Name _______________________ Class Period____

AP Chemistry Unit 2 Guided Notes Packet

Directions: This packet contains all notes for Unit 2. You should NOT
throw this packet out; it will help you review for finals and the AP
Exam.
 TOPIC 2.1: TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDS

Enduring Understanding

SAP-3 Atoms or ions bond due to interactions between them, forming

molecules.
Learning Objective
SAP-3A Explain the relationship between the type of bonding and the
properties of the elements participating in the bond.

Electronegativity is a measure of the ability of an atom (or group of atoms) to attract ___________
electrons.
● Electronegativity can be explained using Coulomb’s Law:

● The attractive force between charged particles increases with an increase in charge and
decreases with an increase in the distance.
● Electronegativity decreases as you move down a group as there is _______________________
_____________________________________________________________________________.
● Electronegativity increases as you move across a period from left to right. This is because ____
______________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________.
● When you compare the differences in electronegativity between two atoms there are
(arbitrary) cut-offs for what makes a nonpolar bond, a polar bond and an ionic bond.

Examples With Chlorine

Ionic Compounds
● Ionic interactions occur between _________ and _____________ atoms when they lose or gain
electrons to form ions. This type of attraction is a coulombic or electrostatic attraction.

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 ● The ionic bonds are stronger when the charges are larger and the ions are smaller, this is
explained by Coulomb’s Law. Smaller ions are _______________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________.

● Properties of Ionic Compounds:

○ Form crystals (___________________________________________________________)

○ High ___________________________________________

○ ______________________

○ ______________________

○ ______________________ Electricity when dissolved and when

molten (melted)

○ Good ____________________________ as s solid.

Metallic Bonding
● Metallic bonding occurs between metal atoms.

○ Pure substance - _____________

______________________________

○ Alloy - ______________________
______________________________
______________________________

● The metallic attractions are due to multiple metallic cations

being attracted to a delocalized _________________________.

● The attractive forces are stronger when there are ______________________________ and
when there are _______________________.
Properties of Metals:
● _________________
● _________________
● _________________
● _____________________________________________ of heat and electricity
● Metals atoms __________________ electrons to form ______________.
● Metal oxides are ionic compounds and basic (CaO, Na2O)

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Properties of Covalent Molecules (non-metals)
● _______________________________________________________
● ________________ (can be hard or soft)
● ________________ conductors
● Form _________________ by ________________________
● Nonmetallic oxides are acidic and covalent (CO2, SO2)

Quick comparison of Metal oxides and Non Metal Oxides

Example 2.1A
Place the following bonds in order of increasing polarity.

C-H, C-F, C-C, C-O, Ca-C

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Example 2.1B
2. Classify the substances below as Nonpolar Covalent, Polar Covalent, Ionic, or Metallic:

a. H2

b. NaF

c. ZnCl2

d. NO

e. CuZn

f. NCl3

g. CH4

h. Al

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 TOPIC 2.2: INTRAMOLECULAR FORCE & POTENTIAL ENERGY

Enduring Understanding

SAP-3 Atoms or ions bond due to interactions between them, forming

molecules.
Learning Objective
SAP-3B Represent the relationship between potential energy and
distance between atoms, based on factors that
influence the interaction strength.

Covalent Bonds
● Covalent bonds are the bonds between two
nonmetals when they share valence electrons.
● Covalent bonds can be polar (electrons shared
unequally) or nonpolar (electrons shared
equally).
● Covalent bonds can be single, double, triple
bonds or an average of those if there are
resonance structures.

Bond Enthalpy
● Bond enthalpy is the energy required to break a bond, or the energy released when a bond is
formed. The magnitude is the same, but the sign is different.
● Larger atomic radii increase the bond length. Longer bond length decreases the bond energy
(weaker bond).
● Increasing the bond order (single, double, triple) increases the bond energy: more electrons
and shorter bond length = greater __________________________________________.

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Covalent bonds and Energy
● Covalent bonds occur at the _________
________________________________.
● This happens when the attraction
between the nuclei is greatest for the
shared electrons, and the repulsions
between electrons and between the
nuclei is the least.
● If the atoms are too close together the
nuclei will __________________.
● If the atoms are too far apart the
attraction will not _________________
________________________________.

Example 2.2A: The bond energy for a C=C

bond is 614 kJ/mol with a bond length of
1.34 Å. It is shown on the graph on the right.
Sketch a C-C bond and a C≡C bond on the
graph. Include a key.

Example 2.2B: One way to identify an unknown substance is

to measure the bond energy. HX, HY and HZ were analyzed
and the following graph was created.

It was known that HI, HCl and HBr were tested. Use the
graph to match the unknowns with the knowns.

Ionic Compounds and Lattice Energy

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 ● The energy to separate ions in ionic compounds is their lattice energy. It is defined as the
change in energy that takes place when gaseous ions are combined to form an ionic solid.
Combining ions will release energy.
● Larger charges - ____________ lattice energy
● Smaller radii - ____________ lattice energy

Example 2.2C: Compare the lattice energies of potassium chloride (KCl), calcium chloride (CaCl2), and
lithium chloride (LiCl). Rank these compounds from lowest to highest lattice energy and explain why in
terms of periodic properties and Coulomb’s law.

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 TOPIC 2.3: STRUCTURE OF IONIC SOLIDS

Enduring Understanding

SAP-3 Atoms or ions bond due to interactions between them, forming

molecules.
Learning Objective
SAP-3C Represent an ionic solid with a particulate model that is
consistent with Coulomb’s law and the properties of the
constituent ions.

Ionic Solids
● Ionic solids consist of cations (positive) and anions (negative).
● Discrete ionic molecules do not exist.
● A repeating array of molecules are held together by strong
Coulombic forces (ionic bonds) between
________________________________________________
________________________________________________.

Properties of Ionic Solids:

● Nonvolatile and have high melting points – ionic bonds must be broken to melt the solid,
which separates oppositely charged particles. This requires a very high temperature to give the
particles enough kinetic energy.

● Ionic solids do not conduct electricity – the charged ions are fixed in place. When melted or
dissolved in solution, ________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

● Many ionic compounds are _____________ in polar solvents like water and _______________
in non-polar solvents like benzene.
Strength of Ionic Bonds and Lattice Energy

● Higher ion charges = ____________________

○ Compare calcium oxide (CaO) and sodium chloride (NaCl)
○ Why does CaO have stronger bonds than NaCl?
○ Bond strength corresponds to melting point (2927°C for CaO versus 801°C for NaCl).

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 ○ Ca has a +2 charge and Oxygen has a -2 charge. These are stronger than the attractions
between Na (+1) and Cl (-1).

● Larger atoms = __________________________

○ Compare sodium chloride (NaCl) and sodium bromide (NaBr)
○ Which bond length in longer?
○ Bond strength corresponds to melting point (801°C for NaCl versus 747°C NaBr).
○ Cl has 3 energy levels so it is smaller than Br (4 energy levels). Since the distance
between Na and Cl is closer than that of Na and Br, the NaCl bond is stronger.

Example 2.3A: Why does KBr (672 kJ/mol) have a higher lattice energy than KI (632 kJ/mol)?

Example 2.3B: Draw a particle diagram of rubidium chloride RbCl. Be sure to include relative sizes.

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 TOPIC 2.4: STRUCTURE OF METALS & ALLOYS

Enduring Understanding

SAP-3 Atoms or ions bond due to interactions between them, forming

molecules.
Learning Objective
SAP-3D Represent a metallic solid and/or alloy using a model to show
essential characteristics of the structure and interactions present
in the substance.

Metals
● Metals are composed of ______________ that are embedded in a delocalized
_____________ _____________________________________________.

● Electrons do not stay with one atom, rather they are able to move throughout
the entire substance.

● The cations and the electrons are attracted to one another through a
_____________________.

Coulombic Attraction:
● The number of valence electron determines the amount
of electrons in the delocalized sea of electrons.

● When the charge on the cations and the number of

electrons increases the attractions are
____________________________.

● When the ionic radius decreases the attraction

____________________.

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Alloys - Size Matters
Mixtures of metals are called alloys; they can be examples of a solution.

Interstitial Alloys - The atoms added to the metal are _____________

and fit in between the metal atoms in the existing holes (interstices).

*Often H, B, C and N are added

Substitutional Alloys - The atoms added to the metal have __________

__________________________________________________________

Example 2.4A: Carbon steel is an alloy composed of a small amount of carbon atoms combined with
iron. Consider the atomic radii of both carbon and iron and draw a model that describes the alloy that
forms.

Example 2.4B: Examine the diagrams below, and then label each with the type of substance shown.

TOPIC 2.5: LEWIS DIAGRAMS

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 Enduring Understanding

SAP-4 Molecular compounds are arranged based on Lewis diagrams and

Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion
(VSEPR) theory.
Learning Objective
SAP-4A Represent a molecule with a Lewis diagram.

Lewis Structures
● Covalent bonds are formed between atoms ___________________________.
● Lewis structures are a simple way of representing covalent bonds. The shared valence electrons
can be drawn using dots to represent ____________________________________, or lines to
represent __________________________.

● A pair of valence electrons in a bonded atom that does not participate in bonding is called a
lone pair. Lone pair electrons contribute to molecular shape.

● Atoms can form double or triple covalent bonds as well, in which each atom shares four
valence electrons (double bond) or six valence electrons (triple bond).

Steps to drawing a Lewis Structure:

1. Write the symbols of the elements down so that the atom that makes the most bonds is in the
middle.
2. Count up the total number of valence electrons. Write the number down on the side. If an atom
has a charge, then you need to add or subtract the electrons gained or lose (+1 charge means it
lost 1 electron).
3. Draw a bond between each atom using a line. Each line counts as 2 electrons! Keep track of
how many electrons have been used up.
4. Using the remaining electrons, start drawing pairs of electrons around each of the outside
atoms. Hydrogen can only have 2 electrons, since it makes only 1 bond. Never give lone pairs
to hydrogen.
5. If there are any electrons left, give them to the middle atom. There should be zero electrons left
after this step.
6. Check for octets (duets for hydrogen). If any atoms don’t have octets, “borrow” pairs from that
atom’s neighbors until every atom has an octet.

Example 2.5A: Draw the Lewis Structure of sulfur difluoride, SF2

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Lewis Structures, Ions, & Expanded Octets
● Some elements can have less than a full octet (Boron is a common example).
● Atoms in Period 3 and below CAN bond to more than 4 atoms in what is called an EXPANDED
OCTET. Phosphorus and Sulfur are common examples.
● When there are multiple carbon atoms in a molecule, the carbons will bond together.

Example 2.5B: Draw a Lewis diagram for C2H3Cl

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Example 2.5C: Draw a Lewis diagram for the following:

a. C2 H 2

b. OH-

c. CF2S

d. BCl3

e. SF6

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 TOPIC 2.6: FORMAL CHARGE & RESONANCE

Enduring Understanding

SAP-4 Molecular compounds are arranged based on Lewis diagrams and

Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion
(VSEPR) theory.
Learning Objective
SAP-4B Represent a molecule with a Lewis diagram that accounts for
resonance between equivalent structures or that uses formal
charge to select between nonequivalent structures.

Formal Charge
When drawing Lewis Dot diagrams for some molecules and polyatomic ions, there can be several
structures drawn.

Formal Charge is a method that can help determine which structure is most valid.

TO CALCULATE THE FORMAL CHARGE FOR EACH ATOM IN THE MOLECULE:

1. Determine the number of valence electrons of the atom.

2. Subtract the sum of the lone electrons and bonds connected to the atom from the valence electrons.

*CHECK YOUR FORMAL CHARGE CALCULATION:

- The sum of the formal charges of each atom should add up to zero for a molecule or add up to
the charge for a polyatomic ion.

Valid Structures
The most valid structure will have:

● Formal Charges as close to zero for all atoms. (Most preferable is “no formal charge.”)

● Negative Formal Charges will be placed on the most electronegative atom.

Example 2.6A: Which resonance structure of cyanate is most valid?

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Resonance Structures

● Sometimes when drawing a Lewis Structure you might find that there is more than one
arrangement of bond/electrons that are equally valid.
● Draw all the structures of the molecule, keeping the arrangement of the atoms the same but
changing the location of the electrons.
● Double arrows are drawn between the structures indicating that the actual structure is ______
_____________________________________________________________________________
● Resonance structures are present _______________________; they do not flip between them.
● The electrons can be described as delocalized. Charge is shared.
● Bond lengths are an average of the bonds present. In the NO21- ion the bond length is ________
_____________________________________________________________________________

Example 2.6B: Below is the lewis structure for hydrogen cyanide, HCN. Calculate the formal charges for
each atom in the molecule.

Example 2.6C: Draw the resonance structures of the carbonate ion, CO32-.
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Example 2.6D: Calculate the formal charge of each atom in the sulfate ion, SO42-.

Example 2.6E: Draw all resonance structures of SO2.

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