjoyment of his or her opportunity and desires, but
in such a way that it does not restrain others liberty. Everyone has the
fundamental rights and can use them frequently, but there are some restraints so
that no unlawful activity happens.
Individual freedom includes the right to personal liberty, freedom of speech,
freedom of conscience, freedom of residence, and the freedom to choose any
religion.

5. Economic liberty is related to people who are suffering economically, like

the ones from backward classes, and are suffering from hunger, starvation, and
unemployment. An individual enjoys economic liberty when he or she has three
basic needs: food, shelter, and clothing. It includes the right to work, the right to
reasonable wages, and the right to have economic security in old age.

6. National liberty means freedom from everything and everything. Liberty is

defined for nation as well as its citizens. It includes:
 To have its own constitution
 To form our own government without any restraints.
 Policies and programmes must be their own and must be accepted freely
by the people.
 To enjoy independence.
 There is no external control.

7. Religious liberty: Everyone has the liberty to profess the religion in which he
believes. No one can force anyone to profess a particular religion. It is the duty
of the state to protect and provide a religion with equal status in society.

8.Moral liberty states the freedom to choose to do right things according to his
or her own will. An individual is free to do things that have moral values. Moral
liberty is essential for the people to live in society with peace.

Essential Safeguards of Liberty;

Essential conditions are necessary for the safeguard of liberty and for society’s
good as well as for the people. These are:
1. Love for liberty
2. Eternal vigilance
3. Granting equal rights
4. Democratic system
5. Fair government action
6. Protection of fundamental rights by the state
7. Independence of the judiciary
8. Separation of power
9. Decentralisation of power
10.The rule of law
11.Economic equality
12.Well-organised interest groups and NGOs

Historical Context:
Magna Carta (1215): One of the earliest documents asserting individual
liberties against arbitrary rule by the king.
American Declaration of Independence (1776): Emphasized the rights
to life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness as fundamental human rights.
2. LIBERTY:

Liberty is a central theme in "On Liberty," where Mill argues

passionately for the importance of individual freedom and autonomy.
He asserts that individuals should have the liberty to think, speak and
act as they choose, as long as their actions do not harm others.

Mill advocates for a principle of harm, where the only justification for
limiting individual liberty is to prevent harm to others. He warns
against the dangers of societal and governmental coercion, arguing that
freedom of thought and expression is essential for intellectual and
moral progress.

3. FRATERNITY (SOLIDARITY):

Fraternity:

Fraternity can be defined as the idea of brotherhood and solidarity among

citizens of a nation and inculcates a sense of unity, social harmony, and mutual
respect among individuals.
In Ambedkar’s Writings: It refers that, “The other name for democracy is
when individuals in Indian society are free of the caste system and practice
social harmony” . It includes empathy, solidarity, collective caring, and love.

Origin of Concept of Fraternity:

Ancient Age: Plato and Aristotle, by their writings, highlighted on the idea of
political fraternity.

French Revolution: The concept of fraternity gained political significance

during the French Revolution of 1789 by the revolutionary trinity “Liberty,
Equality, Fraternity.”

Fraternity in Western World:

M. C. Williams: He reveals that community ties form an integral value system,

serving as the bedrock for the concept of fraternity. In the Western world,
fraternity evolved along these lines.

Fraternity In Indian Constitution:

Preamble: It mentions that the Indian republic aims to promote

fraternity, “assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity and integrity of
the Nation”.

Fundamental Duty -Article 51A(e): It is the duty of every citizen to promote

harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of India.

The Constitution views fraternity as a source of authorizing “the dignity of the

individual”.The Constitution derives the unity of the nation from fraternity.

Challenges With Fraternity in India

Ideological Differences: It obstructs the fraternity, hence requires a secular

understanding.

Casteism: It not only contradicts the principles of equality and liberty but also
poses challenges to the individual-centric approach upheld by the Constitution.

Communalism: The civic life in India predominantly revolves around

communal lines leading to conflicts with community interests.

Social Inequalities: Fraternity loses its essence if it ignores existing social

disparities. It cannot be built on social solidarity that ignores these differences.
Fundamentalism: It weakens the idea of fraternity. A fanatic may exhibit many
traits and any sort of fundamentalism (rigid and extreme thinking) hampers the
true fraternal connections.

Poor Protection Under the Law: While equality in law exists, it does not
always translate into equal protection under the law, worsening social division.

How to attain Fraternity:

Need to follow the Gandhian Approach (the practice of universal

religion): He preached respect for all religions where all should live as one
nation and not as followers of different religions.

Address Caste Dynamics: As caste and the idea of political fraternity cannot
coexist. The caste system imposes rigid restrictions on interactions among
various castes and sub-castes.

Political conditioning: It requires careful cultivation and reinforcement through

political means, rather than relying solely on moral considerations.

Countering Religious Fanaticism: Strict actions and steps should be taken to

bring equality and counter the notion of fundamentalism and religious
discrimination.

Raising Awareness on Fraternity: Creating awareness among people will help

in building a discourse of justice, equality, rights, and empowerment possible.

Integration with Constitutional Value: The government should make

necessary public investments and strive to ensure a minimally decent life for all
persons.

Historical Context:
 French Revolution (1789): The motto "Liberty, Equality,
Fraternity" became a guiding principle. Fraternity was seen as
essential for uniting the diverse social classes and fostering a sense
of national unity.
 Independence Movements: Fraternity has been a driving force in
various independence movements, where solidarity among citizens
was crucial for achieving common goals.
 3. Fraternity (Solidarity):

While Mill does not explicitly discuss fraternity in "On Liberty," his
arguments for individual liberty and freedom of expression can be seen
as promoting a sense of solidarity among individuals. By advocating
for tolerance, respect for diverse opinions and the protection of
minority rights, Mill fosters a sense of social cohesion and mutual
respect within society.

Example: In a democratic community, fraternity entails solidarity and

mutual support among citizens during times of crisis.

4. FREEDOM:

Freedom is closely related to liberty but emphasizes broader aspects of

autonomy and self-determination .Freedom is the power or right to act, speak, or
think as one wants without hindrance or restraint.

 Personal Freedom: The ability of an individual to make choices about their

own life and actions without interference from others or the government.
 Political Freedom: The right to participate in the political process, including
voting, running for office, and expressing political opinions freely.
 Economic Freedom: The freedom to engage in economic activities, such as
starting a business, entering into contracts, and making financial decisions.
 Civil Freedom: The protection of individual rights and freedoms ensures that
the government or others cannot limit or take away a person's basic rights.
These protections are often guaranteed by laws and constitutions.
 Religious Freedom: The right to practice, change, or give up from any religion
without compulsion or discrimination.

Historical Context:
Enlightenment Era: Philosophers like John Locke and Voltaire emphasized
the importance of individual freedom and its role in creating a just society.

Anti-Colonial Movements: Struggles for national freedom from colonial

rule, as seen in India’s independence movement led by figures like
Mahatma Gandhi.
 4. FREEDOM:

Mill's concept of liberty includes various aspects of freedom,

comprising freedom of speech, freedom of conscience and freedom of
action. He argues that individuals should have the freedom to pursue
their own interests and lifestyles without interference from the
government or society.

Mill's defence of freedom extends to unpopular or unconventional ideas

and behaviours, as he believes that societal progress depends on the
ability of individuals to challenge prevailing opinions and experiment
with new ways of thinking and living.

5. JUSTICE:

Justice is the concept of fairness, moral rightness, and the equitable treatment of
individuals within a society. It involves the principles and practices that ensure
that individuals receive what they are due, whether it is punishment, reward, or
protection of rights.

1. Distributive Justice: The fair distribution of resources, wealth, and

opportunities among members of a society. It addresses issues of economic
inequality and aims to ensure that everyone has access to basic needs and
opportunities.

2. Retributive Justice: Fair punishment means making sure wrongdoers are held
responsible for their actions and receive punishments that match their crimes.
This type of justice focuses on being fair and balanced.

3. Procedural Justice: The fairness of the processes and procedures used to

make decisions and administer justice. It highlights transparency, consistency,
and impartiality in the application of laws and regulations.

4. Restorative Justice: A system of justice that focuses on repairing the harm

caused by criminals through settlement between the offender and the victim, and
reintegration of the offender into the community.

5. Social Justice: The pursuit of a society where all members have equal rights,
opportunities, and access to resources. It addresses issues such as
discrimination, oppression, and systemic inequalities.
 Historical Context:

 Magna Carta (1215): Established the principle that everyone, including the
king, is subject to the law. It laid the foundation for modern concepts of
justice and the rule of law.
 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948): A milestone document
asserting the rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled,
emphasizing justice as a core principle.

5. JUSTICE:

Justice is implicit in Mill's arguments for individual liberty and equality

before the law. He contends that justice requires the fair and impartial
treatment of all individuals, regardless of their status or beliefs.

Mill criticizes laws and social norms that restrict individual liberty
without justification, arguing that such restrictions are unjust and
undermine the principle of equal rights for all citizens.

Example: Judicial impartiality ensures that all individuals are treated

fairly and equally under the law. In a democratic society, a fair trial is
guaranteed to everyone, regardless of their social status or background

6. PLURALISM:

Pluralism means that different groups, cultures, and beliefs coexist peacefully in
a society. It values diversity and encourages acceptance and respect for
differences. Pluralism makes society richer and more dynamic by embracing
diversity.

 Cultural Pluralism: Different cultures living together and respecting each

other.

 Political Pluralism: Different political parties and groups have a say in the
government.

 Religious Pluralism: Religious pluralism allows individuals of different faiths

to coexist peacefully in a democratic society. For instance, a diverse
 neighbourhood may have residents who practice Christianity, Islam,
Judaism, Buddhism and Hinduism. Despite their religious differences, they
respect each other's beliefs and participate in interfaith dialogues to promote
understanding and tolerance.

 Social Pluralism: Acceptance of various social groups and lifestyles.

 Philosophical Pluralism: Recognizing that there are many ways to understand

the world and respecting different viewpoints.

Historical Context:
United States: Known as a melting pot of cultures, the U.S. has long embraced
pluralism, although not without challenges and conflicts.
India: A diverse country with multiple languages, religions, and cultures, India
exemplifies pluralism in its social and political systems.

6. PLURALISM:

Mill's defence of freedom of expression and tolerance promotes

pluralism by encouraging the open exchange of diverse ideas and
perspectives within society. He believes that a pluralistic society is
more dynamic, innovative and resilient than one that stifles dissent and
enforces conformity.

Mill advocates for a marketplace of ideas, where competing opinions

are allowed to flourish and compete on their merits, rather than being
suppressed or censored by those in power.

7. TOLERANCE:

 Tolerance is the willingness to accept and permit the existence of opinions or

behaviors that one does not necessarily agree with. It fosters peaceful
coexistence and respect for diversity.
 In democratic societies, tolerance is essential for peaceful coexistence and
constructive dialogue among individuals and groups with divergent beliefs,
backgrounds and identities.

Types of Tolerance:

Religious Tolerance: Acceptance of different religious beliefs and practices.

 It prevents religious persecution and promotes coexistence.

Political Tolerance: Respect for opposing political views and parties.

Essential for a healthy democracy where multiple viewpoints can coexist.

Cultural Tolerance: Acceptance and celebration of different cultural

traditions and practices. Encourages cultural exchange and understanding.

Historical Context:

 Edict of Nantes (1598): Granted religious tolerance to Protestants in

Catholic France, reducing religious conflicts.
 First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution: Ensures freedom of speech,
religion, and assembly, promoting tolerance of diverse viewpoints.

7. TOLERANCE:

Tolerance is a recurring theme in "On Liberty," where Mill argues that

individuals should be tolerant of diverse opinions and lifestyles, even
when they disagree with or disapprove of them.

Mill contends that tolerance is essential for maintaining social

harmony and preventing the imposition of one group's values on
others. He warns against the dangers of moral and cultural
authoritarianism, advocating instead for a society where individuals
are free to live according to their own beliefs and preferences.

8. RESPECT FOR ALL:

 Respect for all individuals, regardless of their background, characteristics or

circumstances, is a fundamental democratic value that underpins equality,
liberty and dignity.

 In democratic societies, respect for all entails recognizing and valuing the
inherent worth and rights of every person and treating others with fairness,
empathy and consideration.
 Policies and practices that promote respect for all may include anti-
discrimination laws, diversity and inclusion initiatives and efforts to combat
prejudice and bigotry.

Historical Context:
 Civil Rights Movements: Advocated for the respect and dignity of
marginalized groups, challenging discrimination and inequality.
 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948): Emphasizes the
importance of respecting the rights and dignity of all individuals.

 8. RESPECT FOR ALL:

 Respect for all individuals is implicit in Mill's arguments for

individual liberty and equality. He asserts that every person should
be treated with dignity and respect, regardless of their background,
characteristics or beliefs.

 Mill criticizes forms of discrimination and prejudice that undermine

the principle of respect for all, advocating instead for a society where
every individual is valued for their inherent worth and humanity.

9. FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION:

 Freedom of expression is the right of individuals to express their opinions,

beliefs and ideas freely, without censorship or restraint from the government or
other authorities.

 In democratic societies, freedom of expression is essential for fostering open

debate, intellectual inquiry and political participation and for holding those in
power accountable.

 While freedom of expression is fundamental, it may be subject to

limitations such as prohibitions on hate speech, incitement to violence,
defamation and obscenity.

Historical Context:
 First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution: Protects freedom of speech,
 press, and assembly, ensuring a free exchange of ideas.
 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948): Asserts the right to
freedom of opinion and expression as a fundamental human right.
 Example: Political protests show freedom of expression in a democratic
society. Citizens have the right to peacefully assemble and protest against
government policies or injustices. For instance, demonstrations calling for
social reforms, environmental protection or human rights can bring public
attention to important issues and influence policy changes.

 9. FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION:

 Freedom of expression is a central theme in "On Liberty," where Mill

argues that individuals should have the freedom to express their
opinions and ideas without fear of censorship or reprisal.

 Mill contends that freedom of expression is essential for intellectual

and moral progress, as it allows unpopular or unconventional ideas to
be debated and tested against prevailing orthodoxy.

 He warns against the dangers of censorship and social conformity,

arguing that the suppression of dissenting voices stifles innovation
and undermines the search for truth.

10. CITIZEN PARTICIPATION IN GOVERNANCE:

 Citizen participation in governance refers to the active involvement of

individuals in the decision-making processes of their communities, regions or
countries.

 In democratic societies, citizen participation is essential for ensuring

government accountability, responsiveness to public needs and preferences and
the legality of political institutions.

 Forms of citizen participation may include voting in elections,

participating in public hearings and consultations, engaging in advocacy
and activism, serving on advisory boards or committees and using digital
platforms for civic engagement.
  10. CITIZEN PARTICIPATION IN GOVERNANCE:

 While Mill does not explicitly discuss citizen participation in

governance in "On Liberty," his arguments for individual liberty and
political equality imply a vision of democratic governance where
citizens play an active role in shaping public policy and holding
government accountable.

 Mill advocates for a system of representative democracy, where

elected officials are responsive to the will of the people and act in the
public interest. He emphasizes the importance of checks and balances
to prevent the concentration of power and ensure the protection of
individual rights and liberties.

1.2 WORLD DEMOCRACIES

A world democracy refers to a political system in which the citizens hold the
power to rule directly or through elected representatives. In a world democracy,
the principles of equality, freedom, and participation are upheld on a global
scale, allowing people from diverse nation and cultures to have a say in the
decisions that affect the international community. While a global democracy in
its truest form is yet to be fully realized, there are international organizations
and cooperative efforts that aim to promote democratic values and facilitate
collaboration among nations. These endeavours strive to address global
challenges, foster peaceful relations, and uphold human rights on a worldwide
scale.

"World Democracies" refers to a concept encompassing nations around the

globe that adhere to democratic principles in their governance structures. In
these countries, political power is typically derived from the consent of the
governed and citizens have the right to participate in decision-making processes
through free and fair elections. Key features of world democracies include:

1. Representative government: World democracies often employ

representative government systems where elected officials represent the
interests of the people in legislative bodies such as parliaments or congresses.
Citizens exercise their democratic rights by electing representatives to make
laws and policies on their behalf.

Representative democracy ensures that citizens have a voice in the decision-

making process and that government actions reflect the will of the electorate.

2. Rule of law: Democracies uphold the rule of law, meaning that laws apply
equally to all individuals, including government officials. Laws are applied
impartially and fairly, ensuring that justice is administered equitably.

Independent judiciaries play a crucial role in upholding the rule of law by

interpreting and enforcing laws, resolving disputes and safeguarding individual
rights against governmental overreach.

3. Separation of powers: World democracies typically have a separation of

powers between the executive, legislative and judicial branches of government.
This separation prevents any one branch from becoming too powerful and
serves as a system of checks and balances to safeguard against abuses of power.

The executive branch is responsible for implementing laws, the legislative

branch makes laws, and the judicial branch interprets laws and resolves
disputes. This division of powers ensures accountability and prevents abuses of
authority.

4. Civil liberties and human rights: Democracies prioritize the protection of

civil liberties and human rights, including freedoms of speech, press, assembly
and religion. Independent institutions, such as human rights commissions and
ombudsmen, play a crucial role in safeguarding these rights and holding
governments accountable for any violations.

5. Free and fair elections: Democratic nations hold regular, free and fair
elections where citizens have the opportunity to choose their leaders through a
transparent electoral process. The electoral system ensures that all eligible
citizens have an equal opportunity to vote and that election results reflect the
will of the electorate.

6. Pluralism and tolerance: Democracies value pluralism and tolerance,

recognizing and respecting diverse viewpoints, beliefs and identities within
society. Freedom of expression allows individuals to voice their opinions
without fear of repression, contributing to open discourse and societal progress.
 7. Citizen participation: In democracies, citizen participation goes beyond
voting and includes opportunities for civic engagement, such as activism,
advocacy and involvement in community decision-making processes. Engaged
citizens play a vital role in holding governments accountable and shaping public
policies.

Examples of world democracies include:

• The United States: Founded on the principles of liberty and democracy, The
United States is a federal republic with a system of representative democracy.
The political system features a separation of powers between the executive,
legislative and judicial branches.

• India: The world's largest democracy, India has a parliamentary system of

government where citizens elect representatives to the lok sabha (lower house)
and rajya sabha (upper house). India's democracy is characterized by diversity,
with a multi-party political system and strong protections for individual rights.

• France: France is a democratic republic with a semi-presidential system of

government. It has a constitution that establishes the principles of democracy,
including the separation of powers and the protection of civil liberties.

1.2.1 FRENCH REVOLUTION

The French Revolution, which occurred between 1789 and 1799, marked a vital
moment in world history and played a significant role in the development of
democratic ideals and principles.
Causes:

 Social Inequality: The French society was divided into three estates: the clergy,
the nobility, and the common people (Third Estate). The Third Estate was
burdened with heavy taxes and had little political power.

 Economic Hardship: Financial crises, including debt from wars and poor
harvests, led to widespread economic difficulties and unrest.

 Political Corruption: Inefficiencies and corruption within the monarchy and

government make the dissatisfaction among the common people.
 Enlightenment ideas promoting liberty, equality and fraternity, as
advocated by philosophers like Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Voltaire, contributed
to the intellectual climate that fuelled revolutionary sentiment.

Key Phases And Events:

1. Estates-General and National assembly (1789):

In May 1789, King Louis XVI convened the estates-general, a representative

assembly representing the clergy, nobility and commoners, in response to
economic and social crises. But disagreements led to the formation of the
National Assembly by the Third Estate (Common people), signalling the
beginning of revolutionary change.

2. Storming of the Bastille (July 14, 1789): On 14 July 1789, the people of
Paris seized weapons from the armoury and marched in the direction of an
ancient Royal fortress/Prison, the Bastille. After a bloody round of firing, the
crowd broke into the Bastille and released the handful of prisoners held there.

This day is celebrated as the National Day of France as the fall of the Bastille

was a stepping stone in their Revolution.

3. Declaration of the rights of man and of the citizen (1789):

Inspired by enlightenment ideals, the national assembly adopted the declaration

of the rights of man and of the citizen in August 1789. This document
proclaimed fundamental rights such as liberty, equality and fraternity and laid
the groundwork for democratic governance in France.

4. Reign of Terror and Robespierre's rule (1793-1794):

The Committee of Public Safety, led by Maximilien Robespierre, started the

Reign of Terror to fight against people who opposed the revolution and to
strengthen their control over the government.

Thousands of perceived enemies of the revolution, including King Louis XVI

and Queen Marie Antoinette, were executed during the reign of terror, leading
to internal and external conflicts.

5. Napoleonic era and the rise of authoritarianism (1799-1815):

The revolution ended in the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte, who seized power in a
coup d'état in 1799 and established himself as first consul and later Emperor of
France.

His rule moved away from democratic values by centralizing power and
limiting freedoms. However, Napoleon also introduced important legal reforms,
like the Napoleonic Code, which established equality before the law and
protected individual rights.

Outcomes Of The French Revolution:

Key Aspects Of The French Revolution In Relation To Democracy:

Overthrow of the monarchy: The French Revolution resulted in the end of the
absolute monarchy in France, marking a shift from monarchical rule to new
forms of government based on democratic ideas.

Declaration of the rights of man and of the citizen: This important document,
created during the revolution, laid out the ideas of liberty, equality, and
fraternity. It focused on individual rights and freedoms, helping to shape
democratic values in France and other places.

Popular sovereignty:

The French Revolution popularized the concept of popular sovereignty, which

means that a government’s right to rule comes from the people’s approval. This
idea became fundamental to democratic governance.

Influence on modern democracy: The French Revolution's focus on

individual rights, elected government, and the rule of law which helped to
shape modern democracies. Its effects were felt around the world, inspiring
other democratic movements and influencing future constitutions.

Legacy:

Even with its complicated history, the French Revolution is still a key example
of the fight for democratic values. It represents the ongoing goals of freedom,
equality, and justice that continue to inspire democratic movements around the
world.

Impact and legacy:

Spread of revolutionary ideals: The French Revolution inspired democratic
movements and political upheavals across Europe and the world, leading to the
overthrow of monarchies and the establishment of republics.

Establishment of democratic principles: The revolution contributed to the

articulation and codification of democratic principles, including the sovereignty
of the people, constitutionalism and the protection of individual rights.

Social and economic transformations: The revolution brought about

significant social and economic changes, including the abolition of feudal
privileges, the redistribution of land and the secularization of institutions.

Legacy of revolution: Despite its challenges and contradictions, the French

Revolution left a lasting legacy as a symbol of popular sovereignty, democratic
struggle and the pursuit of liberty, equality and fraternity.

In summary, the French Revolution is a key example of democracy, showing

both the hopes and difficulties of achieving democratic rule. It is an important
historical event that still affects political ideas, social movements, and the
growth of democratic institutions around the world.

1.2.2 AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE

The American independence, also known as the American Revolutionary War,

marked a significant turning point in world history and played a crucial role in
the advancement of democratic principles. The period of American
independence, spanning from 1775 to 1783 refers to the process through which
the thirteen American colonies gained independence from British rule,
culminating in the creation of the United States of America.

Causes:
The American War of Independence, also known as the American
Revolutionary War, was driven by a combination of political, economic, and
social factors. Here are the key causes:

1. Taxation without Representation

 Stamp Act (1765): Imposed a direct tax on the colonies for stamped
paper and legal documents. Colonists resented this as they had no
representation in Parliament.
  Townshend Acts (1767): Imposed duties on various goods imported to
the colonies, including glass, paint, and tea.
 Tea Act (1773): Granted the British East India Company a monopoly on
tea sales in the colonies, leading to the Boston Tea Party.

2. Intolerable Acts (Forced Acts)

Passed in response to the Boston Tea Party, these acts were disciplinary
measures aimed at Massachusetts and included:

 Boston Port Act: Closed the port of Boston until the tea was paid for.
 Massachusetts Government Act: Altered the Massachusetts charter and
restricted town meetings.

3. Colonial Grievances and Desire for Self-Government

 Lack of Autonomy: Colonists were frustrated with the restrictions on

their self-governance and the British interference in local affairs.
 First Continental Congress (1774): Convened to address grievances and
coordinate resistance, leading to a unified colonial response against
British policies.

4. British Military Presence and Actions

 Quartering of Troops: The presence of British troops in the colonies

was seen as an occupying force, leading to further tensions.

These factors combined to create a situation in which the American colonies

sought to assert their rights and independence from British rule, leading to the
outbreak of the American Revolutionary War in 1775.

Key Aspects Of American Independence In Detail:

The period between 1775 and 1783 encompasses the American Revolutionary
War, which includes several key events and phases.

1775: Outbreak of War

April 19, 1775: The American Revolutionary War begins with the Battles of
Lexington and Concord. between colonial militias and British troops.

1776: Declaration of Independence

 July 4, 1776: The Second Continental Congress adopts the Declaration of
Independence, authored primarily by Thomas Jefferson. This document
formally declares the American colonies' intention to separate from Britain and
outlines the principles of individual liberty and self-governance.

Alliance with France

February 6, 1778: The United States and France sign the Treaty of Alliance
and the Treaty of Amity and Commerce. France provides military support,
supplies, and financial aid, which becomes crucial for the American war effort.

October 19, 1781: The Siege of Yorktown concludes with the surrender of
British General Cornwallis to American and French forces. This decisive victory
effectively ends major military operations in the war.

1782-1783: Treaty of Paris and the End of the War

 September 3, 1783: The Treaty of Paris is signed, officially ending the war.
The treaty recognizes American independence and sets the boundaries of the
new United States. Britain agrees to withdraw its troops, and the United States
gains territory up to the Mississippi River.
 November 25, 1783: The last British troops leave New York City, marking the
end of British rule in the United States.

Impact and Legacy Of American Independence In Detail:

 Formation of a democratic republic: The successful culmination of the

revolutionary war led to the establishment of the United States of America as a
democratic republic. The founding fathers, guided by democratic ideals,
crafted the U.S. Constitution, which established a system of government
characterized by checks and balances, federalism and the protection of
individual liberties.

 Democratic principles and founding documents: The principles enshrined

in the Declaration of independence and the U.S. constitution, including popular
sovereignty, separation of powers, and the bill of rights, laid the foundation for
a democratic system of governance. These founding documents emphasized
democratic values such as representative democracy, individual freedoms and
the rule of law.
 Influence on global democracy: The successful establishment of the United
States as a democratic republic served as a model for democratic movements
globally. The principles and practices of American democracy inspired
subsequent struggles for independence and democratic governance in various
parts of the world.

 Enduring legacy: The American independence remains a pivotal event in the

history of democracy, symbolizing the triumph of self-determination and
democratic governance. Its legacy continues to resonate globally, inspiring
aspirations for freedom and democracy.

 The American independence stands as a defining moment in the advancement

of democratic principles, representing a successful struggle for self-governance
and the establishment of a democratic republic founded on enduring
democratic values.

American Revolution Impacts On The World:

 Blow to the image of Britain: American independence was a great blow to

the invincible image of Great Britain.
 To spread the idea of democracy and republic: The American Revolution
introduced and popularised the concepts of democracy and constitutional
republic.
 Towards equality: The notion of individual rights and liberties gained
prominence.
 The USA as a land of freedom: The United States became a symbol of
freedom and opportunities for settlers.
 Emphasis on education: Education gained importance as a means to foster an
informed and enlightened citizenry.
 Spread of federalism: The American Revolution popularised the principle of
federalism, which emphasises a division of power between a central government
and regional governments.
 Inspiring freedom struggle: The American Revolution was the world’s first
anti-colonial revolution. It inspired the freedom struggle in other colonies
including India.

Influence on democratic movements: The American Independences

Movement inspired democratic movements worldwide, serving as a model for
subsequent revolutions and independence movements. The principles of self-
determination ,representative government and individual rights resonated with
people in other nations aspiring to freedom and autonomy.

1.2.3 WORLD DEMOCRACIES: INDIAN FREEDOM MOVEMENT

The Indian Freedom Movement, also known as the Indian Independence

Movement, was a historic struggle for self-rule and independence from British
colonial rule in India. This movement represents a significant example of a
world democracy, characterized by mass mobilization, nonviolent resistance and
the pursuit of democratic ideals. Let's explore the Indian Freedom Movement in
detail:

Background:

The Indian subcontinent was under British colonial rule for nearly two
centuries, from the mid-18th century until 1947. British colonialism brought
about economic exploitation, political subjugation and cultural oppression,
sparking widespread discontent among the Indian populace. The Indian
Freedom Movement emerged as a response to these injustices, fuelled by the
aspirations of Indians for self-rule and national sovereignty.

Key features:

1. Mass mobilization and civil disobedience:

The Indian Freedom Movement witnessed mass mobilization and civil

disobedience campaigns led by prominent leaders such as Mahatma Gandhi,
Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose. These leaders galvanized the
Indian masses through nonviolent protests, boycotts and acts of civil
disobedience, including the famous Salt March and Quit India Movement.

2. Nonviolent resistance:

Central to the Indian Freedom Movement was the principle of nonviolent

resistance, championed by Mahatma Gandhi, Gandhi's philosophy of Satyagraha
(truth-force) emphasized the power of nonviolence, moral courage and civil
disobedience in confronting injustice and oppression.
3. Democratic ideals:

The Indian Freedom Movement embodied democratic ideals such as popular

sovereignty, representative governance and respect for human rights. Indian
nationalists demanded the right to self-determination and the establishment of a
democratic form of government based on the consent of the governed.

The Indian independence movement was marked by many events,

including:

The Sepoy Rebellion: The Sepoy Rebellion against the East India Company
took place in 1857.

The Indian National Congress: The Indian National Congress was formed in
1885.

The Rowlatt Acts: The Rowlatt Acts were passed in 1919, along with the
Massacre of Amritsar.

The Non-cooperation Movement: The Non-cooperation Movement took place

from 1920–1922.

The Salt March: The Salt March took place from March–April 1930, and was
led by Mahatma Gandhi to protest the British monopoly on salt production.

The Gandhi–Irwin Pact: The Gandhi–Irwin Pact was signed in 1931, ending a
period of civil disobedience in India.

The Cripps Mission: The Cripps Mission was sent to India in 1942 to negotiate
a constitutional framework for India's post-independence political future.

India and Pakistan gain independence: India and Pakistan gained

independence in 1947.

Key aspects of the Indian Freedom Movement in detail:

1. Struggle for democratic principles: The Indian Freedom Movement

emphasized democratic values such as self-determination ,popular participation
and social justice .It required to establish a democratic system that would
guarantee fundamental rights and liberties for all citizens.

2. Path to independence: Through sustained mass mobilization, civil

disobedience and political negotiations, India eventually gained independence
from British colonial rule on 15, 1947. The transfer of power marked the
establishment of India as a sovereign democratic republic.

3. Constitutional framework: Following independence, India adopted a

democratic constitution in 1950, which enshrined principles of secularism,
fundamental rights and representative democracy. The constitution of India
became the cornerstone of the country's democratic governance.

4. Global Inspirations: The Indian Freedom Movement served as an inspiration

for other anti-colonial struggles and democratic movements worldwide,
showcasing the power of nonviolent resistance and the quest for democratic
self-governance

The Indian Freedom Movement stands as a testament to the power of nonviolent

resistance and the pursuit of democratic ideals, ultimately leading to the
establishment of lndia as a vibrant and diverse democratic republic and serving
as an enduring example of the triumph of democracy over colonialism.

Relevance to world democracies:

The Indian Freedom Movement serves as a compelling example of a world

democracy in action, showcasing the power of mass mobilization, nonviolent
resistance and democratic ideals in challenging colonial oppression and
achieving national independence. The movement's emphasis on popular
participation, civil liberties and cultural revival resonates with the principles of
democracy adopted in John Stuart Mill's "On Liberty," highlighting the
universal aspirations for freedom, justice and self-determination across diverse
societies and contexts

Individual liberty and self-governance:

Indians faced various forms of oppression, including discriminatory laws,

economic exploitation and restrictions on civil liberties such as freedom of
speech and assembly.

• This struggle for individual liberty echoes Mill's advocacy for the rights of
individuals to pursue their interests and beliefs without undue interference from
the state or external authorities. Gandhi's philosophy of nonviolent resistance or
Satyagraha emphasized the importance of individual conscience and moral
autonomy in challenging unjust laws and policies.
John Stuart Mil's "On Liberty" emphasizes the intrinsic value of individual
liberty and self-determination. In the context of the Indian Freedom Movement:

• Relevance: The Indian Freedom Movement, exemplified by leaders such as

Mahatma Gandhi, sought to assert the rights of individuals and communities to
govern themselves and determine their own destiny, reflecting the core tenets of
individual liberty espoused by Mill.

Struggle against oppressive authority:

• Indian nationalists utilized various forms of protest, including marches,

boycotts, civil disobedience and nonviolent resistance, to challenge British
authority and demand political concessions.

• Mill's defense of freedom of speech and expression in "On Liberty" aligns with
the ethos of the Indian Freedom Movement, which recognized the importance of
open debate, dialogue and dissent in advancing the cause of freedom and justice.
Gandhi famously stated, "I want the winds of all cultures to blow freely about
my house," reflecting the commitment to embracing diverse viewpoints and
ideas.

Mill's work underscores the need to resist the tyranny of oppressive authority
and the imposition of arbitrary power. In relation to the Indian Freedom
Movement:

• Correlation: The movement's resistance against British colonial rule and its
advocacy for self-rule resonates with Mill's call for individuals to resist unjust
authority and to challenge systems that infringe upon their fundamental
freedoms.

Democratic governance and public participation:

• The Indian Freedom Movement was deeply rooted in democratic principles,

including the right to self-governance and the participation of citizens in
decision-making processes. Leaders of the movement called for representative
government and sought to establish a democratic system that reflected the will
of the Indian people.

• Mill's ideas on representative government and popular sovereignty resonate

with the goals of the Indian Freedom Movement, which aimed to replace
colonial rule with a government accountable to the Indian populace. The
movement's emphasis on equality, justice and pluralism reflected a desire to
create a society based on the consent of the governed.

Mill advocates for democratic governance and the active participation of

citizens in shaping their society. In the context of the Indian Freedom
Movement

Alignment: The movement's pursuit of democratic principles, including the call

for representative democracy and the rights of all citizens, reflects Mill's
emphasis on the importance of democratic governance and the participation of
the public in the decision making process.

Struggle for social justice:

In addition to political freedom, the Indian Freedom Movement also addressed

social and economic injustices perpetuated by colonial rule. Leaders of the
movement advocated for social reform, economic equality and the upliftment of
marginalized communities, including peasants, workers and women.

Mill's concept of social justice, which emphasizes the fair distribution of

resources and opportunities in society, resonates with the goals of the Indian
Freedom Movement to create a more equitable and inclusive society free from
exploitation and discrimination.

READING TEXT: EXCERPTS FROM JOHN STUART MILLS’

ON LIBERTY

These notes provide a comprehensive overview of democratic values as

discussed in John Stuart Mill's "On Liberty," highlighting key themes
and arguments from the text.

➤ Example 1: Black lives matter movement in the United States

The Black Lives Matter (BLM) movement exemplifies various democratic

values, including equality, liberty, justice and pluralism, tolerance and
citizen participation in governance.

Equality: The BLM movement advocates for equality and justice for
Black Americans, highlighting systemic racism and inequality in areas
such as law enforcement, criminal justice, healthcare and education. It calls
for an end to racial discrimination and the promotion of equal rights and
opportunities for all individuals, regardless of race or ethnicity.

Liberty: BLM emphasizes the liberty and freedom of black individuals to

live without fear of violence, discrimination or oppression. It demands an
end to police brutality and systemic racism, asserting the right of black
Americans to exercise their civil liberties and pursue their aspirations
without undue interference or discrimination.

Justice: Central to the BLM movement is the pursuit of justice for victims
of racial injustice and police violence. It calls for accountability for law
enforcement officers who engage in misconduct or use excessive force and
it advocates for reforms to the criminal justice system to address racial
disparities and ensure fair treatment under the law.

Pluralism: The BLM movement embraces pluralism by amplifying

diverse voices and experiences within the black community. It recognizes
the intersectionality of race with other identities, such as gender, sexual
orientation and socioeconomic status and advocates for inclusivity and
solidarity among marginalized groups in the fight against oppression.

Tolerance: BLM promotes tolerance by fostering empathy, understanding

and respect for the experiences and perspectives of black individuals and
communities. It challenges stereotypes and biases, encourages dialogue
across racial divides and seeks to build bridges of understanding and
solidarity among people of all backgrounds.

Citizen participation in governance: The BLM movement mobilizes

citizens to participate in protests, advocacy campaigns and grassroots
organizing efforts to demand change and hold government officials
accountable. It demonstrates the power of collective action and civic
engagement in shaping public discourse, influencing policy decisions and
driving social change.

The BLM movement serves as a powerful example of how grassroots

activism can advance democratic values and principles by challenging
systemic injustice, promoting equality and justice and empowering citizens
to participate actively in the democratic process.
➤ Example 2: Freedom of expression in academic settings

John Stuart Mill's advocacy for freedom of expression in "On Liberty" can
be illustrated through the example of academic freedom in educational
institutions.

In universities and academic institutions, freedom of expression is essential

for the pursuit of knowledge, intellectual inquiry and scholarly debate.
Students, professors and researchers should be able to explore ideas,
challenge prevailing beliefs and express their opinions without fear of
censorship or reprisal.

For example, imagine a university where students are encouraged to

engage in open and rigorous debate on controversial topics such as politics,
religion and social issues. In this environment, professors facilitate
discussions that expose students to diverse perspectives and encourage
critical thinking skills. Students feel empowered to express their
viewpoints, even if they differ from those of their peers or instructors.

This example aligns with John Stuart Mill's defense of freedom of

expression in "On Liberty." Mill argues that the free exchange of ideas is
essential for the discovery of truth and the advancement of knowledge. He
contends that even unpopular or controversial opinions should be tolerated
and debated openly, as they contribute to the marketplace of ideas and help
prevent the stagnation of thought.

In the context of academic freedom, Mill's principles underscore the

importance of protecting intellectual liberty within educational institutions.
By fostering an environment where freedom of expression is valued and
respected, universities uphold democratic values and contribute to the
cultivation of informed and engaged citizens.

Overall, the example of freedom of expression in academic settings

illustrates how John Stuart Mil's ideas in "On Liberty" continue to inform
and influence contemporary discussions on democratic values and
individual rights.
 UNIT II
SECULAR VALUES
Understanding Secular values – Interpretation of secularism in Indian context -
Disassociation of state from religion – Acceptance of all faiths – Encouraging non-
discriminatory practices.Reading Text: Excerpt from Secularism in India: Concept and
Practice by Ram Puniyani

2.1. SECULARISM

Secularism is the principle of the separation of the government (state) and the persons
from religious institutions and religious dignitaries.

One of the fundamental principles of secularism is asserting the right to be free from
religious rule and teachings and to be neutral on matters of religious beliefs. Another
principle of secularism is the view that public activities and decisions, especially political
ones, should be uninfluenced by religious beliefs and/or practices.

Secular values uphold the freedom of individuals to practice their religion, or choose not
to follow any religion, without coercion or discrimination. This includes the freedom to
worship, express religious beliefs, and change one’s faith without fear of persecution.

Secularism means setting up democratically elected governments and laws passed by

parliament and legislatures which is uninfluenced by religious persons. The rule of law is
supreme and all citizens are equal in the eye of law.

The actions are judged by courts manned by skilled judges and proceedings are
conducted with help of trained and skilled lawyers. The government collects taxes direct
and indirect from the citizens , manufactures and sellers of goods and provider of services
under due process of legislated laws.

No person can be punished, assessed without due process of law and can be done only
after following the principles of natural justice.

Secular values uphold the freedom of individuals to practice their religion, or choose not
to follow any religion, without coercion or discrimination.This includes the freedom to
worship, express religious beliefs, and change one’s faith without fear of persecution.
2.1.1. HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

India on gaining independence adopted secular socialistic democracy with three wings -
legislature, Judiciary and Executive.

The constitution of India enshrined basic fundamental rights to its citizens and all citizens
to be treated equally and guarantying equal protection with reservation for socially and
economically backward classes including schedule caste and schedule tribes for their
upliftment and betterment.

People are granted liberty and freedom to practice their faith and religion. Liberty and
freedom are the foundation stones of the Indian constitution.

2.1.2. SECULAR SOCIETY

Modern democracies are generally recognized as secular. This is due to the near complete
freedom of religion and the lack of authority of religious leaders over political decisions.
Nevertheless, religious beliefs are widely considered by most to be relevant part of the
political discourse in many of the secular countries.

This contrasts with other western countries as Britain and France where religious
references are generally considered out-of- place in main stream politics.

The aspirations of a secular society could characterize a secular society as one which:

1. Is not homogenous, but is pluralistic.

2. Is tolerant. It widens the sphere of private decision-making

3. While every society must have some common aims, which implies there must be
agreed on methods of problem-solving, and a common frame work of law

4. Problem solving is approached rationally, through examination of the facts. While the
secular society does not set any overall aim, it helps members realize their aims.

5. Is a society without any official images? Nor is there a common ideal type of
behaviour with universal application.

Positive ideals behind the secular society

1. Deep respect for individuals and small groups of which they are a part.
2. Equality of all people.

3. Each person should be helped to realize their particular excellence. 4. Breaking down
of the barriers of class and caste. Some societies become increasingly secular as the result
of social processes, rather than through the actions of a dedicated secular movement; this
process is known as secularization.

2.1.3. SECULARISM IN INDIA

Secularism in India means equal treatment of all religions by the state. The laws
implicitly require the state and its institutions to recognize and accept all religions,
enforce parliamentary laws instead of religious laws, and accept pluralism.

India does not have any official state religion. The people of India have freedom of
religion, and the state treats all individuals as equal citizens regardless of their religion.

In matters of law in modern India, however, the applicable code of law is unequal and
India's personal laws-on matters such as marriage, divorce, inheritance, alimony-varies
with an individual religion. Secularism as practiced in India, has differences with western
practice of secularism, is a controversial topic in India.

Supporters of the Indian concept of secularism claim it respects Muslim men's religious
rights and recognizes that they are culturally different from the Indians of other religions.

Secularism is a divisive, politically charged topic in India. Secularism in India, thus, does
not mean separation of religion from state. Instead, secularism in India means that a state
is neutral to all religious groups.

Religious laws in personal domains, particularly for Muslim Indians, supersede

parliamentary laws in India; and currently, in some situations, the state partially finances
certain religious schools.

2.1.4. PRINCIPLES OF SECULARISM

Secularism is founded on three primary principles.

 Firstly, the government must be separated from influence by religion and religious
institutions.

 Secondly, everyone has the right to freedom of religion.

  Lastly, all religions are to be treated equal under the law.

2.1.5. FEATURES OF INDIAN SECULARISM

 Equal respect and recognition for all religions by the state.

 No discrimination by the state on the basis of religion.

 Non-interference in the functioning of any religion by the state.

 No official religion in India.

 One religious group does not dominate another.

 Some members don't dominate other members of the same religious community.

 The state does not enforce any specific religion nor take away the religious
freedom of individuals.

2.1.6. IMPORTANCE OF SECULARISM

Secularism in India is important not only to provide peace and harmony within the
country but also to provide a better and safer society for all.

Secularism is very important for India because if India becomes religious state ,it will
stop us from sharing new thoughts and reading about different religions .

So, it can be said that secularism in India is perfectly performed and the Indian
government tries to keep religion separate from government.

2.1.7. PURPOSE OF SECULARISM

The idea here in its weaker publicly reiterated form was that the government would not
interfere in 'personal religious matters and would create circumstances in which people of
all religions could live in harmony.

2.1.8. TYPES OF SECULARISM

(a) Political secularism:

Political secularism has three essential principles politics, religion, and their separation.
Political secularisın must also satisfy important normative principles.

The most important of these are freedom of conscience and the principle of state
neutrality.

(b) Philosophical secularism:

As a philosophy, secularism seeks to interpret life based on principles derived solely from
the material world, without recourse to religion.

It shifts the focus from religion towards" temporal "and material concerns.

(c) Socio-cultural secularism:

Secularization is a cultural transition in which religious values are gradually replaced

with nonreligious values.

In the process, religious figureheads similar as church leaders lose their authority and
influence over.

2.1.9 ADVANTAGES OF SECULARISM

Secularism also has numerous practical advantages.

• Peaceful coexistence: By separating religion and state, secularism allows diverse

communities to live together peacefully, respecting each other's beliefs.

• Progress and innovation: When reason and evidence guide decisions, it fosters
scientific advancement, technological innovation and progress in solving real - world
problems

• Individual liberty: Secular values promote individual freedom of thought, expression

and action, within the framework of respecting others' rights.

2.2 UNDERSTANDING SECULAR VALUES

2.2.1. SECULAR VALUES

The secular mind is better equipped than religion to reach reasoned and compassionate
judgments. Religious minds tend to become irrational and fanatical leading to inter
religious differences, violence and bloodshed.
The more potent form of faith seeks to justify doctrines and practices that defy rationality
and compassion.

Religious minded refuse abortion, even in a case of rape, incest or severe foetal
abnormality.

Secular mind on the other hand value human rights and makes the society tolerant.

2.2.2. DEFINITION OF SECULAR VALUES

Secular values are simply those values derived not from any religious source. Separate
from any religious concerns.

All stemming from "Secular" meaning not connected to any dogma or doctrines.
Anything said to be secular including values, is that which has been reached through
purely human' means. Therefore, secular values are simply those values derived not from
any religious source. Separate from any religious concerns. Secular values are those
values which people come up with that focus on the effects certain actions actually have
on people-other organisms, the planet etc instead on ignoring overriding such concerns to
focus on the commands of some religious text/traditions or whatever.

Secular values are derived from rationality and based on scientific findings than
superstitious believes or religious dogmas.

Secular humanism is a comprehensive life stance or world view embraces human reason,
metaphysical naturalism, altruistic morality and distributive justice, and consciously
rejects super natural claims, theistic faith and religiosity, pseudo-science, and
superstitions.

It is sometimes referred to as Humanism.

Humanism is a democratic and ethical life stance, which affirms that human beings have
right and responsibility to give meaning and shape to their own lives.

It stands for the building of a more humane society through an ethic based on human and
other natural values in the spirit of reason and free inquiry through human capabilities. It
is not theistic, and doesn't accept supernatural views of reality

2.2.3. WHAT ARE THE SECULAR VALUES?

 Some examples of core secular values:

 Freedom of thought is supported by secularism.

 One's beliefs should not be permitted to disturb the civil peace.

 Religious tolerance

 Reason and logic

 Critical thinking

 Humanism

 Equality

 Liberty

 Justice

 Compassion

 Respect for science

 Freedom of speech and religion.

2.2.4. UNDERSTANDING SECULARISM IN INDIA

Secularism is perhaps the most misunderstood word in India. The reasons are obvious.

A distorted understanding of Secularism has been deliberately planted and propagated for
decades and it is not politicians alone who are at fault.

Unfortunately, this distorted version appeals to many among the youth today. They go by
what they hear since it is fashionable to support this distorted understanding.

The secular model being followed in India since independence has the dubious distinction
of suffering from many anomalies including minority appeasement.

Encyclopedia Britannica defines secularism as 'any movement in society directed away

from other worldliness to life on earth'. This should be seen as the fundamental definition
of Secularism in its purest form. Life here means the world as a whole.
However, given the division of the world in countries and societies, it will be prudent to
limit it to nations and the societies therein.

Secularism is the concept of governing life in nations and societies based on life in the
real world, without linking it with any celestial, supernatural or mythical connects.

When applied to politics and governance, secularism means following a public policy
based on facts, science and reason as opposed to any religious, spiritual or non-worldly
idea of concept.

Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism took birth in India, while Islam, Christianity,
Zoroastrianism and Jewish religions are imports in the country. After being a
predominantly Hindu nation in character for thousands of years, today it is home to all
these religions. Secularism becomes increasingly important for nations with multiple
societies with different religions. It ensures that all citizens are governed equally without
any religious bias.

Most Christianity dominated nations in the developed Western world follow secularism
in governance, while remaining Christian nations in principle. They promote and support
the Church financially and otherwise.

Yet, these nations are seen as epitomes of Secularism. But in India, a mere mention of the
word Hinduism attracts the charges of being non-secular and subjugation of minorities in
the same breath. It is time to call out this hypocrisy, pretence and bigotry.

The Islamic majority nations are more forthright as they openly decry other religions,
shun secularism and subscribe to the idea of a Muslim brotherhood across the world.

The concept of secularism is neither new to India nor to Hinduism.

It was practised by ancient Hindu rulers for thousands of years. Most rulers had highly
learned saints and religious wise men as advisers.

They always advised the rulers to be impartial in governance and to treat all subjects
alike, irrespective of their faiths or positions in the society.

Yet, and this is important to understand, their commitment and responsibility to protect
Hinduism remained steadfast. The warped concept of secularism in our country advocates
that religion is a personal matter and best restricted to an individual. This bizarre
argument prevents any mutual religious interaction between individuals, family, group or
society by default.

This is against the very fundamentals of any religion which aims to bring people together.
Societies thrive when like-minded people bond with each other.

Religion is personal only to the extent that it should not overflow into common public
spaces and avoid an in-your-face approach to prevent interfaith conflicts.

Religions are often connected with and draw inspiration from worldliness that transcends
beyond the realms of the real world because of their connect with the spiritual and the
supernatural.

Any religion is a personal set or institutionalised system of beliefs, attitudes and practices
that are regarded as holy, sacred, divine, spiritual and worthy of reverence either
individually or collectively.

In turn such a system guides and regulates, in varying degrees, an individual's or a

society's approach to life. The level of tolerance and cooperation displayed for other
religions depends on the extent of freedom and free thought allowed within a religion.

Hinduism, which is part of an individual's way of life, tops the list in offering maximum
freedom and encouraging free thought. Therefore, unlike most other religions, secularism
comes naturally to Hindus. When India attained independence in 1947, it was partitioned
into India and Pakistan with the latter deciding to be an Islamic country.

India could have easily followed suit and declared itself a Hindu nation. But given the
proven secular credentials of Hinduism, it chose not to do so. It adopted Secularism and
willingly accepted the decision of millions of Muslims to stay back in India.

Has secularism succeeded in India from 1947 till date? It may be more prudent to
answer this question with some hard truths and facts.

Some of these are:

All minorities have complete freedom to propagate, teach and run their religions. Similar
freedom is not available to Hinduism.
Minorities with genuinely small numbers like Sikhs, Buddhists, Jains, Parsis/
Zoroastrians and Jews have prospered contributed to nation building much beyond their
numbers and have no issues with Hindus or Hinduism.

Muslim population growth rate of 24.3% is 50% more than that of Hindus which stands
at 16.7%. The national growth rate is 17.7%.

Since independence, the country has had three Presidents and three Vice Presidents from
the Muslim community, one President and one Prime Minister from the Sikh community.

There is no discrimination in government jobs against any religious community. Nation's

armed forces are an epitome of secularism at its best.

There have been no Hindu centric government initiatives but there have been many for
minorities and their religions.

The history and rich heritage of Hinduism has been deliberately suppressed and distorted
in favour of the more contemporary Muslim and British rules in India.

Efforts of Hindus to reclaim parts of their heritage are invariably opposed by minorities.
It is obvious that the fundamentals of secularism have been distorted in India to favour
the minorities.

Political compulsions, dictated by vote bank politics, have forced political parties to
adopt this approach at the cost of the majority. Secular democratic governments practise
social equality by keeping religion out of governance.

However, by no stretch of the imagination does it imply that such governments have no
responsibilities towards the religion of the land followed by the majority.

The distorted form of secularism followed by governments in India borders on being anti
Hinduism. In doing so, they have consigned the more pristine form of Secularism, as
advocated by Hinduism, to the dustbin. Slowly but steadily, Bharat is losing its national
identity.

2.2.5. COUNTERING FASCISM AND FANATICISM TO STRENGTHEN

SECULARISM AND SECULAR VALUES
In a parliamentary democracy, the majority party holds the reigns of the government.
Where a party having strong religious learning with religious ideals as their agenda then
their functioning, and rule is bound to effect the ideals and values of secularism.

This has been demonstrated in India with umpteen communal riots and suppression of
rights of minorities, schedule caste, tribes and backward classes.

Recent excesses shown in enforcement of ban on cow slaughter is one pointer. Ram
temple issue also brought in series of communal clashes and affected the harmony and
peace of the country.

The question facing the country is as to how to strengthen secularism and secular values
by facing the challenges posed by fascism and fanaticism? The old Indian spiritual life
and custom have been replaced by western modes and western way of life.

The two great world wars had a little impact on our country, instead, it stirred political
consciousness among the masses, which played a great part in bringing the change in the
life style of Indian people.

The traditional caste system and the hold of upper castes have been broken and a more
cohesive society has been created.

The social revival of the masses with the ushering in of right of self-determination, rule
of law and concept of social welfare has indeed shaken the traditional faction ridden caste
society.

The improvement of social lives of poor masses, schedule caste and tribes, by
enforcement of democracy into the hitherto highly religious society has brought in
tremendous changes in the social life style of Indian people.

The economic changes and the changes of the village life-pattern to a more sophisticated
urban life have equally not been free from malaise.

The emergence of evils of western civilizations like poverty, crime, prostitution,

alcoholism, juvenile delinquency, gambling beggary, materialism, consumerism,
dissolution of joint family, divorce and break down of traditional social life has helped in
the growth of religious fanaticism.
At one hand the concept of state and involvement of people in their state affairs has
become total, but on the other hand the waning of spiritual life also has become apparent.

The growth of materialistic life style, high cost of living and the inability of political
parties to solve these issues and help in development of socialistic philosophy and
democratic life style has there by created a water shed in the Indian polity. This has been
a major cause of the revival of religious fanaticism.

Even before the concept of free thought and expression and democratic living could
become a way of life of the last Indian, the religious forces have revived there by
effecting secular values and secularism. These religious forces are more from persons
who are pseudo-spiritualists and God men.

The true spiritual guides and philosophers of India, who have mass influence, have
become scarce and rare. This has given room for fascist force to grow in the leaps and
bounds endangering secularism and secular values among the Indian people.

The greatest harm the fascist, fundamentalist and religious politicians have done is to run
down the supremacy of the rule of law and to weaken the functioning of the democratic
institutions, besides causing the destruction to the growth of true spiritualism.

The answer lays in the search to bring in cohesion between philosophies of ancient
spiritual sages with those of present concept of rule of law.

The way to counter fascism and strengthen secularism and secular values is to meet its
challenges posed by materialism and consumerism.

It is by reviving true spiritualism in the Indian religious context rather than use of
ritualistic symbols, religious rites in all secular democratic institutions.

Use of religion in politics should be prohibited. Political parties should not be allowed to
use any religious rites or symbols.

All religious processions in public places should be discouraged. Democratic living and
only true spiritualists should be encouraged, who give the message of brother hood,
humanism, compassion and mercy.

The sacred spaces in India where people practicing their respective religions gather to
celebrate common festivals are required to be strengthened to help secularism and secular
values. So also, secular values have to be strengthened in all public schools, public
institutions and public places.

2.2.6. BENEFITS OF SECULAR VALUES

Living in a secular state has several benefits.

 Religious Freedom.

 Fair Decision Making.

 Freedom of Speech.

2.3. INTERPRETATION OF SECULARISM IN INDIAN CONTEXT

2.3.1. MEANING OF 'SECULARISM

 It is being separate from religion or having no religious basis.

 It also means that all religions are given equal status, recognition, and support from
the state.

 It can also be defined as the doctrine that promotes the separation of state from
religion.

 No discrimination or partiality should be given on the basis of religion.

 The 42nd Amendment of the Indian Constitution (1976) states that India is a
"Secular nation.

 India is a secular country which means it gives equal status to all religions.

2.3.2. CONCEPT OF SECULARISM

Secularism in India means the separation of religion from state. Religious laws in
personal domain, for Muslim Indians; and currently, in some situations such as religious
indoctrination schools the state partially finances certain religious schools.

India since its independence in 1947 has been a secular state. The secular values were
enshrined in the constitution of India.
India's first prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru and Law Minister B.R Ambedkar is credited
with the formation of secular values in the modern history of the country.

With the Forty-second Amendment of the Constitution of India enacted in 1976, the
Preamble to the Constitution asserted that India is a secular nation. However, the
Supreme Court of India in the 1994 case S. R. Bommai v. Union of India established the
fact that India was secular since the formation of the republic.

The judgement established that there is separation of state and religion. It stated "In
matters of State, religion has no place.

Any State government which pursues nonsecular on policies or nonsecular course of

action acts contrary to the constitutional mandate and renders itself amenable to action
under Article 356" Furthermore, constitutionally, state-owned educational institutions are
prohibited from imparting religious instructions, and Article 27 of the constitution
prohibits using tax-payers money for the promotion of any religion.

Officially, secularism has always inspired modern India.

However, India's secularism does not completely separate religion and state. 20However,
India's secularism does not completely separate religion and state.

The Indian Constitution has allowed extensive interference of the state in religious
affairs, such as constitutional abolition of untouchability, opening up of all Hindu temples
to people of 'lower caste' etc.

The degree of separation between the state and religion has varied with several court and
executive orders in place since the birth of the Republic.

In matters of law in modern India, personal laws on matters such as marriage, divorce,
inheritance, alimony varies if one is a Muslim or not (Muslims have an option to marry
under secular law if they wish).

The Indian Constitution permits partial financial support for religious schools as well as
the financing of religious buildings and infrastructure by the state. The Islamic Central
Wakf Council and many Hindu temples of great religious significance are administered
and managed (through funding) by the federal and the state governments in accordance
with the Places of Worship (Special Provisions) Act, 1991, and the Ancient Monuments
and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act, 1958, which mandates state maintenance of
religions buildings that were created before August 15, 1947 (the date of Indian
independence), while also retaining their religious character.

The attempt to respect religious law has created a number of issues in India, such as
acceptability of polygamy, unequal inheritance rights, extra judicial unilateral divorce
rights favourable to some males, and conflicting interpretations of religious books.

Secularism as practiced in India, with its marked differences with Western practice of
secularism, is a controversial topic in India. Supporters of the Indian concept of
secularism claim it respects "minorities and pluralism". Critics claim the Indian form of
secularism as "pseudo-secularism".

Supporters state that any attempt to introduce a uniform civil code, that is equal laws for
every citizen irrespective of his or her religion, would impose majoritarian Hindu
sensibilities and ideals. Critics state that India's acceptance of some religious laws
violates the principle of Equality before the law.

2.3.3. SECULARISM IN ANCIENT INDIA

India has various religions, and they have co-existed and evolved together for centuries.

The development of the four Vedas and interpretations of the Upanishads and Puranas
highlight the concept of Secularism in Hinduism.

In ancient India, Hinduism was allowed to develop as a holistic religion by welcoming

various spiritual traditions.

There are many temples built in ancient times that show the coexistence of different
religions and faiths.

Emperor Ashoka was the first emperor to announce that the state would not prosecute any
religious sect.

Secularism in India is not a new concept at all, and it is as old as the Indus Valley
Civilization.

The quest for the coexistence of different religions continued even after the appearance of
Buddhism, Jainism, Christianity, and Islam on Indian soil.
In ancient India, people had freedom of religion, and the state granted citizenship
regardless of religion.

2.3.4. HISTORY OF SECULARISM IN INDIAN CONTEXT

The term "Secularism is first reflected in the Preamble of India. The government is
separate from religion.

The philosophy of Indian Secularism is related to "Sarva Dharma Sambhava', and this
concept is promoted by personalities like Mahatma Gandhi and Swami Vivekananda.

India doesn't have any official state religion.

However different personal laws on matters like divorce, marriage, inheritance, and
alimony vary with one's religion.

Indian Secularism is all about achieving the peaceful coexistence of various religions.
India respects all religions on par with one another Ellora Caves, a world heritage site,
are in the Indian state of Maharashtra. The 35 caves were carved into the vertical face of
the Charanandri hills between the 5th and 10th centuries.

The 12 Buddhist caves, 17 Hindu caves and 5 Jain caves, built in proximity, suggest
religions co-existence and secular sentiments for diversity prevalent during pre-Islamic
period of Indian history.

Ashoka about 2200 years ago, Harsha about 1400 years ago accepted and patronized
different religions. The people in ancient India had freedom of religion, and the state
granted citizenship to each individual regardless of whether someone's religion was
Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism or any other.

Ellora cave temples built next to each other between 5th and 10th centuries, for example,
shows a coexistence of religions and a spirit of acceptance of different faiths. There
should not be honour of one's own (religious) sect and condemnation of others without
any grounds.

This approach to interfaith relations changed with the arrival of Islam and establishment
of Delhi Sultanate in North India by the 12th century, but it was not the only cause the
enmity in minds of Hindu lower caste had risen to the top because of the discrimination
by Brahmins followed by Deccan Sultanato in Central India.
The political doctrines of Islarm, as well as its religious views were at odds with
doctrines of Hinduism, Christianity and other Indian religions.

New temples and monasteries were not allowed.

As with Levant, Southeast Europe and Spain, Islamic rulers in India treated Hindus as
dhimmis in exchange of annual payment of jizya taxes, in a sharia-based state
jurisprudence. With the arrival of Mughal era, Sharia was imposed with continued zeal,
with Akbar-the Mughal Emperor-as the first significant exception.

Akbar sought to fuse ideas, professed equality between Islam and other religions of India,
forbade forced conversions to Islam, abolished religion-based discriminatory jizya taxes,
and welcomed building of Hindu temples.

However, the descendants of Akbar, particularly Aurangzeb, roverted to treating Islam as

the primary state religion, destruction of temples, and reimposed religion-based
discriminatory jizya taxes.

Akbar's tomb at Sikandra, near Agra India. Akbar's instruction for his mausoleum was
that it incorporate elements from different religions including Islam and Hinduism After
Aurangzeb, India came into control of East India Company and the British Raj.

The colonial administrators did not separate religion from state, but marked the end of
equal hierarchy between Islam and Hinduism, and reintroduced the notion of equality
before the law for Hindus, Christians and Muslims.

The British Empire sought commerce and trade, with a policy of neutrality to all of
India's diverse religions.

Before 1858, the Britishers followed the policy of patronizing and supporting the native
religions as the earlier rulers had done. By the mid-19th century, the British Raj
administered India, in matters related to marriage, inheritance of property and divorces,
according to personal laws based on each Indian subject's religion, according to
interpretations of respective religions documents by Islamic jurists.

In 1864, the Raj eliminated all religious jurists, pandits and scholars because the
interpretations of the same verse or religious document varied, the scholars and jurists
disagreed with each other, and the process of justice had become inconsistent and
suspiciously corrupt.
The late 19 century marked the arrival of Anglo-Hindu and Anglo-Muslim personal laws
to divide adjacent communities by British, where the governance did not separate the
state and religion, but continued to differentiate and administer people based on their
personal religion.

The British Raj provided the Indian Christians, Indian Zoroastrians and others with their
own personal laws, such as the Indian Succession Act of 1850, Special Marriage Act of
1872 and other laws that were similar to Common .

2.3.5. SECULARISM IN MEDIEVAL INDIA

After Aurangzeb, India came under the control of the East India Company and the British
Raj, and in this period, Secularism was strengthened through the freedom movement of
India.

Bhakti and Sufi Movements sustained secularism in India in the Medieval period.

They spread the positives of Secularism such as brotherhood, tolerance, peace,

universalism, and harmony in society.

Some of the leaders of these movements were Kabir Das, Khwaja Moinuddin Chisti,
Guru Nanak Dev, Baba Farid, Mira Bai, and Saint Tukaram.

Religious toleration and freedom of worship marked the state under Akbar. The evidence
of his tolerance policy was this promulgation of the Divine Faith or Din-i- llati, which
had elements of both Hindu and Muslim faiths. Another example was the construction of
Ibadat Khana where different religious leaders were allowed to express their opinions.

Akbar had several Hindus as his ministers as well.

The Divide and Rule' policy contributed to communal discord between various
communities. Separate electorates were provided for the Muslims during the British Raj,
through the Indian Councils Act of 1909.

The separate electorates further extended the principle of communal representation.

However, the formation of the Indian National Congress in 1885 with secular values
helped to unite the people from all sects.
2.3.6. FEATURES OF SECULARISM

The features of Indian Secularism are as follows:

 Equal respect and recognition of all religions by the state

 No interference in the functions of any religion by the state

 No discrimination by the state based on religion

 There is no official religion in India

 As per Article 25 of the Indian Constitution, an individual has the right to practice,
profess and propagate any religion in India

2.3.7. IMPORTANCE OF SECULARISM IN INDIA

 As people in India are of different religions, secularism is highly important here to

maintain peace and harmony

 To maintain the power of the majority in India, secularism safeguards democracy

for all citizens Secularism provides equal fundamental rights to every citizen of
India without discriminating based on religion.

 Secularism explains that every region should be respected equally and no people
should be harmed based on religion.

 Secularism is also important to take fair decisions by the country's head in a

domocratic country so that any religion is not hurt by the act or decision

2.3.8. ROLE OF SECULARISM IN INDIA

 Secularism in India is not only to provide peace and harmony within the country
but also to provide a better and safer society for all.

 So, it can be said that secularism in India is perfectly performed and the Indian
government tries to keep religion separate from government.
2.3.9. CHALLENGES FACED BY SECULARISM IN INDIA [POST
INDEPENDENCE]

 India consists of various cultures i.e. India is a culturally heterogeneous country.

 The separation or enmity between Muslims and Hindus was created by the British,
they used the policy of divide and rule.

 Making this situation normal and abolishing riots among Hindus and Muslims was
the main challenge faced by secularism in India during post-independence.

 Sometimes the political pasty leans toward a particular religion, they want to earn a
vote from that community which is shameful and against the law because the
government that will be formed by the majority should be neutral and not based on
a particular religion, then only the nation will be called as a secular nation;
sometimes it is seen that a party is based on a particular caste, this is as shameful
as a party leaning towards religion.

 The heading of a political party toward a particular religion and a particular caste is
another challenge for India to keep its secular identity.

2.3.10. CURRENT STATUS OF SECULARISM IN INDIAN CONTEXT

The 7th schedule of Indian constitution places religious institutions, charities and trusts
into so-called Concurrent List, which means that both the central government of India,
and various state governments in India can make their own laws about religious
institutions, charities and trusts.

If there is a conflict between central government enacted law and state government law,
then the central government law prevails.

This principle of overlap, rather than separation of religion and state in India was further
recognised in a series of constitutional amendments starting with Article 290 in 1956, to
the addition of word 'secular' to the Preamble of Indian Constitution in 1975.

The central and state governments of India finance and manage religious buildings and
infrastructure. Above, the inauguration of National Waqf Development Corporation
Limited in 2014 for Waqf properties.
The overlap of religion and state, through Concurrent List structure, has given various
religions in India, state support to religious schools and personal laws.

This state intervention while resonant with the dictates of each religion, are unequal and
conflicting.

For example, a 1951 Religious and Charitable Endowment Indian law allows state
governments to forcibly take over, own and operate Hindu temples, and collect revenue
from offerings and redistribute that revenue to any non-temple purposes including
maintenance of religious institutions opposed to the temple.

Indian law also allows Islamic and other minority religious schools to receive partial.
financial support from state and central government of India, to offer religious
indoctrination, if the school agrees that the student has an option to opt out from religious
indoctrination if he or she so asks, and that the school will not discriminate any student
based on religion, race or any other grounds.

Educational institutions wholly owned and operated by government are prohibited from
imparting religious indoctrination, but religious sects and endowments musy open their
own school, impart religious indoctrination and have a right to partial state financial
assistance. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secularism_in_India cite_note FOOTNOTE
Rajagopalan 2003-5.

In terms of religions of India with significant populations, only Islam has religious laws
in form of sharia which India allows as Muslim Personal Law.

Secularism in India means the separation of religion from state. Religious laws in
personal domain, for Muslim Indians; and currently, in some situations such as religious
indoctrination schools the state partially finances certain religious schools.

The attempt to have a Uniform Civil Code has long been discussed as a means to realize
a secular Indian state.

The overlap between religion and state has created tnsionbetween supporters of Indian
form of secularism and the supporters of Hindu nationalism.

Hindu nationalists use the Uniform Civil Code platform to agitate their,even thoughthere
has been no actual implementation.
They characterize secularism as practiced in India as "pseudo-secularism", a camouflaged
hypocrisy for the political "appeasement of minorities" .

As of 28 July 2020, there were pleas going on Supreme court of India to remove the
words secular and socialist from the Preamble to the Constitution of India.

2.3.11. SECULARISM IN THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION

The term 'Secular' was added to the preamble by the 42nd Constitution Amendment Act of
1976. It states that constitutionally, India is a secular country without any state religion.

And it also says India shall accept all religions and not favour any particular religion.

Article 14 and 15-Article 14 grants equality before the law, and protection of all laws to
all religions, and Article 15 prohibits discrimination on the grounds of race, religion, sex,
caste, or place of birth.

Article 16 (1) guarantees equal opportunities to all citizens in case of public employment
and states there won't be any discrimination based on sex, religion, caste, descent,
birthplace, and residence.

Article 25- provides Freedom of Conscience'

Article 26-Every religious group has the right to maintain and establish institutions for
religious purposes.

Article 27- the state won't compel any citizen to pay extra taxes for the maintenance or
promotion of any religious institution or religion.

Article 28- allows educational institutions maintained by different religious groups to

impart religious instruction

Articles 29 and 30 provide educational and cultural rights to the minorities.

Article 51 A- obliges that all citizens of India promote harmony and the spirit of
common brotherhood to value and preserve the rich heritage of the composite culture.

Secularism and Article 25 of the Constitution of India

The Constitution of India guarantees six fundamental rights to its all citizens, and one of
these rights is the freedom of religion.
Article 25 provides:

 Freedom of Conscience

 Right to Practice any Religion

 Right to Propagate any Religion Right to Profess any Religion

 Article 25 covers religious beliefs, and religious practices as well. And these rights
are available for citizens and non-citizens as well.

2.3.12. THREATS TO SECULARISM

 While, the Indian Constitution declares the state being absolutely neutral to all
religion, our society has steeped in religion.

 Mingling of Religion and Politics that is mobilisation of votes on grounds of

primordial identities like religion, caste and ethnicity, have put Indian secularism
in danger.

 Communal politics operates through communalization of social space, by

spreading myths and stereotypes against minorities, through attack on rational
values and by practicing a divisive ideological propaganda and politics.

 Politicisation of any one religious group leads to the competitive politicisation of

other groups, thereby resulting in inter-religious conflict. One of the manifestations
of communalism is communal riots .

 In recent past also, communalism has proved to be a great threat to the secular
fabric of Indian polity. Rise of Hindu Nationalism in recent years have resulted
into mob lynching on mere suspicion of slaughtering cows and consuming beef.

 In addition, with this, forced closure of slaughterhouse, campaigns against 'love

jihad', reconversion or ghar- wapsi (Muslims being forced to convert to Hinduism),
etc. reinforces communal tendencies in society.

 Islamic fundamentalism or revivalism pushes for establishing Islamic State based

on sharia law which directly comes into conflict with conceptions of the secular
und democratic state. In recent years there have been stray incidences of Muslim
 youth being inspired and radicalized by groups like ISIS which is very unfortunate
for both India and world.

2.3.13. DEMAND FOR HINDU RASHTRA

 Most Right Wing Hindu organisations like RSS, Bajrang Dal, Vishwa Hindu
Parishad have demanded that India should be declared a "Hindu nation" by
constitution to safeguard the rights and life of Hindus in this largest democracy.

 As far citizens concerned, only 7/20th Indian Hindus are in the favour of making
India as Hindu Rashtra.

 Nearly two-thirds of Indian Hindus (64% of the population) say that it is very
important to be Hindu to be truly Indian or citizen of India.

 As of 28 July 2020, there were pleas going on Supreme Court of India to remove
the words secular and socialist from the Preamble to the Constitution of India.

 Recently EX-Rajya Sabha MP Subramanian Swamy appealed to the Supreme

Court of India for deletion of "Socialist" & "Secular” words from Preamble to the
Constitution of India.

2.3.14. COMPARISON WITH WESTERN SECULARISM

 In the West, the word secular implies three things: freedom of religion, equal
citizenship to each citizen regardless of their religion, and the separation of religion
and state polity.

 One of the core principles in the constitution of Western democracies has been this
separation, with the state asserting its political authority in matters of law, while
accepting every individual's right to pursue his or her own religion and the right of
religion to shape its own concepts of spirituality.

 Everyone is equal under law, and subject to the same laws irrespective of his or her
ligion, in the West.

 In contrast, in India, the word secular means thorough-going separation of religion

and state.
  Overlap is permitted, whereby institutions that are not entirely financed by the state
can mandate religious instruction, and state can provide financial aid to maintain
religious buildings or infrastructure in accordance with law.

 Furthermore, India's constitutional framework allows "extensive state interference

in religious affairs". According to R.A. Jahagirdar, in the Indian context,
secularism has been interpreted as the equality before law, including of all
religions, while the state is neutral.

 Article 44 of the Directive Principles of State Policy adds, "the state shall endeavor
to secure for the citizens a uniform civil code throughout the territory of India."

 This intent for secular personal laws has been unsettling especially to Indian
Muslims, states Smith, in part because they view the alteration of Muslim personal
law to be a "grave violation of their freedom of religion".

 The term secularism in India also differs from the French concept for secularity,
namely laïcité.

 While the French concept demands absence of governmental institutions in

religion, as well as absence of religion in governmental institutions and schools,
the Indian concept, in contrast, provides financial support to religious schools.

 The Indian structure has created incentives for various religious denominations to
start and maintain schools, impart religious education (optionally), and receive
partial but significant financial support from the Indian government.

 Similarly, the Indian government has established statutory institutions to regulate

and financially administer the historic Islamic Central Wakf Council, historic
Hindu temples, Buddhist monasteries, and certain Christian religious institutions.

2.3.15. INDIAN SECULARISM VS. SECULARISM IN THE WEST

Over the years India has created its own concept of Secularism which is different from
the Western concept of Secularism.

Indian Secularism Secularism in the West

All religions get equal protection from the The state is separate from the religious
state. groups or institutions' functioning

There no clear demarcation between Here Secularism refers to the complete

religion and state in India separation between religion and state

Provides partial financial support for Western model doesn't give financial
religious schools support to any religious institution

Rights of religious communities and Focus given to individual rights

individuals are protected

The role of religious bodies is big and The role of religious bodies is small in
contributes to Indian politics national politics.

No one religion dominates Indian society Christianity is the most reformed and
single- dominant religion in the state.

2.3.16. LAW OF SECULARISM IN INDIA

Indian concept of secularism, where religious laws are applicable to certain minorities
and the state is expected to even-handedly involve itself in religion, is a controversial
subject.

Any attempts and demand by the Indian populace to a uniform civil code is considered a
threat to right to religious personal laws by Indian Muslims.

Shah Bano Case

In 1978, the Shah Bano case brought the secularism debate along with a demand for
uniform civil code in India to the forefront.

Shah Bano was a 62-year-old Muslim Indian who was divorced from her husband of 44
years in 1978.

Indian Muslim Personal Law required her husband to pay no alimony. Shah Bano sued
for regular maintenance payments under Section 125 of the Criminal Procedure Code,
1978. Shah Bano won her case, as well as appeals to the highest court. Along with
alimony, the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of India wrote in his opinion just how
unfairly Islamic personal laws treated women and thus how necessary it was for the
nation to adopt a Uniform Civil Code.

The Chief Justice further ruled that no authoritative text of islam forbade the payment of
regular maintenance to ex-wives.

The Shah Bano ruling immediately triggered controversy and mass demonstrations by
Muslim men.

The Islamic Clergy and the Muslim Personal Law Board of India argued against the
ruling. Shortly after the Supreme Court's ruling, the Indian government with Rajiv
Gandhi as Prime Minister, enacted a new law which deprived all Muslim women, and
only Muslim women, of the right of maintenance guaranteed to women of Hindu,
Christian, Parsees, Jews and other religions.

Indian Muslims consider the new 1986 law, which selectively exempts them from
maintenance payment to ex-wife because of their religion, as secular because it respects
Muslim men's religious rights and recognises that they are culturally different from
Indian men and women of other religions.

Muslim opponents argue that any attempt to introduce Uniform Civil Code, that is equal
laws for every human being independent of his or her religion, would reflect majoritarian
Hindu sensibilities and ideals.

2.3.17. WOMEN'S RIGHTS IN INDIA

Some religious rights granted by Indian concept of secularism, which are claimed as
abusive against Indian women, include child marriage, polygamy, unequal inheritance
rights of women and men, extrajudicial unilateral divorce rights of Muslim man that are
not allowed to a Muslim woman, and subjective nature of shariat courts, jamaats, dar-ul
quzat and religious qazis who preside over Islamic family law matters. Triple Talaq was
banned in India, following a historic bill being passed on 30 July 2019.

2.3.18. STATE SUBSIDY FOR RELIGIOUS PILGRIMAGE

India continued offering liberal subsidies for religious pilgrimage after 1950, under its
polymorphous interpretation of secularism.
The largest and most controversial has been the Haj subsidy program for the Islamic
pilgrimage to Mecca, which was criticized as benefitting affluent Muslims and
discriminatory against Hindus and Christians who did not get similar subsidy for trips to
their own holy places. The central government spent about $120 million in Haj subsidies
in 2011.

In 2012, the Supreme Court of India ordered an end to the religious subsidies program
within 10 years.

According to a Wall Street Journal article, Indian Muslim leaders supported an end to the
Hajj subsidies, because "hajj must be performed with money righteously earned by a
Muslim, and not on money from charity or borrowings.

2.4. DISASSOCIATION OF STATE FROM RELIGION

The disassociation of the state from religion involves the separation of religious
institutions and beliefs from the functions and affairs of government. This principle is
fundamental to secularism and is aimed at ensuring that the state remains neutral in
matter of religion, treating all citizens equally regardless of their religious beliefs or
affiliations.

2.4.1. STATE RELIGION SYSTEM

A state religion (also called official religion) is a religion or creed officially endorsed by
a sovereign state. A state with an official religion (also known as confessional state),
while not a secular state, is not necessarily a theocracy.

State religions are official or government-sanctioned establishments of a religion, but the

state does not need to be under the control of the clergy (as in a theocracy), nor is the
state- sanctioned religion necessarily under the control of the state.

2.4.2. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RELIGION AND STATE

The state is neutral with regard to religion, in that it has no defining values of its own;
instead, the state is a 'ring' within which different religious interests and opinions may
freely coexist and participate in social and civic life on an equal basis.

2.4.3. IMPORTANCE OF SEPARATING RELIGION FROM STATE

 It is important to separate state from religion to prevent domination of the majority
religious group and violation of Fundamental Rights. Every individual has the freedom to
embrace other religions and has the freedom to interpret other religions differently.

2.4.4 EXPLORATION OF THE DISASSOCIATION OF THE STATE FROM

RELIGION:

Separation of powers: The disassociation of the state from religion often begins with
the separation of powers between the religious and governmental institutions. This
separation helps prevent religious authorities from wielding undue influence over state
affairs and vice versa.

Religious neutrality: A key aspect of disassociation is the principle of religious

neutrality where the state does not favor or promote any particular religion over others.
This ensures that government policies, laws and actions are not influenced by religious
doctrines or beliefs, thus safeguarding the rights and freedoms of all citizens,
regardless of their religious affiliations.

Freedom of religion: Disassociation of the state from religion upholds the freedom of
individuals to practice their religion, or choose not to follow any religion, without
interference or coercion from the government.

Secular Governance:In a secular state, Laws and policies are formulated through
transparent and accountable processes than consider the interests of all citizens,
irrespective of their religious beliefs. The government serves the needs of the entire
population without flavoring any specific religious group.

Education and public institutions: Disassociation of the state from religion, extends
to public institutions such as schools, universities and government offices. In secular
societies education is secular, free from religious indoctrination and public institutions
refrain from promoting or endorsing any particular religious beliefs.

Protection of minority rights: Disassociation of the state from religion includes

protecting the rights of religious minorities. Secular states guarantee equal rights and
opportunities for all citizens, regardless of their religious beliefs or affiliations and
protect minority communities from discrimination, persecution or marginalization
based on their religion
Overall, the disassociation of the state from religion is a foundational principle of
secularism, ensuring that government institutions operate independently from religious
authorities and that all citizens are treated equally under the law, regardless of their
religious beliefs or affiliations. It promotes freedom of religion, democratic governance
and social cohesion in diverse societies

Benefits of disassociation:

 Religious freedom: Everyone has the right to practice their faith or not, without
government interference.

 Peaceful coexistence By not favoring any religion, the state avoids

discrimination and promotes tolerance between diverse communities.

 Focus on the common good: The state prioritizes laws and policies based on
reason,logic and the well-being of all citizens, not religious doctrines.

Degrees of disassociation:

 Strict separation: This model (like France) maintains a strong wall and state.
Religious symbols might be restricted in public spасеs.

 Accommodation: Some states (like the US) allow some accommodation of

practices in public life, like school prayer or religious displays during holidays.

Challenges of disassociation:

 Defining boundaries: Drawing the line between permissible accommodation of

religion and state endorsement can be tricky

 Minority concerns: Some minority groups might feel their religious practices
are not adequately accommodated.

 Secularism vs. Secularization: Secularism focuses on state neutrality, while

secularization refers to a decline in the social influence of religion. Some argue
strong secularism leads to secularization, which can alienate religious people
2.4.5. FIVE MODELS FOR STATE AND RELIGION

 Atheism

 Theocracy

 State Church

 Multiculturalism

 Secularism

1. 'Atheist' State

First, the atheist state. Atheism, in its most elemental form, is a-theism, i. e., the denial of
the belief in the existence of a specific God: a personal, transcendent, perfectly
benevolent, omnipotent creator of heaven, and Earth.

Atheism has a long history, but because in the past atheists were almost always
persecuted and punished, it is difficult to ascertain how many atheists actually existed.

Usually, atheism is a label that philosophers hesitate to adopt to describe their own
position in religious matters.

2. Theocratic State

In a theocracy, the government is run by religious leaders, not regular politicians.

These leaders often have strong political goals, and religion plays a central role in
politics. We can look at religion in two ways:

1. Personal Religion: This refers to how individuals find meaning and purpose in
their own lives through faith.
2. Political Religion: This is when religion shapes the beliefs and values of a
community as a whole and influences government.

While we don’t commonly use the terms "religious religion" and "political religion,"
they can help clarify the discussion. Not all personal beliefs (religious religion) lead to
political involvement (political religion). For example, the philosopher Spinoza
combined nature and God in a way that might be seen as a religious belief without
necessarily becoming political.
 The theocratic model deserves more attention than the atheist model because it
represents an ideal for some extremist groups today. For instance, in Saudi Arabia,
there is no freedom of religion or speech, and the government does not separate
religion from state affairs. This lack of separation means that the rules of religion
directly influence the laws and governance of the country.

In summary, a theocratic state intertwines religion with politics, where the religious
leaders have significant control over political matters, often to the detriment of
individual freedoms and secular governance.

3. State Religions

The difference between a theocracy (model 2) and a country with a state religion
(model 3) is that a state religion allows other religions to exist alongside it. Supporters
of state religions often argue that this setup is good because it doesn’t necessarily lead
to the persecution of minority religions. For example, in modern England, people are
not punished for not being part of the Anglican Church, unlike during the reign of
Henry VIII.

However, just because people aren’t persecuted doesn’t mean having a state religion is
a good idea. The situation for minority religions and non-religious people in a country
with a state religion is often not ideal. In societies where there’s a mix of religions and
a high level of secular thinking, state religions can create inequality by giving special
privileges to one specific religion. This can weaken the overall legitimacy of the
government.

According to the principle that "Congress shall make no law respecting an

establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof," having a state
religion still poses problems.

4. Multiculturalist State

The fourth model aims to avoid unequal treatment by trying to support all religions
equally. Instead of favoring one religion, the state is committed to treating all religions
the same. This approach is often inspired by a view called multiculturalism.
 In everyday language, "multiculturalism" is sometimes used just to refer to pluralism,
or the coexistence of different cultures. Canada officially supports multiculturalism as
government policy, but this has led to some serious and often negative consequences.
One major issue is that "tolerance" can sometimes mean accepting intolerant
behaviours, and "respect" can be extended to those who are disrespectful.

5.Agnostic or Secular State

This last state can be called the secular state or the agnostic state. It is the fifth model of
the possible relationships between state and religion.

A great advantage of the agnostic state is that it does not make a distinction between its
citizens. The agnostic state treats all citizens equally,

The agnostic or secular state does not combat the religious convictions of its citizens, but
it does not defend any religious position either. The agnostic state allows all citizens
worship the gods of their choice.

As such, agnosticism (or secularism) with regard to religion seems a wise path to take
when it comes to government policy. A state that has adopted political agnosticism or
secularism as its official governing principle is France.

To make this 'living together' possible, it is important that the state does not identify itself
with what divides people: their religion.

2.5. ACCEPTANCE OF ALL FAITHS

Acceptance of all faiths is a foundational principle of secularism that emphasizes

tolerance, respect and coexistence among diverse religious beliefs. In the context of
secular societies, including India, acceptance of all faiths is essential for fostering social
harmony,religious freedom and inclusivity. Here's a detailed exploration of acceptance of
all faiths.

Swami Vivekananda said that "must not only tolerate other religions, but
positivelyembrace them, as truth is the basis of all religions"

Omnism is the respect of or belief in all religion. Those who hold this belief are called
omnists.
However, it can also be seen as a way to accept the existence of various religions without
believing in all that they profess to teach.

2.5.1. CONCEPT OF ACCEPTANCE OF FAITHS

India has been home to all the great religions of the world.Society has, for centuries,
provided a unique social and intellectual environment in which many distinct religions
have not only co-existed peacefully but have also enriched each other.

Pluralistic outlook: Acceptance of all faiths acknowledges the diversity of religious

beliefs and practices within society. It recognizes that individuals hold different religious
convictions and that this diversity is a natural and enriching aspect of human culture and
identity.

Religious neutrality: Secularism promotes religious neutrality, where the state and it’s
institutions refrain from favoring or endorsing any particular religion.

Freedom of religion: Acceptance of all faiths upholds the fundamental right to freedom
of religion for all individuals.

Interfaith dialogue: Acceptance of all faiths fosters interfaith dialogue and

understanding among different religious communities. It encourages open
communication, cooperation and mutual respect, promoting peace and harmony in
multicultural societies.

Cultural diversity: Acceptance of all faiths celebrates cultural diversity and recognizes
the contributions of various religious traditions to society.

Social cohesion: Embracing all faiths promotes social cohesion by bridging religious
divides and fostering a sense of unity among people from different religious backgrounds
emphasizes shared values such as compassion, empathy and altruism that transcend
religious boundaries.

Protection of minority rights: Acceptance of all faiths includes the protection of

minority rights, ensuring that religious minorities are treated with dignity and afforded
equal opportunities within society.

Secular education: In secular societies, education plays a crucial role in promoting

acceptance of all faiths, Schools and educational institutions teach tolerance, diversity
respect for different religious beliefs, nurturing an inclusive and pluralistic mindset
among students.

Legal Framework: Acceptance of all faiths is enshrined in the legal framework of

secular states, which guarantee equal rights and protections for individuals of all
religious affiliations Laws prohibit discrimination based on religion and uphold the
principle of religious freedom as a fundamental human right.

BENEFITS:

Social harmony in detail: Acceptance of all faiths can:

 Reduce religious tensions and prejudice, fostering a sense of security and

belonging for all.

 Promote peaceful coexistence, allowing people from different backgrounds to

live together constructively.

 Encourage cooperation on social issues, as religious communities work together

for the common good.

Mutual understanding beyond empathy: Learning about other faiths goes beyond
empathy. It can

 Foster appreciation for diverse cultures and traditions, enriching our

understanding of the world.

 Challenge our own biases and assumptions, leading to personal growth.

 Spark curiosity and open-mindedness, promoting lifelong learning

Stronger communities: A look at shared values: Shared values like compassion. respect
and justice can act as bridges across religious divides.

These values can

 Form the foundation for strong and resilient communities where everyone feels
included

 Encourage collaboration on community projects and initiatives.

  Foster a sense of shared humanity, despite differences in beliefs.

Innovation and progress: The power of diverse ideas :Exposure to diverse religious
ideas can:

 Spark creative thinking and innovation, leading to new solutions to problems.

 Encourage critical thinking and problem-solving from multiple perspectives.

 Drive social progress by challenging the status quo and promoting positive
change.

2.6. ENCOURAGING NON-DISCRIMINATORY PRACTICES

2.6.1. MEANING OF NON-DISCRIMINATION :

The principle of Non-discrimination seeks to guarantee that human rights are exercised
equally without discrimination of any kind based on Race, Colour, Sex, Language,
Religion, Caste, Political or other opinion, National or Social origin, Property, Birth or
other status such as Disability, Age, Marital and Social economic status. Non-
discrimination is an integral part of the principle of equality. It ensures that no one is
denied their rights because of difference in various factors.

2.6.2. NEED FOR NON-DISCRIMINATION PRACTICES

Encouraging non- discriminatory practices is a fundamental aspect of

 Fostering equality

 Justice

 Inclusivity within society

2.6.3. PRINCIPLES OF NON-DISCRIMINATION

Non-discrimination is part of the foundations of the rule of law. As Member States noted
in the Declaration of the High-Level Meeting on the Rule of Law, "all persons,
institutions and entities, public and private, including the State itself, are accountable to
just, fair and equitable laws and are entitled without any discrimination to equal
protection of the law . They also dedicated themselves to respect the equal rights of all
without distinction as to race, sex, language or religion .
2.6.4ENCOURAGING NON - DISCRIMINATORY PRACTICES

It involves promoting attitudes, policies and behaviours that respect and value the
dignity, rights and differences of all individuals, regardless of their race, ethnicity,
religion, gender, sexual orientation, disability or any other characteristic.

Here's a detailed exploration of encouraging non- discriminatory practices:

1. Education and awareness: Educational programs, workshops and campaigns can

help people understand the harmful effects of discrimination and prejudice, as well as
promote empathy, understanding, and acceptance of diversity.

2. Legislation and policy: Governments can play a crucial role in promoting non
discriminatory practices by enacting and enforcing anti-discrimination laws and
Policies.
3. Promoting diversity and inclusion: Organizations and institution can encourage
non- discriminatory practices by promoting diversity and inclusion, in their policies
and decision making processes. This includes adopting inclusive hiring practices,
providing equal opportunities for advancement and creating a supportive welcoming
environment for people from diverse backgrounds.

4. Zero-tolerance policies: Organizations can demonstrate their commitment to nom

discriminatory practices by implementing zero-tolerance policies against
discrimination and harassment. These policies should clearly outline the consequences
of discriminatory behavior and provide mechanisms for reporting and addressing
incidents of discrimination.

5. Promoting equal access: Encouraging non - discriminatory practices involves

ensuring equal access to opportunities, resources and services for all individuals,
regardless of their background or identity. This includes removing barriers to access,
such as physical barriers for people with disabilities or language barriers for non-native
speakers.

6. Creating safe spaces: This may involve establishing diversity committees

implementing grievance mechanisms, and fostering a culture of respect and acceptance
within organizations and communities.
 7. Community engagement: Community - based initiatives and grassroots
organization can play a vital role in promoting non - discriminatory practices at the
local level. By bringing together people from different backgrounds to work towards
common goals community engagement efforts can foster understanding, cooperation
and solidarity across diverse communities.

8. Leadership and role modeling: Leaders and influencers have a responsibility to

lead by example and promote non discriminatory practices in their interactions and
decision-making. By publicly condemning discrimination and advocating for diversity
and inclusion, leaders can inspire others to follow suit and create positive change.

2.6.4. SCOPE OF THE NON-DISCRIMINATION

1.Discrimination means treating people or groups unfairly based on certain

characteristics. This unfair treatment is prohibited under various laws, specifically
mentioned in articles 2 and 26, which include protections against discrimination for
various statuses.

Some examples of prohibited grounds for discrimination are:

 Age
 Nationality
 Marital status
 Disability
 Where someone lives in a country
 Sexual orientation

2.Indirect Discrimination: This happens when a rule or condition seems neutral

but negatively affects certain groups more than others.

3.Prohibited Grounds for Discrimination: Under Commonwealth law, the main

laws protecting against discrimination include:

o Racial Discrimination Act 1975

o Sex Discrimination Act 1984
o Disability Discrimination Act 1992
o Age Discrimination Act 2004
 4.Legal Recognition

According to Article 16 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights

(ICCPR), everyone has the right to be recognized as a person under the law. This is
especially important for women, as it ensures they can own property, enter contracts,
and enjoy civil rights without discrimination.

5.Complaints

If someone believes they have been discriminated against, they can file a complaint
with the Human Rights Commission. The Commission can investigate and try to
resolve the issue. If the complaint isn’t resolved, the person can take it to a federal
court. The Commission also has additional powers to investigate other complaints
under the Human Rights Commission Act 1986. The Fair Work Act 2009 offers
protections against workplace discrimination.

6. Exemptions

Some laws allow for certain exemptions to discrimination rules. For example:

 The Age Discrimination Act permits some age-related decisions in tax, social
security, and health programs.
 The Disability Discrimination Act allows exemptions if accommodating a
person’s disability would cause significant hardship for the employer.
 There are also exemptions for jobs where a person’s disability would prevent
them from meeting essential job requirements.

2.6.6. CHALLENGES OF NON-DISCRIMINATION

 The right to be recognized as a person under the law, as stated in Article 16 of

the ICCPR, is absolute. This means it cannot be restricted under any
circumstances.
 Some Commonwealth laws do allow certain exemptions to the rules against
discrimination, as mentioned earlier.
 Not all differences in treatment among individuals or groups count as prohibited
discrimination.
  Special measures that help disadvantaged groups are not seen as discrimination,
as long as they don’t create separate rights for different racial groups and are
stopped once their goals are achieved.
 Article 4 of the ICCPR allows countries to temporarily relax some of their
obligations during a public emergency that threatens the nation.
 These measures can only be taken as needed for the situation and must not
conflict with other international obligations or discriminate based on race, color,
sex, language, religion, or social origin.
 While Articles 2 and 26 are not explicitly mentioned as exempt from derogation,
Article 4 makes it clear that any temporary measures must still avoid
discrimination based on the grounds listed.

2.6.7. ARTICLES FROM RELEVANT CONVENTIONS

Article 2

1. Each State Party to the present Covenant undertakes to respect and to ensure to all
individuals within its territory and subject to its jurisdiction the rights recognized in the
present Covenant, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language,
religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other
status.

2. Where not already provided for by existing legislative or other measures, cach State
Party to the present Covenant undertakes to take the necessary steps, in accordance with
its constitutional processes and with the provisions of the present Covenant, to adopt such
laws or other measures as may be necessary to give effect to the rights recognized in the
present Covenant.

Article 26

All persons are equal before the law and are entitled without any discrimination to the
equal protection of the law. In this respect, the law shall prohibit any discrimination and
guarantee to all persons equal and effective protection against discrimination on any
ground such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or
social origin, property, birth or other status.
 UNIT III

SCIENTIFIC VALUES
Scientific thinking and method: Inductive and Deductive thinking, Proposing
and testing Hypothesis, Validating facts using evidence based approach –
Skepticism and Empiricism – Rationalism and Scientific Temper. Reading Text:
Excerpt from The Scientific Temper by Antony Michaelis R

3.1 SCIENTIFIC VALUES

Scientific values are the core principles that guide the scientific method and
ensure the trustworthiness of scientific knowledge. These values aren't just
technical steps; they're a specific way of thinking and approaching the world.

Scientific values are foundational principles and norms that strengthen the
practice of science and guide scientific inquiry. These values provide a
framework for how scientists conduct research, analyze data, interpret results
and communicate findings.

Here's a detailed description of scientific values:

1. Empiricism: Empiricism means relying on observation and experiments to

gain knowledge. Scientists use empirical data to formulate hypotheses, test
theories and make informed conclusions about the world around us.

2. Objectivity: Objectivity is about being fair and neutral in research. It means

avoiding personal biases so that findings are based solely on evidence, not on
beliefs or opinions.

3. Scepticism: Scepticism involves questioning claims and evidence critically.

Scientists should carefully evaluate research to identify errors or unsupported
ideas before accepting them as true.

4. Rationalism: Rationalism focuses on using reason and logic in science. It

helps scientists make sense of data, develop theories, and create logical
conclusions based on evidence.
5. Transparency: Transparency means being open and honest in research. It
includes sharing methods and findings so others can check the work and build
on it, promoting trust in science.

6. Curiosity: Curiosity is the natural desire to learn and explore. Curiosity

inspires creativity, innovation and drives scientists to ask questions and seek
answers, leading to breakthroughs and advancements in science.

7. Integrity

Integrity involves being ethical and honest in research. Scientists must conduct
their work truthfully and avoid any form of misconduct, like cheating or
plagiarism.

8. Collaboration

Collaboration is working together with others to enhance scientific knowledge.

By sharing ideas and skills, researchers can tackle complex problems more
effectively.

9. Continuous Improvement

Continuous improvement means always looking for ways to learn and get
better. Scientists should seek feedback and adapt their methods to ensure high-
quality research.

These scientific values collectively define the ethos and standards of scientific
practice, guiding scientists in their pursuit of knowledge and understanding of
the natural world. Adherence to these values is essential for upholding the
integrity, credibility and reliability of scientific research and for advancing
scientific knowledge for the benefit of society.

Based on the reading text excerpt from "The Scientific Temper" by Antony
Michaelis, the focus likely leans more towards the attitudinal aspects of
scientific inquiry, which the book's title itself suggests.

The scientific values highlighted might be centered on:

• Critical thinking and questioning: This aligns with the concept of "scientific
temper" which emphasizes a sceptical and inquisitive approach.

• Open-mindedness and willingness to revise beliefs: The book discusses the

importance of adapting theories based on new evidence.
• Objectivity and avoiding bias: Scientific temper encourages a neutral and
unbiased approach to interpreting observations.

3.2 SCIENTIFIC THINKING AND METHOD

Scientific thinking and method are fundamental aspects of scientific values, but
they play a more supportive role than defining the entire concept.

Scientific thinking as the foundation:

 Scientific thinking is the cognitive approach that underpins scientific

values.It involves.

o Curiosity and a desire to understand the natural world

o Skepticism and questioning assumptions

o Logical reasoning to build explanations based on evidence

o Objectivity in interpreting observations and data

The scientific method as a tool:

The scientific method is a structured approach in research and investigation

provides a framework for testing ideas and gathering evidence.

Here's a simplified break down

 Observation: identify a phenomenon or question to be explored

 Hypothesis: Formulate a tentative explanation for the observation

 Prediction: Based on the hypothesis, predict what would be observed

under certain conditions certain conditions

 Experiment Observation: Design and conduct experiments de make

systematic observations to test the predictions

 Analysis: Evaluate the results of the experiment/ observation

 Conclusion: Based on the analysis, draw conclusions about the validity

of hypothesis

 Iteration: The process is iterative New evidence may also revising the
hypothesis or imitating further investigation.
How scientific thinking and method contribute to scientific values:

 Scientific thinking provides the metal framework, for applying the

scientific method

 The scientific method offers a structured approach to gather evidence,

tests and ultimately uphold the core values of science

 Evidence-based approach is achieved through experiments and

observations

 Scepticism and objectivity are fostered by testing predictions and

analysing results critically

 Rationalism is promised by bulling explanations based on evidence and

reasoning

 Honesty and reproducibility are ensured by documenting the method and

encouraging others to replicate the results.

3.3 INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE THINKING/ REASONING:

Inductive and deductive Thinking/Reasoning are two fundamental pillars of

logic and critical thinking. They represent opposite but complementary
approaches to forming conclusions:

1. Inductive Thinking/Reasoning: Building up from the specific

When there is little to no existing literature on a topic, it is common to

perform inductive research, because there is no theory to test.

Imagine this: On a beach vacation and you see ten seashells, all of them white.
Based on this observation, inductively conclude that "All seashells are White."
This is the essence of inductive reasoning.

The inductive approach consists of three stages:

For Example:

1. Observation
o A low-cost airline flight is delayed
2. Seeking patterns
o Another 20 flights from low-cost airlines are delayed
3. Developing a theory or general (preliminary) conclusion
o Low cost airlines always have delays.

 The inductive Thinking/Reasoning moves from specific

observations/experiences to general conclusions.

 It's a powerful tool for generating hypotheses and identifying patterns.

Types of Inductive Thinking

1. Generalization:
Drawing broad conclusions based on specific observations. For example,
if all the swans you've seen are white, you might conclude that all swans
are white.
2. Statistical Induction: Making predictions based on statistical evidence.
For instance, if 80% of surveyed people prefer coffee over tea, you might
predict that most people in general prefer coffee.
3. Causal Induction: Inferring cause-and-effect relationships from
observations. If you notice that plants grow faster with more sunlight, you
might conclude that sunlight helps plant growth.
4. Analogical Induction:Drawing conclusions based on similarities
between two or more cases. If a drug works well for one illness, you
might suggest it could work for a similar illness.

Limitations of an inductive approach

Inductive Thinking/Reasoning doesn’t guarantee absolute certainty. In our
seashell example, If you see a pink one later, it will make the initial conclusion
wrong.
A conclusion drawn on the basis of an inductive method can never be fully
proven.

Example: We observe 100 flights from low-cost airlines. All of them

experience a delay, which is in line with our theory. However, we can never
prove that flight 101 will also be delayed. Still, the larger our dataset, the more
reliable our conclusions.

The main difference between inductive and deductive Thinking/Reasoning is

that inductive reasoning aims at developing a theory while deductive reasoning
aims at testing an existing theory.

2. Deductive Thinking/Reasoning: Top-down reasoning

When conducting deductive research, it is always started with a theory. This is

usually the result of inductive research. Deductive reasoning involves testing
these theories. It must be remembered that if no theory exists yet, deductive
research cannot be conducted

• Now, let's say a general rule: "All swans are white." This is a premise in
deductive reasoning.

Deductive reasoning involves using general principles to draw specific

conclusions.

• Back to the Beach: See a large white bird on the water. Based on the general
rule (premise), it can deduce that "this bird is a swan."

• Deductive reasoning offers certainty as long as the premises are true.

The deductive research approach consists of four stages:

 1. Start with an existing theory and create a problem statement
o Low cost airlines always have delays
2. Formulate a falsifiable hypothesis, based on existing theory

o If passengers fly with a low cost airline, then they will always
experience delays

3. Collect data to test the hypothesis

o Collect flight data of low-cost airlines
4. Analyze and test the data
o 5 out of 100 flights of low-cost airlines are not delayed
5. Decide whether you can reject the null hypothesis
o 5 out of 100 flights of low-cost airlines are not delayed =then
reject hypothesis

TYPES OF DEDUCTIVE THINKING OR REASONING

(a) Law of detachment

A single conditional statement is made, and a hypothesis (P) is stated.

The conclusion (Q) is then deduced from the statement and the
hypothesis.

For example, using the law of detachment in the form of an if-then

statement: (1.) If an angle A>90°, then A is an obtuse angle. (2.) A-125°.
(3.) Therefore, A is an obtuse angle.

(b) The law of Syllogism

The law of syllogism takes two conditional statements and forms a

conclusion by combining the hypothesis of one statement with the
conclusion of another.

For example, (1.) If the brakes fail, the car will not stop. (2.) If the car does not
stop, there will be an accident. (3.) Therefore, If the brakes fail, there will be an
accident.The final statement by combining the hypothesis of the first statement
with the conclusion of the second statement.

Limitations of a deductive approach:

The conclusions of deductive reasoning can only be true if all the premises set
in the inductive study are true and the terms are clear.

Here's a table summarizing the key differences:

Feature Inductive reasoning Deductive reasoning

Direction of reasoning Specific observations to General principles to

general conclusions specific conclusions

Certainty of conclusion Not guaranteed (can be Guaranteed (if premises

wrong) are true)

Use cases Generating hypothesis, Testing hypothesis, and

Identifying patterns making predictions

Real world applications:

Science: Scientists use both inductive and deductive reasoning. They might
observe patterns in data (induction) to form a hypothesis, and then design
experiments (deduction)

Everyday life: We use inductive reasoning when making assumptions about

people based on past experiences. Deductive reasoning helps us follow
instructions decisions based on established rules.

Remember:

 Both inductive and deductive reasoning are valuable tools.

 Inductive reasoning helps us form new ideas and explore possibilities.

 Deductive reasoning helps us test those ideas and draw logical

conclusions.

 The approach using both methods together have a well-rounded

understanding

3.4 PROPOSING AND TESTING HYPOTHESIS

What is Hypothesis?
 A hypothesis is an assumption that is made based on some limited
evidence. This is the initial point of any investigation that translates the
research questions into predictions that might or might not be true.
 It includes components like variables, population and the relation
between the variables.
  A research hypothesis is a hypothesis that is used to test the relationship
between two or more variables.
1. PROPOSING HYPOTHESIS:
Proposing and testing hypothesis is a fundamental aspect of the scientific
method.To propose a hypothesis, you can follow these steps:

1.Ask a question: Start with a focused, specific, and researchable

question.

Observation and questioning: Scientific inquiry often begins with

observations of natural phenomena or patterns in data. These observations
prompt scientists to ask questions about the underlying mechanisms or
causes.

2.Research: Look for theories and previous studies to help form

educated assumptions.

3.Formulate a hypothesis: Write a clear, concise sentence that answers

the question. Based on observations and existing knowledge, scientists
formulate hypothesis, which are tentative explanations or predictions for
the observed phenomena, hypothesis are framed as statements that can be
tested through empirical investigation.

4.Creativity and imagination: Proposing hypothesis requires creativity

and imagination. Scientists must generate plausible explanations that are
consistent with known facts and theories while also being open to novel
ideas and unconventional interpretations

5.Refine your hypothesis: Make sure your hypothesis is specific,

testable, and original.

6.Testability: A key characteristic of a scientific hypothesis is testability.

Hypothesis must be formulated in a way that allows them to be
empirically tested through observation, experimentation or other methods
of data collection.

Characteristics/Properties of a Good hypothesis:

A hypothesis could be called as a good hypothesis if it possesses the following
characteristics:
 Hypothesis should be simple so that it is easily understood by everyone.
  Hypothesis should be clear, specific and precise. If the hypothesis is not
clear and precise, the inferences drawn on its basis cannot be taken as
reliable.
 Hypothesis should be capable of testing it in a reasonable time
 Hypothesis should state relationship between variables.
 Hypothesis should be consistent with most known facts. i.e. it must be
consistent with a substantial body of established facts.
 The hypothesis must explain the facts that gave rise to the need for
explanation. It must actually explain what it claims to explain

Types of Hypothesis

Hypothesis can be classified as follows:

 Simple hypothesis
 Complex hypothesis
 Directional hypothesis
 Non-directional hypothesis
 Causal hypothesis
 Associative hypothesis
 Statistical Hypothesis
 Research Hypothesis
 Null Hypothesis (H0)
 Alternative Hypothesis (H1 or Ha)
Simple Hypothesis:
A simple hypothesis predicts the relationship between a single dependent
variable and a single independent variable.
Example:
Studying more can help you do better on tests.
Complex Hypothesis
A complex hypothesis predicts the relationship between two or more
independent and dependent variables.

Example:
A new medicine’s success relies on the amount used, how old a person is who
takes it and their genes.
Directional Hypothesis
A directional hypothesis specifies the expected direction to be followed to
determine the relationship between variables.

Example:
Caffeine is linked to an increase in activity

Non-directional Hypothesis
A non-directional hypothesis does not specify the type of change or relationship
that is expected to occur. An example of a non-directional hypothesis would be
that "caffeine causes a change in activity level" without specifying whether that
change will be an increase or a decrease.

Associative hypothesis
States that a change in one variable will cause a change in another variable, but
the change is not caused by either variable. For example, "There is a positive
association between physical activity levels and overall health".

Causal hypothesis
Predicts the effect a change in variables will have on other variables. For
example, "Long-term alcohol use causes liver damage".

Null Hypothesis
A null hypothesis, denoted by H0 ,claims that there is no statistical
significance between the two variables. It is usually the hypothesis a researcher
or experimenter will try to disprove or discredit.
Example: Sleep duration does not have any effect on productivity.

Alternative Hypothesis
An alternative hypothesis, denoted by H1 or Ha, states the opposite of the null
hypothesis, that is, a relationship exists between two variables.
Example: Sleep duration affects productivity.
Statistical Hypothesis
A statistical hypothesis,is a mathematical statement about a population
parameter.
Example:
The average smarts score of kids in a certain school area is 100.

Research Hypothesis
Research Hypothesis comes from the research question and tells what link is
expected between things or factors. The research hypothesis usually includes an
explanation (―x affects y because …‖).
Example:
Having kids go to early learning classes helps them do better in school when
they get older.

TESTING HYPOTHESIS:
 A statistical hypothesis is an assumption about a population parameter.
 This assumption may or may not be true.
 The best way to determine whether a statistical hypothesis is true would
be to examine the entire population.
 Since that is often impractical, researchers typically examine a random
sample from the population
 If sample data are not consistent with the statistical hypothesis, the
hypothesis is rejected

Two types of statistical hypotheses.

Null hypothesis: The null hypothesis, denoted by H0 is usually the hypothesis
that sample observations result purely from chance.
Alternative hypothesis: The alternative hypothesis, denoted by H1 or Ha, is the
hypothesis that sample observations are influenced by some non-random cause.
Statisticians follow a formal process to determine whether to reject a null
hypothesis, based on sample data. This process is called hypothesis testing,
Steps of Hypothesis Testing:
The researcher states the following steps to be followed for hypothesis testing
 1. State the hypothesis to be tested
2. Sample Data Collection

3. Formulates an analysis plan

4. Analyzes sample data according to the plan
5. Accepts or rejects the null hypothesis, based on results of the
analysis.

Step 1:State the hypothesis

 Every hypothesis test requires the analyst to state a null hypothesis and an
alternative hypothesis.
 The hypotheses are stated in such a way that they are mutually exclusive.
 That is, if one is true, the other must be false; and vice versa
Designing experiments or studies: Once a hypothesis is proposed, scientists
design experiments or studies to test it empirically. These experiments are
carefully planned to control variables, eliminate bias, and ensure reliable results.

Step 2.Collecting data: During experiments or studies, scientists collect data

by making observations, measurements or recordings of relevant variables or
phenomena. The data collected are used to evaluate the validity of the
hypothesis.

Step 3: Formulate an analysis plan

 The analysis plan describes how to use sample data to accept or
reject the null hypothesis.
 It should specify the following elements.
 The Level of Significance Often, researchers choose significance
levels equal to 0.01, 0.05, or 0.10; but any value between 0 and 1
can be used.
 Thus the significance level is the maximum value of the probability
of rejecting Ho when it is true and is usually determined in advance
before testing the hypothesis
 Test method: t-score, chi-square, etc.
 If the test statistical probability is less than the significance level,
the null hypothesis is rejected (or) if the calculated test statistic is
more than the critical value, the null hypothesis is rejected.
Step 4: Analyse the sample data
  After data collection, scientists analyze the data using statistical methods
or other analytical techniques. The goal is to determine whether the
observed results are consistent with the predictions of the hypothesis.

 Test statistic is selected based on the type of data, normality assumption,

and homogeneity of variance
Step 5: Interpret Results
 Apply the decision rule described in the analysis plan.
 If the value of the test statistic is unlikely, based on the null
hypothesis, reject the null hypothesis.
 Drawing conclusions: Based on the analysis of data, scientists
draw conclusions about the validity of the hypothesis. If the results
support the hypothesis, it may be considered provisionally
confirmed or accepted.
Step 6: Iterative process:
 Testing hypothesis is often an iterative process.
 If a hypothesis is not supported by initial experiments, scientists may
revise the hypothesis, modify experimental procedures or propose new
hypothesis based on the findings.
 This iterative cycle of hypothesis testing and refinement contributes to the
cumulative progress of scientific knowledge

Decision Errors:
Two types of errors can result from a hypothesis test.
 Type I error: A Type I error occurs when the researcher rejects a null
hypothesis when it is true. The probability of committing a Type I error is
called the significance level. This probability is also called alpha, and is
often denoted by α

 Type II error: A Type II error occurs when the researcher fails to reject a
null hypothesis that is false. The probability of committing a Type II error
is called Beta, and is often denoted by ẞ. The probability of not
committing a Type II error is called the Power of the test.
  The analysis plan includes decision rules for rejecting the null hypothesis.
 In practice, statisticians describe these decision rules in two ways - with
reference to a P-value or with reference to a region of acceptance.
 P-value: The strength of evidence in support of a null hypothesis is
measured by the P-value. Suppose the test statistic is equal to S. The P-
value is the probability of observing a test statistic as extreme as S,
assuming the null hypothesis is true. If the P-value is less than the
significance level, we reject the null hypothesis.
 Region of acceptance: The region of acceptance is a range of values. If
the test statistic falls within the region of acceptance, the null hypothesis
is not rejected. The region of acceptance is defined so that the chance of
making a Type I error is equal to the significance level.
 The set of values outside the region of acceptance is called the region of
rejection. If the test statistic falls within the region of rejection, the null
hypothesis is rejected. In such cases, we say that the hypothesis has been
rejected at the a level of significance
One-Tailed and Two-Tailed Tests:
One-Tailed Tests
 A test of a statistical hypothesis, where the region of rejection is on
only one side of the sampling distribution, is called a one-tailed
test.
 For example, suppose the null hypothesis states that the mean is
less than or equal to 10.
 The alternative hypothesis would be that the mean is greater than
10.
 The region of rejection would consist of a range of numbers
located on the right side of sampling distribution; that is, a set of
numbers greater than 10.

Two-Tailed Tests
A test of a statistical hypothesis, where the region of rejection is on both sides
of the sampling distribution, is called a two-tailed test.
 For example, suppose the null hypothesis states that the mean is equal to
10.
 The alternative hypothesis would be that the mean is less than 10 or
greater than 10.
 The region of rejection would consist of a range of numbers located on
both sides of sampling distribution; that is, the region of rejection would
consist partly of numbers that were less than 10 and partly of numbers
that were greater than 10

Tests of Hypothesis:
(a) Parametric tests or standard tests of hypotheses; and
(b) Non-parametric tests or distribution-free test of hypotheses
Parametric tests are:
Test include (1) z-test; (2) t-test 3) χ2 –test 4)F-test
The sample should be normally distributed

Limitations of The Tests of Hypothesis:

1. The tests should not be used in a mechanical fashion. Testing is not decision-
making itself; the tests are only useful aids for decision-making.
2. Test do not explain the reasons as to why does the difference exist, say
between the means of the two samples
3. When a test shows that a difference is statistically significant, then it simply
suggests that the difference is probably not due to chance
4. Statistical inferences based on the significance tests cannot be said to be
entirely correct evidences concerning the truth of the hypotheses
Thus, the inference techniques (or the tests) must be combined with adequate
knowledge of the subject-matter along with the ability of good judgement
Examples in detail:

Initial hypothesis: Plants exposed to more sunlight will grow taller than plants
with less sunlight exposure.

• Experiment design:

Two groups of identical plants are used.

One group (experimental) receives several hours of sunlight daily.

The other group (control) is kept in complete darkness.

Both groups receive the same amount of water and are kept at the same
temperature.

• Plant height is measured regularly.

• Analysis: If, after a period, the plants in the sunlight group are significantly
taller than the control group, it provides evidence for the hypothesis.

In summary, proposing and testing hypothesis is a foundational aspect of

scientific inquiry, enabling scientists to systematically explore and validate
explanations for natural phenomena. This process drives the advancement of
scientific knowledge, fosters critical thinking skills and promotes transparency
and accountability in scientific research.

3.5 VALIDATING FACTS USING EVIDENCE BASED

APPROACH
Validating facts using an evidence-based approach: Unveiling the truth

Science relies on evidence, not belief or speculation, to validate facts and build
reliable knowledge. Here's a deeper look at the evidence-based approach:

The pillars of evidence-based validation:

  Empirical evidence: It's data obtained through systematic observation,
experimentation and measurement.

 Data collection: This could involve controlled experiments, field

observations, surveys or analyzing existing data sets.

 Data analysis: Once collected, the data is rigorously analyzed using

appropriate statistical methods. This helps identify patterns, trends and
relationships between variables.

 Replication: A hallmark of science is the ability to replicate findings.

This means other researchers can independently conduct similar
experiments or observations to verify the results.

Validating facts using an evidence-based approach is a cornerstone of scientific

inquiry, ensuring that conclusions are grounded in empirical reality rather than
speculation or belief. Here's a detailed explanation of how this process works:

1. Observation and Data Collection

Scientific investigation begins with careful observation of natural phenomena,

using sensory experience or instruments to gather data.

2. Formulation of Hypothesis

Based on collected data, scientists create testable hypotheses as explanations or

predictions for observed phenomena.

3. Designing Experiments or Studies

Experiments are designed to empirically test hypotheses by controlling

variables and defining conditions. Observational studies also aim to minimize
bias and accurately collect relevant data.

4. Data Analysis

After collecting data, scientists analyze it using statistical methods to identify

patterns and relationships. This analysis helps quantify findings and assess their
significance.

5. Interpretation of Results
Results are interpreted in the context of the hypothesis. Consistent results
support the hypothesis, while inconsistent results may require revision or
rejection.

6. Peer Review and Replication

Research findings undergo peer review, where experts evaluate methodology

and results. Replication by independent researchers further validates scientific
conclusions.

7. Synthesis and Consensus

As studies provide converging evidence, scientific facts are established, forming

a consensus among experts based on empirical data and reasoning.

8. Continuous Evaluation and Revision

Scientific knowledge is dynamic, continually evaluated and refined with new

evidence. Ongoing research ensures that scientific facts remain current and
accurate.

Benefits of evidence-based validation:

 Minimizes bias: Our personal beliefs and expectations can influence how
we interpret information. The evidence-based approach helps to minimize
bias by relying on objective data and standardized methods.

 Ensures objectivity: The focus is on the data itself, not preconceived

notions. This promotes objectivity in drawing conclusions and validating
facts.

 Provides credibility: Facts validated through evidence-based methods

are considered more credible and reliable than those based on hearsay or
intuition.

 Enhances knowledge building: The evidence-based approach allows us

to build knowledge incrementally. Each validated fact contributes to a
growing body of scientific understanding.

The process in action:

Imagine two claims about coffee

Claim 1: Coffee consumption improves alertness,

Claim 2: Coffee consumption stunts growth in teenagers.

An evidence-based approach to validation:

Research design: Scientists would design experiments to test these claims.

 For Claim 1, they might measure reaction times or cognitive performance

in participants who consume coffee versus those who don't.

 For Claim 2, they might track the growth patterns of teenagers with
varying coffee consumption habits while controlling for other factors like
diet and exercise.

Data analysis: The collected data would be analyzed statistically to see if there
are significant correlations between coffee consumption and the observed
effects (alertness or growth).

Replication: Other researchers would attempt to replicate the experiments to

confirm the findings.

Limitations and Considerations:

 Imperfect data: Even with careful design, experiments may not capture
every factor influencing a phenomenon.

 Statistical significance: Statistical tests help us assess the likelihood that

the observed results are due to chance. However, a statistically significant
result doesn't necessarily prove a causal relationship.

 Scientific consensus: While evidence-based validation builds strong

cases for facts, scientific understanding can evolve as new evidence
emerges.

Learning on the title "The Scientific Temper" by Antony Michaelis, the excerpt
likely focuses more on the attitudinal aspects of scientific inquiry. However, it
might connect this to the importance of using evidence to validate facts. Here's a
possible interpretation:

The scientific temper and evidence-based thinking:

 Michaelis might emphasize how a scientific temper cultivates a mind-set

that values evidence-based reasoning.
  The excerpt could discuss the importance of scepticism and questioning
information until it's supported by evidence. This aligns with the core
principle of avoiding bias and seeking objective data.

 The text might highlight the importance of intellectual honesty:

Accurately reporting observations and results, even if they contradict
initial beliefs. This ensures transparency and allows for verification by
others.

Limited focus on technical aspects:

While the excerpt might touch upon the value of evidence, it likely wouldn't
delve into the technical details of research design, data analysis or replication
(aspects of the full evidence- based approach).

Underlying habits of mind:

The focus would likely be on the attitudes and habits of mind that a scientific
temper fosters, which are crucial for adopting an evidence-based approach in
any field.

3.6 SKEPTICISM AND EMPIRICISM

Scepticism and Empiricism are two fundamental pillars of scientific inquiry,
each playing a crucial role in the pursuit of knowledge and understanding.
Here's a detailed explanation of each concept:

1. SKEPTICISM:

 Definition: Scepticism is an attitude of doubt, questioning and critical

thinking towards claims, beliefs or assertions. In the context of science,
skepticism involves subjecting hypothesis, theories and evidence to
rigorous scrutiny and evaluation before accepting them as valid.

 Critical evaluation: Skepticism prompts scientists to critically evaluate

the evidence supporting a claim or hypothesis, considering alternative
explanations and potential biases or confounding factors.
  Guard against bias: Skepticism serves as a safeguard against bias, errors
and unfounded assumptions in scientific research. By maintaining a
healthy skepticism, scientists strive to minimize the risk of accepting
false or unsubstantiated claims.

 Iterative process: Skepticism fosters an iterative process of inquiry,

where hypotheses are continually tested, refined or revised in light of new
evidence or insights. Skeptical scrutiny drives scientific progress by
uncovering flaws, inconsistencies or limitations in existing theories and
prompting further investigation.

 Promotes intellectual integrity:; Skepticism promotes intellectual

honesty in scientific research, encouraging scientists to acknowledge
uncertain limitations and complexities in their findings. By embracing
skepticum, uphold the principles of transparency, accountability and
intellectual rigor pursuit of knowledge.

Skepticism: Questioning everything

Skepticism, in science, doesn't mean blind negativity. It's a healthy doubt and
critical questioning of information and assumptions.

• Scientists don't simply accept claims at face value. They ask questions like:

 How do we know this is true?

 Is there evidence to support this claim?

 Could there be alternative explanations?

Benefits of skepticism:

 Prevents bias: Skepticism helps to guard against personal biases and

preconceived notions that can distort interpretations.

 Promotes critical thinking: It encourages scientists to analyze evidence

though and identify potential flaws in reasoning

 Ensures self-correction: Scientific knowledge is constantly evolving.

Skepticism allows for re-evaluating existing theories and revising them
based on new evidence

2. EMPIRICISM:
Definition:

Empiricism is a theory which states that knowledge comes only or primarily

from sensory experience.

One of several views of epistemology (the study of human knowledge),

Empiricism emphasizes the role of experience and evidence, especially sensory
experience, in the formation of ideas, over the notion of innate ideas or
traditions

Empiricists may argue however that traditions (or customs) arise due to
relations of previous sense experiences. The origin of all knowledge is sense
experience.

Empiricism is the reliance on empirical evidence, obtained through

observation, experimentation and measurement, as the primary basis for
acquiring knowledge and understanding of the natural world .It is a fundamental
requirement of the scientific method that all hypotheses and theories must be
tested against observations of the natural world, rather than resting solely on a
priori reasoning, intuition or revelation. Hence, science is considered to be
methodologically empirical in nature.

DEGREES OF EMPIRICISM:

Empiricism, whether concerned with concepts or knowledge, can be held with

varying degrees of strength. •

On this basis, these three forms can be distinguished:

 Absolute empiricisms

 Substantive empiricisms

 Partial empiricisms

ABSOLUTE EMPIRICISM:

Absolute empiricism emphasizes the importance of sensory experience to an

extreme degree.
Absolute empiricists argue that all knowledge must be derived from sensory
experience. This also includes knowledge about abstract concepts and
principles.

They argue that claims that cannot be verified through empirical observation,
should be rejected

Example:

 In the 17th century, humans were believed to be born with ideas.

 However, this interpretation was challenged by absolute empiricism.
 Absolute empiricists believe that our minds are a blank slate at birth.
 Humans reasoning ability would be a result of their sensory experiences.

SUBSTANTIVE EMPIRICISM:

Substantive empiricism emphasizes the importance of empirical evidence and

also recognizing the role of concepts and theories. It's a more moderate form of
empiricism that holds that some fundamental ideas are innate in humans upon
birth , but that other concepts are a posteriori.

Example:

They believe a baby's ability to breathe, see, and nurse are all innate ideas that
are known immediately without the use of the senses.

PARTIAL EMPIRICISM:

Partial empiricism is a philosophical belief that combines the acceptance of

innate ideas with the value of sensory experiences for gaining knowledge.
Partial empiricists may accept ideas like the existence of God and the difference
between good and evil as innate, but they also value the senses to expand on
these ideas.

THE STEPS OF EMPIRICISM ARE:

Observation: Gather empirical data.

Empiricism emphasizes the importance of dine observation and sensory

experience in acquiring knowledge.

Induction: Form a general conclusion from the data

Deduction: Create a conclusion from the experiment

Testing: Analyze and validate the data with statistical methods. Empiricism
involves the verification or falsification hypothesis through empirical testing.
Hypothesis are subjected to rigorous empirical scrutiny, allowing scientists to
assess their validity and reliability based on empirical evidence.

Evaluation: Present the data and conclusions to the relevant audience

Benefits of empiricism:

 Provides objectivity: By relying on direct observation and measurement,

empiricism minimizes the influence of subjective interpretations.

 Supports replicability: Scientific findings based on empirical evidence

can be replicated by other researchers, strengthening their validity.

 Connects to the real world: Scientific knowledge is grounded in the

observable world, ensuring its relevance and applicability.

In summary, scepticism and empiricism are fundamental principles that

underpin scientific inquiry, guiding scientists in their quest for knowledge and
understanding of the natural world. Scepticism encourages critical thinking and
scrutiny of claims, while empiricism emphasizes the reliance on empirical
evidence as the foundation of scientific knowledge. Together, these principles
promote intellectual rigor, objectivity and transparency in scientific research,
fostering the advancement of knowledge for the benefit of society.

The interplay:

Scepticism keeps empiricism honest. It ensures that observations and data are
interpreted critically and not taken at face value.

Empiricism provides a foundation for skepticism. By grounding claims in

evidence, it allows for a more objective evaluation of ideas.

Together, skepticism and empiricism create a powerful force in science:

They help to distinguish between fact and fiction.

They ensure that scientific knowledge is reliable and evidence-based

They promote a culture of critical thinking and continuous learning

Examples:

A scientist might observe a new plant species. Skepticism would lead them to
question its classification and seek evidence to confirm its characteristics.
Through observation and analysis (empiricism), they can identify its unique
features and compare them to existing plant categories.

Skepticism and empiricism are not rivals; they are complementary forces. By
questioning everything and grounding knowledge in observation, they work
together to propel scientific discovery and understanding.

Skepticism and Empiricism in "The Scientific Temper" by Antony

Michaelis

Given the title "The Scientific Temper" by Antony Michaelis, the focus likely
leans more towards the attitudinal aspects of scientific inquiry. While
skepticism and empiricism are crucial scientific principles, the excerpt might
emphasize how a scientific temper cultivates these attitudes.

Here's a breakdown of how the excerpt might connect these concepts to a

scientific temper:

• Skepticism:

Michaelis might discuss how a scientific temper fosters an attitude of healthy

doubt. This involves questioning established ideas, demanding evidence and
avoiding readily accepting information.

The excerpt could emphasize the importance of critical thinking skills to

analyze claims objectively and identify potential biases.

Empiricism:

The text might highlight how a scientific temper cultivates a reliance on

evidence.

This involves a preference for basing conclusions on observations and data

gathered through the senses and experimentation.

Michaelis might emphasize the importance of open-mindedness and willingness

to revise existing beliefs based on new evidence acquired through observation.

Focus on underlying attitudes:

The title "The Scientific Temper" suggests a focus on the personal

characteristics that shape scientific thinking. Skepticism and empiricism, in this
context, might be presented as habits of mind fostered by a scientific temper.

3.7 RATIONALISM AND SCIENTIFIC TEMPER:

Example:

Observing falling objects:

Scientific temper: Curiosity motivates observation. Open-mindedness allows

for considering different explanations.

Rationalism: Scientists analyze observations and apply logic to develop

theories about gravity (e.g., Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation).

➤ Rationalism and Scientific Temper: A powerful duo

Both rationalism and scientific temper play crucial roles in scientific inquiry.
Let's delve deeper into each concept and explore how they work together:

Humans can arrive at truth by reasoning (understanding obtained through cause

and effect logic) rather than by relying on past authorities, religious faith or
intuition.

Core principle: Rationalism emphasizes the importance of reason and logic in

acquiring knowledge and understanding the world.

In Rationalism ,the reason is said to be the primary source of all knowledge,

superior to the senses.

• Building knowledge Rationalists believe that reason allows us to analyze

information, identify patterns, and draw logical conclusions. This forms the
basis for scientific theories and explanations.
• The role of evidence: While rationalism emphasizes reason, it doesn't
disregard evidence. Logical reasoning is applied to analyze evidence and build a
coherent understanding of the world. In general, rationalists believe that abstract
reasoning can produce undeniable, absolutely certain truths about nature,
existence, and the whole of reality. These truths are called a priori, or innate,
ideas because they are discovered independently of experience, without
empirical observation or experimentation.

➤ According to rationalists, there is no other way of getting knowledge except

reasoning. Rationalism view is opposite to empiricism which says that all
knowledge comes from sense experience.

➤ This is commonly called Continental Rationalism because it was

predominated in the continental schools of Europe, whereas in Britain
empiricism dominated. Most prominent rationalists were Descartes, Spinoza
and Leibniz.

➤ At its core, rationalism consists of three basic claims. For one to consider
themselves a rationalist, they must adopt one of these three claims:

1. The intuition/Deduction thesis

2. The innate knowledge thesis

3. Thesis of A Priori Knowledge

1. Thesis of Intuition/Deductive Reasoning

Rationalism emphasizes the role of deductive reasoning in the acquisition of

knowledge. Deduction is a method where conclusions are derived from general
premises or principles. According to this thesis, we can arrive at certain truths
by logically following from self-evident principles, without relying on
experience. Intuition and deduction combine to give us proper knowledge.

 Example: In mathematics, theorems are deduced from axioms through a

series of logical steps. Rationalist philosophers like Spinoza even tried to
apply mathematical deduction to metaphysics.

2.Thesis of Innate Knowledge

This thesis asserts that certain fundamental concepts or knowledge exist in the
mind independently of sensory experience. Rationalists believe that some ideas
are innate, meaning they are present at birth, rather than being learned through
external input. This view stands in contrast to empiricism, which argues that the
mind is a blank slate and all knowledge comes from experience.

 Example: Descartes’ idea of God as a perfect being is considered innate

knowledge,

3.Thesis of A Priori Knowledge

Rationalists claim that knowledge can be obtained a priori—that is,

independently of experience. This refers to knowledge that is derived from
reason alone and is often considered necessary and universal. A priori
knowledge is contrasted with a posteriori knowledge, which comes from
empirical observation.

Difference between Empiricism and Rationalism

Empiricism Rationalism
Emphasizes the importance of sensory Emphasizes the role of reason and
experience in the development of intuition in knowledge development.
knowledge.

Empiricists view the human mind as a Rationalists believe the mind has innate
"blank slate" at birth. ideas or concepts at birth.

The approach believes that all The approach believes that all
knowledge is derived from experience. knowledge is derived from experience.
Experimental Science is an example of Mathematics is an example of
Empiricism. Rationalism.

SCIENTIFIC TEMPER: THE FOUNDATION OF INQUIRY

What is scientific temper?

Scientific temper refers to an attitude of logical, rational and scientific thinking.

Scientific temper is a way of thinking that is based on reason and evidence. It is
the ability to think critically about information and to make decisions. An
individual is considered to have a scientific temper if he employs a scientific
method of decision-making in everyday life. This involves repeatedly observing
and verifying a fact before forming a hypothesis.
The term 'scientific temper' was coined by India's first Prime Minister,
Jawaharlal Nehru, in his book 'The Discovery of India'. Nehru believed that
scientific temper would play a crucial role in the nation's socio-economic
development. The government at that period adopted various measures to
inculcate a scientific attitude in a society ridden with superstitions and social
evils like female infanticide and sati.

Connecting with rationalism: A scientific temper provides the foundation

upon which rational thought is applied in science.

Benefits of scientific temper:

Scientific temper can help to solve complex problems. Many of

the challenges that nations face today, such as climate change and poverty, are
complex and require scientific solutions. By using scientific methods to study
these problems and develop solutions, nations can make progress towards a
better future.

Scientific temper can help to improve economic development. Scientific

research and innovation are essential for economic growth. By investing in
science and technology, nations can develop new products and services, create
jobs, and improve the standard of living for their citizens.

Scientific temper can help to promote social justice. Scientific evidence can
be used to identify and address social problems such as discrimination and
inequality. By using science to inform policy decisions, nations can create a
more just and equitable society.
Here are some specific examples of how scientific temper has been used to
promote nation building in India:

The Green Revolution: The Green Revolution (Mid-20th century) was driven
by the introduction of new technologies and scientific methods of farming. It
helped to increase food production and reduce poverty in India.

Vaccine Development: Indian scientists have developed vaccines for a number

of diseases, including polio, measles, and COVID-19. These vaccines have
helped to save millions of lives and have made India a healthier and safer place.
These are just a few examples of how scientific temper can contribute to nation
building. By promoting scientific thinking and innovation, nations can create
a better future for their citizens.

Scientific temper helps in self-reliance in a number of ways.

Critical thinking: Scientific temper encourages critical thinking. This means
being able to question assumptions, evaluate evidence, and draw conclusions
based on reason. Critical thinking allows people to make informed decisions
and solve problems on their own.
Problem-solving: Scientific temper also encourages problem-solving. This
means being able to identify problems, develop solutions, and implement those
solutions.
Creativity: Scientific temper also encourages creativity. This means being able
to think outside the box and come up with new ideas. Creativity allows people
to find new ways to solve problems and achieve their goals.
Innovation: Scientific temper also encourages innovation. This means being
able to develop new products, services, or processes. Innovation allows people
to create new opportunities for themselves and their communities.

Here are some specific examples of how scientific temper can help in self-
reliance:
1. A farmer who uses scientific temper to learn about new farming techniques
can become more self-reliant by producing more food.
2. A student who uses scientific temper to learn about new technologies can
become more self-reliant by developing new skills and knowledge that can be
used to find a job or start their own business.

The challenges related to scientific temper in India are

1. Lack of education: A large proportion of the Indian population is illiterate or
has limited education. This lack of education makes it difficult for people to
understand and appreciate scientific concepts.
2. Misinformation: The spread of misinformation and disinformation is a
major challenge to scientific temper in India. Misinformation can be spread
through social media, traditional media, and even through educational
institutions.
3. Superstitions: Superstitions and beliefs in the supernatural are widespread in
India. These beliefs can often conflict with scientific knowledge and make it
difficult for people to accept scientific explanations.
4. Religious fundamentalism: Religious fundamentalism is another challenge
to scientific temper in India. Religious fundamentalists often reject scientific
knowledge that conflicts with their religious beliefs.

5. Political interference: Political interference in science is also a challenge to

scientific temper in India. Political leaders sometimes pressure scientists to
produce results that support their own agendas.
Key differences:

Feature Rationalism Scientific temper

Focus Reason and logic as the Attitudes and

primary tools for characteristics that support
acquiring knowledge. scientific thinking.

Role of Evidence Considered but not Emphasis on evidence-

always the sole basis for based reasoning.
knowledge.

Broader Can be applied to various Specific to scientific

Application philosophical and inquiry.
mathematical concepts.

Rationalism provides the framework for logical analysis, while the scientific
temper fosters the attitudes necessary to use reason effectively within a
scientific context. Together, they are powerful tools that drive scientific
discovery and the pursuit of knowledge.

In "The Scientific Temper" by Antony Michaelis R, rationalism and scientific

temper likely play significant roles in shaping the discourse on scientific
inquiry. Let's delve into each concept in detail based on the context of the text:
1. Rationalism:

• Logical reasoning: Rationalism emphasizes the use of logical reasoning and

systematic thinking in scientific inquiry. It underscores the importance of
formulating hypothesis, interpreting data and drawing conclusions based on
principles of logic and deductive reasoning.

Coherence and consistency: Rationalism promotes coherence and consistency

in scientific explanations. It encourages scientists to construct logical
frameworks and theoretical models that are internally consistent and compatible
with established principles and observations.

• Theoretical deduction: Rationalism involves making theoretical deductions

and predictions from general principles or theories. It enables scientists to
derive specific hypothesis or expectations from broader conceptual frameworks,
guiding empirical testing and investigation.

• Enhancement of understanding: Rationalism contributes to the advancement

of scientific knowledge by facilitating the synthesis and integration of empirical
evidence into coherent explanatory frameworks. It enhances the understanding
and predictability of natural phenomena by organizing observations and data
into logical structures.

2. Scientific temper:

• Attitude of inquiry: Scientific temper embodies an attitude of inquiry,

curiosity and openness to new ideas. It encourages individuals to question
assumptions, challenge conventional wisdom, and seek evidence-based
explanations for natural phenomena.

• Skepticism and critical thinking: Scientific temper encompasses skepticism

and critical thinking as essential components of scientific inquiry. It fosters a
healthy skepticism towards claims, hypothesis and evidence, prompting
rigorous evaluation and scrutiny of ideas.

• Empirical orientation: Scientific temper emphasizes an empirical orientation,

valuing direct observation, experimentation and evidence-based reasoning in the
pursuit of knowledge. It promotes objectivity and impartiality in scientific
investigation, prioritizing empirical evidence over subjective beliefs or biases.

• Ethical conduct: Scientific temper promotes ethical conduct and integrity in

scientific research. It emphasizes honesty, transparency and accountability in
the reporting and dissemination of scientific findings, as well as respect for the
principles of scientific integrity and intellectual honesty.

In "The Scientific Temper," rationalism and scientific temper likely emerge as

core principles that guide the practice of scientific inquiry and the cultivation of
a scientific mind-set. They promote logical reasoning, empirical investigation
and a commitment to intellectual honesty and ethical conduct in the pursuit of
knowledge and understanding. Through rationalism and scientific temper,
individuals are empowered to engage critically with the world around them,
contributing to the advancement of scientific knowledge and the promotion of
evidence-based decision-making in society.