Lecture 1 - Basic Seismology-1

Credits: 3 + 0
PG 2019
Spring 2020 Semester
Performance-based Seismic Design of Structures
Fawad A. Najam
Department of Structural Engineering
NUST Institute of Civil Engineering (NICE)
National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST)
H-12 Islamabad, Pakistan
Cell: 92-334-5192533, Email: fawad@nice.nust.edu.pk
Acknowledgement
• The material for the preparation of these lectures slides are taken from different sources.
• The primary source for these lecture slides are the lectures of Prof. Dr.
Pennung Warnitchai at Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), Thailand
• Some other references of this training material include the following.
• Online Training Material from US Geological Survey (USGS)
• Online Educational Resources from IRIS (www.iris.edu)
• Class Notes of Prof. Dr. Worsak Kanok-Nukulchai at Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), Thailand
• Lecture Notes of Dr. Naveed Anwar at Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), Thailand
• Lectures of Dr. Punchet Thammarak at Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), Thailand
• Lecture Notes of Dr. Abdul Qadir Bhatti at NUST, Pakistan
Prof. Dr. Pennung Warnitchai
• The material is taken solely for educational purposes. All sources are duly acknowledged.
Performance-based Seismic Design of Buildings – Semester: Spring 2020 (Fawad A. Najam) 2

Lecture 1: Basic Seismology
• Introduction
• The Causes of Earthquakes
• Plate Tectonics
• Seismic Waves
• Seismographs
• The Size of an Earthquake – Intensity and Magnitude
3
What is Earthquake ?
• Shaking and vibration at the surface of the earth resulting from underground movement along a
fault plane or from volcanic activity
• An earthquake is the result of a sudden release of energy in the Earth's crust that creates
seismic waves
• An earthquake is a sudden and sometimes catastrophic movement of a part of the Earth's
surface.

Types of Earthquakes
• EQs can be classified by their mode of generation as follows:
• Tectonic Earthquakes
o The most common earthquakes
o Produced when rocks break suddenly in response to the various geological (tectonic) forces
• Volcanic Earthquakes
o EQs that occurs in conjunction with volcanic activity
o EQs induced by the movement (injection or withdrawal) of magma
• Collapse Earthquakes
o Small EQs occurring in regions of underground caverns and mines
o Caused by the collapse of the roof of the mine or caverns
o Sometimes produced by massive land sliding
• Human cause explosion earthquakes
o Produced by the explosion of chemical or nuclear devices

The Causes of Earthquakes
In ancient Japanese folklore, a giant catfish (Namazu) lives in the mud beneath the earth. It is guarded
by the god Kashima who restrains the fish with a stone. When Kashima let his guard fall, Namazu
thrashes its body, causing violent earthquakes.

In 1891, a Japanese seismologist, Prof. B. Koto, after careful study of the Mino-Owari
earthquake noted,
“It can be confidently asserted that the sudden faulting was the actual cause (and not the effect)
of the earthquake.”
This finding was the start of common

acceptance that fractures and faults were
the actual mechanism of the earthquake and
not its results, and was the basis of the
development of the seismology.

Ground Failure by Lateral Fault Movement
Kocaeli (Turkey) Earthquake (1999)

Surface rupture caused by Fault dislocation
• Shortly after the San Francisco earthquake of 1906, an American geologist, Harry Fielding
Reid, investigated the geological aftermath.
• He noticed that a displacement of nearly 6 meters had occurred on certain parts of the San
Andreas fault which runs under San Francisco, and he proposed the theory that strain had
been building up over a long period of time and suddenly released in the EQ.

“It is impossible for rock to rupture without first being subjected to elastic strains greater
than it can endure. We concluded that the crust in many parts of the earth is being slowly
displaced, and the difference between the displacements in neighboring regions set up
elastic strains, which may become larger than the rock can endure. A rupture then take
place, and the strained rock rebounds under its own elastic stresses, until the strain is
largely or wholly relieved.
When a fault ruptures, the elastic energy stored in the rock is released, partly as heat and
partly as elastic waves.
In the majority of cases, the elastic rebound on opposite sides of the fault are in opposite
directions.
This is known as the elastic rebound theory.

Animation: Elastic Rebound
Four Basic Types of Faults
Fault: A fault is a fracture along which the blocks of

crust on either side have moved relative to one
another parallel to the fracture.
Dip Slip (normal or thrust) Strike Slip (right or left lateral)

Strike-slip Strike-slip faults are vertical (or nearly vertical) fractures where the
blocks have mostly moved horizontally. If the block opposite an
observer looking across the fault moves to the right, the slip style is
termed right lateral; if the block moves to the left, the motion is termed
left lateral.
Normal
Dip-slip faults are inclined fractures where the blocks have mostly
shifted vertically. If the rock mass above an inclined fault moves down,
the fault is termed normal,
whereas if the rock above the fault moves up, the fault is termed
reverse (or thrust). Oblique-slip faults have significant components
of both slip styles.
Thrust
Oblique-slip faults: Oblique-slip faulting suggests both dip-slip
faulting and strike-slip faulting. It is caused by a combination of
shearing and tension or compressional forces, e.g., left-lateral normal
fault.
Oblique-slip
Earthquake Rupture
The rupture begins at the earthquake focus within

the crustal rock and then spreads outward in all
directions in the fault plane.
The boundary of the rupture does not spread out

uniformly. Its progress is jerky and irregular
because crustal rocks vary in their physical
properties and overburden pressure from place to
place.
If this rupture reaches the surface (as happens in

a minority of shallow earthquakes), it produces a
visible fault trace.

Rupture on a Fault
Total Slip in the M7.3 Landers Earthquake

The 26 December 2004
Megathrust Earthquake
Magnitude: 9.3
Rupture Length: 1200 km
Ishii et al., 2005

Nature
Surface Rupture: Strike-slip Fault Example Surface Rupture: Normal Fault Example
Performance-based Seismic Design of Buildings – Semester: Spring 2020 (Fawad A. Najam) Dixie Valley-Fairview Peaks, Nevada earthquake. December 16, 1954 18
San Andreas Fault

Surface Rupture: Thrust Fault Example
Strong ground shaking above the rupture zone
The 1995 Kobe Earthquake
Yogyakarta Earthquake (2006)
Epicenter
Bantul, Yogyakarta
Strong Ground Shaking + Unreinforced Masonry Houses
= A Major Disaster
Continental Drift
In 1910 a German meteorologist and astronomer, Alfred Wegener, put forward a theory:
At about 200 million years ago, the earth consisted of only one continent, which he called
Pangaea (all lands), and one ocean, Panthalassa (all seas). Eventually, for reasons which
Wegener could not explain, this mass of land broke up in mesozoic times—about 150 million
years ago—and started to move; firstly into N-S devisions, and then into E-W ones.
He called the process continental drift.

Continental Drift

Continental Drift
Initially the Wegener theory was too fanciful for many, and at the existing level of scientific
knowledge it could not be proved.
Wegener was roundly condemned.
After the discovery of submarine mountain ranges and many more evidence in later years, the
Wegener theory became a widely accepted theory.
This was also the starting point of the theory of plate tectonics.
The impact of the theories of plate tectonics and continental drift was immense and was the great
breakthrough that the earth sciences had needed for so long.

Plate Tectonics
The basic idea of “plate tectonics” is that the earth’s outer shell (called the lithosphere)
consists of several large and fairly stable slabs of solid rock called plates.
The thickness of each plate is about 80 km. The plate moves horizontally, relative to neighboring
plates, on a layer of softer rock.

Internal Structure of the Earth
Tectonic Plates

Earth’s 14 Tectonic Plates and their Movements
Convergence plate boundary: subduction zone etc.
Divergence plate boundary: Plates diverges at mid-ocean ridges
Transform fault: Plates move laterally each other

Plate Tectonics
The rate of plate movement ranges from 1 to 10 centimeters per year.
At the plate edges where there is contact with adjoining plates, boundary tectonic forces
act on the rock causing physical and chemical changes in them.
This is where the massive and radical geological changes (including earthquakes)
occur.

Tectonic Plates

(Modified from Ruleman et al., 2007)
Source: Zaman S. (2016) Probabilistic Seismic Hazard
Assessment and Site-Amplification Mapping for Pakistan
Seismicity of
Pakistan
Where do earthquakes occur ?

Three Main Types of Plate Boundaries
Convergent Plate Boundary: When the two plates “bump” into each other
https://jig.space/view/embed?jig=v4Ga2VKw
Divergent Plate Boundary: When the two plates “pull away” from each other
https://jig.space/view/embed?jig=0xKBaZGa
Transform Plate Boundary: When the two plates “slide past” each other
https://jig.space/view/embed?jig=jrOz2eO2

Tectonic Map of South-East Asia
New tectonic plate is created at mid-ocean ridges by the upwelling and cooling of magma (molten
rock) from the Earth’s mantle. In order to conserve mass, the horizontally moving plates are believed
to be absorbed at the ocean trenches where a subduction process carries the tectonic plate
downward into the Earth’s interior.
Indian Ocean
Press & Siever (1986)

Crustal Movements and Plate Boundaries
An oceanic spreading ridge is the fracture zone along

the ocean bottom where molten mantle material comes to
the surface, thus creating new crust. This fracture can be
seen beneath the ocean as a line of ridges that form as
molten rock reaches the ocean bottom and solidifies.
An oceanic trench is a linear depression of the sea floor

caused by the subduction of one plate under another.
Three types of plate convergence
This plate tectonics theory has a number of implications for our understanding of earthquakes.
First, many more earthquakes will occur along the edges of the interacting plates (interplate
earthquakes) than within the plate boundaries (intraplate earthquakes).
Second, because the directions of forces on plates vary across them, the mechanism of the sources
of earthquakes and their size differ in different parts of a plate.
Only about 10% of the world’s earthquakes occur along the ocean ridge system. In contrast,
earthquakes occurring where plate boundaries converge, such as trenches, contribute about 90 %.
Third, the grand scale of the plate pattern and the steady rate of plate spreading imply that along a
plate edge the slip should, on average, be a constant value over many years.
This idea suggests that the historical patterns of distance and time intervals between major
earthquakes along major plate boundaries provide at least crude indication of places at which large
earthquakes might occur.
Tectonic Map
Seismicity Map
Seismic Waves
Earthquakes generate many types of seismic waves in complex patterns.
Some penetrate the earth and come to the surface in the same state, or slightly distorted. Others
are reflected, or refracted, or bent by something or some zone of different density within the earth
itself. Some travels round the circumference of the world and do not penetrate at all.
Rays of seismic shear waves from the focus of the 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake through the crust

Seismic Waves
There are 3 basic types of seismic waves:

o The primary (P) waves
o The secondary (S) waves
o The surface waves
P waves are compressional waves which exert a pull-push force.

The motion of a P wave is the same as that of a sound wave—as it spreads out, it
alternately pushes (compresses) and pulls (dilates) the rock.
These P waves, just like sound waves, are able to travel through both solid rock and
liquid material (such as volcanic magma or the oceans).
S waves are shear waves.
As it propagates through the body of rock, a shear wave shears the rock sideways at
right angles to the direction of travel.
S waves cannot propagate in the liquid parts of the earth, such as the oceans or magma.
Body Waves
Seismic Waves
Surface Waves
Body Waves
When the body waves (the P and S waves) move through the layers of the rock in the crust, they
are reflected or refracted at the interfaces between rock types. Also, whenever either one is
reflected or refracted, some of the energy of one type is converted to waves of the other type.
P and S waves do not travel at the same speed, and these speeds vary with the substance
through which the waves are passing. Broadly speaking, a P wave travels faster than an S wave.
Thus at any site, the P wave arrives first, and the S wave arrives later.
The length of time between the arrival of the P and the S wave gives an indication of the distance
an earthquake is away from an observer. By using 3 or more seismograph stations, it is possible
to pinpoint where the earthquake occurred.

Instrumental Record at a Seismic Station
3 km/s in crust
6 km/s in crust
Difference in arrival times between P and S waves: measure

of site-to-source distance
Seismic Wave Records at Several Seismic Stations
P-wave
S-wave


Hypocenter
Locating Earthquakes
Although it is possible to infer a general location for an event from the records of a single station, it is
most accurate to use three or more stations.
• A measurement of the P-S time at single station

gives the distance between the station and the event.
• Drawing a circle on a map around the station's
location, with a radius equal to the distance, shows
all possible locations for the event.
• With the P-S time from a second station, the circle
around that station will narrow the possible locations
down to two points.
• It is only with a third station's P-S time that should
identify which of the two previous possible points is
the real one.
http://www.seismo.unr.edu/ftp/pub/louie/class/100/seismic-waves.html

Surface Waves
Surface waves have their motion restricted to near the ground surface. As the depth below this
surface increases, wave displacements decrease.
Surface waves travel more slowly than body waves.
Surface waves in earthquakes can be further divided into 2 types:

Love wave and Rayleigh wave.
The motion of a Love wave is essentially the same as that of S waves that have no vertical
displacement. It moves the ground from side to side in a horizontal plane but at right angles to
the direction of propagation. Love waves do not propagate through water.
Like rolling of ocean waves, the pieces of material disturbed by a Rayleigh wave move both
vertically and horizontally in a vertical plane pointed in the direction in which the wave is
travelling.

Body Waves
Seismic Waves
Surface Waves
Seismoscopes
In the year A.D. 136, a Chinese called

Choko (also called Chang Heng)
invented an instrument for indicating
earthquakes.
It consisted of a spherically formed copper vessel (about 2.4 m in diameter). In the inner part of this
instrument a column was so suspended that it can move in 8 directions.
When an earthquake occurs, the vessel is shaken, the dragon instantly drops the ball, and the frog
which receives it vibrates vigoriously; anyone watching this instrument can easily observed
earthquakes.
Once upon a time a dragon dropped its ball without any earthquake being observed, and people
therefore thought the instrument of no use, but after 2 to 3 days a notice came saying that an
earthquake had taken place in Rosei. Hearing of this, those who doubted the use of this instrument
began to believe in it again.
After this ingenious instrument had been invented

by Choko, the Chinese government wisely
appointed a secretary to make observations on
earthquakes.
Seismographs
The earliest modern seismographs was invented by John Milne around 1880s during when he was
Professor of Geology and Mining at the Imperial College of Engineering in Tokyo (University of
Tokyo).
The principal problem for constructing precise earthquake measuring devices during that time was
how to produce a body which would remain stationary, and detached from the world around in
order to record the relative movement of the ground on which it actually rested.
They decided to make use of the mechanical principle of

inertia—in essence the tendency of a heavy body to stay
put.
Thus their seismographs relied on using a freely swinging

pendulum whose movements were marked by pin or pen
on a revolving drum of smoked glass, and later paper.

Mechanism of Seismograph
An earthquake does not make the pendulum swing. Instead, the pendulum remains fixed as the
ground moves beneath it.
A pendulum with a short period (left) moves along with the support and registers no motion. A
pendulum with a long period (right) tends to remain in place while the support moves.
The boundary between the two types of behavior is

the natural period of the pendulum. Only motions
faster than the natural period will be detected;
any motion slower will not.
“Seismograph” usually refers a displacement-

type seismometer.
http://www.uwgb.edu/dutchs/202ovhds/quakes.htm

Seismographs
The damping of the pendulum was also added to suppress the free
vibration response and to improve the performance of the seismographs.
The Milne seismographs employed 3 devices, one for each component of

ground motion (up-down, north-south, east-west components). John Milne

Modern Seismographs
The general principle behind the early seismographs is still the basic idea behind the designs of
present-day seismographs.
In modern seismographs the relative

motion between the pendulum and frame
produces an electrical signal that is
magnified electronically thousands or even
hundreds of thousands of times before it is
recorded.
The electrical signals can be recorded on to

magnetic tapes, papers, or converted into
equivalent digital signals and stored in
computer memory.

Modern Seismographs
Short-period Seismograph Broadband Seismograph

Natural Period = 1 sec Natural Period = 120 sec
Most seismographs around the world are designed to detect small-amplitude motions (weak motions)
and are very sensitive “ears on the world”. They can detect and record earthquakes of small size
from very great distances (>1000 km).

The IRIS Global Seismographic Network (GSN)
The goal of the GSN is to deploy 128 permanent seismic recording stations uniformly over the earth's
surface.
IRIS: Incorporated
Research Institutions for
Seismology
http://www.iris.edu/

Strong-motion Seismographs
Strong-motion seismographs are specially designed to record the strong shaking of the ground in
such a way that the records obtained can be directly read as acceleration of the ground.
They are usually capable of recording acceleration of the ground greater than that of gravity.
Most strong-motion accelerometers do not

record continuously but are triggered into
motion by the first waves of the earthquake to
arrive.

N
Strong Motion Stations in Taiwan and Distribution of the

JMA seismic intensity for the 1999 Chi-Chi EQ
Instrumental Intensity
6 +
6 -
5 +
5 -
4
3
Note: JMA seismic intensity is calculated from a three-

component acceleration record.
77
高千穂( 2. 5gal )
北川( 3. 8gal )
20gal
0 20sec Strong-motion Records

小林( 7. 4gal ) 南郷( 1. 8gal )
In Yokohama, Japan
観測点名最大加速度都農( 7. 1gal )
Magnitude-5 Earthquake
小林( 7. 4gal )
西都( 12. 5gal )

December 16, 1998
Depth 32 km
綾( 7. 5gal )
宮崎( 32. 1gal )
田野( 11. 6gal )
高崎( 20. 8gal ) 都城( 24. 3gal )
日南( 16. 2gal )
地盤分類
沖積層
洪積層串間( 52. 0gal )
シラス分布層
都井岬( 43. 1gal )
礫質土
岩盤
1998. 12. 16 9: 18 Miyazaki, Japan
★ M5. 5 depth=32km
N31. 3°E131. 6° M5.5
The Size of an Earthquake
The first scientific field study of the effects of a great earthquake was
conducted by an Irish man, Robert Mallet, who was recognized as the
first true seismologist.
In his assessment of the effects of the Neapolitan Earthquake of 1857

in southern Italy, Mallet was using the oldest instruments in the world:
his eyes, a compass and a measuring stick. Robert Mallet
Mallet’s method included detailed mapping and tabulation of felt reports and damage to buildings
and geological movements.
In this way he was able to measure the strength and distribution of the earthquake ground motion.

The Size of an Earthquake
By drawing lines on a map between places of equal damage or of equal intensity (isoseismal
lines), he determined the center of the earthquake shaking (the epicenter). Such maps are now
called isoseismal maps.
Isoseismal map of the 1811 New Madrid, Missouri, Intensity is measured by means of the degree
earthquake (MMI scale) of damage to structures of human origin, the
amount of disturbances to the surface of the
ground, and the extent of animal and human
reaction to the shaking, not by measuring the
ground motion with instruments.
Mallet used 4 degrees of intensity to prepare

his isoseismal map.
The patterns of isoseismal lines also indicated
to Mallet the rate at which the shaking effects
diminished with distance and provide him with
an estimate of the relative size of the
earthquake.

Intensity Scale
The first intensity scale of modern times was developed by M. S. de Rossi of Italy and Francois
Forel of Switzerland in the 1880s. It was called the
Rossi-Forel Intensity Scale ( I — X ).
A more refined scale, with 12 values, was constructed in 1902 by the Italian seismologist and
volcanologist G. Mercalli.
A modified version of it, called the Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) Scale, was developed by H.
O. Wood and Frank Neumann to fit construction conditions in California (and most of the United
States).
Alternative intensity scales have been developed and are widely used in other countries, notably in
Japan (the JMA Intensity Scale) and the central and eastern European countries (the Medvedev-
Sponheuer-Karnik (MSK) Intensity Scale), where conditions differ from those in California.

Isoseismal Map of the Mandalay
earthquake of 23 May 1912 (after
Brown, 1914)
Rossi-Forel Intensity Scale

JMA Instrumental Intensity in the 2000 Tottori EQ
Measured by National Seismic Networks
Intensity
7
6+
6-
5+
5-
4
3
2
1
Chinese Intensity Scale
Earthquake Magnitude
If the magnitudes of earthquakes are to be compared worldwide, a measure is needed that does not
depend (as does intensity) on the density of population and type of construction.
Such quantitative scale was originated in 1931 by Kiyoo

Wadati in Japan and later on developed by Dr. Charles
Richter in 1935 in California.
Kiyoo Wadati Charles Richter
Richter defined the magnitude of an earthquake as the logarithm to base 10 of the maximum seismic-
wave amplitude (in micrometer) recorded on a standard Wood-Anderson short-period seismograph1 at
a distance of 100 km from the earthquake epicenter.
Every time the magnitude goes up by 1 unit, the amplitude of the earthquake waves increases
10 times.
1 The instrument has a natural period of 0.8 sec, critical damping ratio 0.8, magnification 2,800.

At first the scale was intended to deal with

Californian earthquakes only, but with the
cooperation of Professor Beno Gutenberg the
scale was adapted to enable earthquakes to be
classified worldwide.
The Richter magnitude scale is also called Local

Magnitude (ML).
At the present time there are several magnitude scales. The most used magnitude scales are
surface-wave magnitude (Ms), body-wave magnitude (mb), and moment magnitude (Mw).
Ms is a world-wide scale determined from the maximum amplitude of Rayleigh waves with a period of
about 20 seconds (between 18 s and 22 s) on a standard long-period seismograph1. It is most widely
used magnitude scale for large damaging shallow earthquakes (less than 70 km deep).
It was developed in 1950s by the same researchers who developed ML (Gutenberg and Richter) in
order to improve resolution on larger earthquakes.
mb is a world-wide scale determined from the maximum amplitude of the first few cycles of the P
wave motion observed on the vertical component of seismogram. The waves measured typically
have a period of about 1 second. It is widely used for characterizing deep earthquakes.
1 The instrument has a natural period of 15 sec.

Saturation of Earthquake Magnitude
It must be noted that most magnitude

scales saturate, or stop increasing with
increasing earthquake size.
This occurs because each magnitude

scale is determined using a seismic wave
of a particular period and wave length,
which at a certain level does not increase
in amplitude as the earthquake source size
and energy release increase.

Moment Magnitude
A more reliable and robust magnitude scale is moment magnitude (Mw). It was introduced by Hanks
and Kanamori in 1979. It is based on the seismic moment (Mo), which is a measure of the whole
dimension of the slipped fault:
MW = (2/3). (Log10 Mo -10.7)
Where Mo is seismic moment (in N.m). Geologically Mo is a description of the extent of deformation at
the earthquake source. It is simply defined as:
Mo = mAD = 2 m ES / Ds
Where m is the shear modulus of the rock in the source region (typically 30 gigapascal)
A is the fault rupture area
D is the average dislocation or relative movement (slip) between the
opposite sides of the fault.
ES is radiated seismic energy
Ds is stress drop
The definition based on A D allows Mo to be derived from geological faulting parameters that can be
easily observed in the field for large surface-rupturing earthquakes. The definition based on ES / Ds
allows Mo to be derived from seismological measurements.
Rupture on a Fault
Total Slip in the M7.3 Landers Earthquake

Earthquake Energy

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Performance-based Seismic Design of Structures

Prof. Dr. Pennung Warnitchai

Performance-based Seismic Design of Buildings – Semester: Spring 2020 (Fawad A. Najam) 2

Performance-based Seismic Design of Buildings – Semester: Spring 2020 (Fawad A. Najam) 4

• EQs can be classified by their mode of generation as follows:

Performance-based Seismic Design of Buildings – Semester: Spring 2020 (Fawad A. Najam) 5

Performance-based Seismic Design of Buildings – Semester: Spring 2020 (Fawad A. Najam) 6

This finding was the start of common

Performance-based Seismic Design of Buildings – Semester: Spring 2020 (Fawad A. Najam) 7

Kocaeli (Turkey) Earthquake (1999)

Performance-based Seismic Design of Buildings – Semester: Spring 2020 (Fawad A. Najam) 10

This is known as the elastic rebound theory.

Performance-based Seismic Design of Buildings – Semester: Spring 2020 (Fawad A. Najam) 11

Fault: A fault is a fracture along which the blocks of

Dip Slip (normal or thrust) Strike Slip (right or left lateral)

The rupture begins at the earthquake focus within

The boundary of the rupture does not spread out

If this rupture reaches the surface (as happens in

Performance-based Seismic Design of Buildings – Semester: Spring 2020 (Fawad A. Najam) 15

Total Slip in the M7.3 Landers Earthquake

Rupture Length: 1200 km

Ishii et al., 2005

Performance-based Seismic Design of Buildings – Semester: Spring 2020 (Fawad A. Najam) 19

He called the process continental drift.

Performance-based Seismic Design of Buildings – Semester: Spring 2020 (Fawad A. Najam) 26

Performance-based Seismic Design of Buildings – Semester: Spring 2020 (Fawad A. Najam) 27

Wegener was roundly condemned.

Performance-based Seismic Design of Buildings – Semester: Spring 2020 (Fawad A. Najam) 29

Performance-based Seismic Design of Buildings – Semester: Spring 2020 (Fawad A. Najam) 30

Performance-based Seismic Design of Buildings – Semester: Spring 2020 (Fawad A. Najam) 34

Performance-based Seismic Design of Buildings – Semester: Spring 2020 (Fawad A. Najam) 35

The rate of plate movement ranges from 1 to 10 centimeters per year.

Performance-based Seismic Design of Buildings – Semester: Spring 2020 (Fawad A. Najam) 36

Performance-based Seismic Design of Buildings – Semester: Spring 2020 (Fawad A. Najam) 37

Performance-based Seismic Design of Buildings – Semester: Spring 2020 (Fawad A. Najam) 41

Performance-based Seismic Design of Buildings – Semester: Spring 2020 (Fawad A. Najam) 42

Press & Siever (1986)

An oceanic spreading ridge is the fracture zone along

An oceanic trench is a linear depression of the sea floor

Performance-based Seismic Design of Buildings – Semester: Spring 2020 (Fawad A. Najam) 51

There are 3 basic types of seismic waves:

P waves are compressional waves which exert a pull-push force.

Performance-based Seismic Design of Buildings – Semester: Spring 2020 (Fawad A. Najam) 54

Difference in arrival times between P and S waves: measure

• A measurement of the P-S time at single station

Performance-based Seismic Design of Buildings – Semester: Spring 2020 (Fawad A. Najam) 61

Surface waves travel more slowly than body waves.

Surface waves in earthquakes can be further divided into 2 types:

Performance-based Seismic Design of Buildings – Semester: Spring 2020 (Fawad A. Najam) 63

In the year A.D. 136, a Chinese called

After this ingenious instrument had been invented

They decided to make use of the mechanical principle of

Thus their seismographs relied on using a freely swinging

Performance-based Seismic Design of Buildings – Semester: Spring 2020 (Fawad A. Najam) 67

The boundary between the two types of behavior is

“Seismograph” usually refers a displacement-

Performance-based Seismic Design of Buildings – Semester: Spring 2020 (Fawad A. Najam) 68