MANUFACTURING

Although manufacturing is now used to describe the production of goods on a large scale by machinery
housed in factories, the root meaning of the word manufacture is to make a thing by hand. In a modern
factory, workers are usually assigned to distinct specialised activities such as:
i. changing of raw materials into more useful commodities;
ii. the use of special equipment or machinery which may be operated by hand or by inanimate power;
iii. the provision of a special workplace which is the factory;
iv. the turning out of uniform finished products.

Manufacturing is the transformation of organic and, or, inorganic materials by mechanical or chemical
means into new products of greater value, whether the operation is performed by power-driven machinery or
by hand, whether it is done in the factory or the worker’s home. The place or building where the actual
transformation of materials takes place is called the factory. This is where the machines of the plant are
installed and operated. The unit in which an industrial activity is carried out is an industrial establishment or
plant. Thus, an industrial plant is an integral part of an individual establishment in an industry. It is owned
by a firm, which is a company in an industry. Therefore, a single firm may have one or more than one plant
in an industry and can have plants in different industries. Also, several firms may have plants in the same
industry. By this, an industry can be conceived as a group of plants or units or establishments producing
similar products; it consists of all plants/establishments which are engaged in the same activity. In industrial
geography, the basic unit of observation is the industrial establishment or plant.

Types of Manufacturing
There are two broad classes of manufacturing activities: local craft manufacturing and modern
manufacturing.
a. Local Craft Manufacturing: a craft is a pastime or a profession that requires particular skills and
knowledge of skilled work. Artisans (or craftsman) work operations may employ several workers.
Occasionally machinery may be used, but often the activities encompass goods that are handmade by artisans
or those skilled in a particular trade including everything from art galleries to handmade textiles to culinary
products. Products of the craft industry include leather works, pottery, carving, and cloth weaving. In the
more advanced economies, the craft industry represents a sizable chunk of the growing small business
community. However, in underdeveloped nations where ethnic tradition still dictates the nature of human
occupation, local craft is an important employer of labour. Often, craftspeople operate independently and are
not franchised. The industry usually relies on locally sourced supplies and community support to maintain a
customer base; they depend mainly on raw materials obtained from their immediate locality. Start-up costs
for this type of business are low, and most owners can create items in their own homes. In sum, local craft
industries are creative activities mostly undertaken by manual operations using simple raw materials but their
products are of high artistic quality.

b. Modern Manufacturing: this involves the transformation of raw materials by mechanical or chemical
means into finished goods. Modern manufacturing uses power-driven machines; it involves the use of
sophisticated machines that are usually capital-intensive. The source of materials could be local or foreign or,
even, both. Also, it employs all categories of labour. Final products are of high value and expensive. Most of
the industries are located at the rural-urban fringes because they usually occupy large areas of land and can
contribute more to environmental pollution than the craft industry. Modern manufacturing can be classified
as primary or secondary. Secondary industries can be further divided into the following classes.

Factors Influencing the Location of Industries

A location factor is the reason for the placement of an industrial plant. These factors can be divided into three
broad categories: geographical factors, economic factors and other factors.
1. Geographical Factors: important geographical factors influencing the location of industries are:
a. Raw Materials: Raw materials are fundamental to manufacturing activities. For most of the major
industries, the cost of raw materials forms the bulk of the total cost. Therefore, industries which use heavy
and bulky raw materials (e.g. coal and iron ore) in their primary stage in large quantities are usually located
near the supply of the raw materials. Most of the agro-based and forest-based industries are located in the
vicinity of the sources of raw material supply. Also, raw materials which lose weight in the process of
manufacture cannot bear high transport costs or cannot be transported over long distances because of their
perishable nature (e.g. jute, sugar and cotton textile mills). Some industries, like watch and electronics
industries use a wide range of light raw materials and the attractive influence of each separate material
diminishes. The result is that such industries are often located with no reference to raw materials and are
sometimes referred to as ‘footloose industries’ because a wide range of locations is possible within an area of
sufficient population density.
b. Market: The entire process of manufacturing is useless until the finished goods reach the market.
Nearness to the market is essential for quick disposal of manufactured goods. It helps in reducing the
transport cost and enables the consumer to get things at cheaper rates. Industries producing perishable or
bulky goods which cannot be transported over long distances are generally located close to markets. A ready
market is most essential for industries manufacturing consumer goods rather than producer goods.
Sometimes, there is a considerable material increase in weight, bulk or fragility during the process of
manufacture and in such cases, the industry tends to be market-oriented.
c. Power: Most plants are near the sources of power and raw material deposits, although other factors play
their roles. Both water and wind were widely sought as sources of power supply before the invention of
steam engines. During the 19th century, nearness to coal fields became the principal location influence of
new industries. With the introduction of other sources of power like electricity, gas, oil, solar, etc. the power
factor became more flexible leading to dispersal and decentralization of industries. Regular supply of power
is a prerequisite for the localisation of industries. Iron and steel industry depends on large quantities of coal
as a source of power; therefore, they are frequently tied to coal fields. Others like aluminium, electro-
metallurgical and electro-chemical industries, which are great users of cheap hydroelectric power, are found
in the areas of hydro-power production.
d. Transport: transport facility is necessary for the assembly of raw materials and the marketing of the
finished products. The development of transport networks, particularly, the railways, connecting the port
towns with the hinterland determined the location of many industries. The influence of transportation on
industrial location depends upon the nature of the physical characteristics of inputs or raw materials. The
junction points of waterways, roadways and railways become humming centres of industrial activity. Further,
the modes and rates of transport and transport policy of the government considerably affect the location of
industrial units.
e. Water: Many industries are established near rivers, canals and lakes because it is an important
requirement. Iron and steel, textile and chemical industries require large quantities of water for their proper
functioning. Water used in industries gets polluted and is therefore not available for any other purpose.
f. Site: this includes the level of the ground, topography of a region, water facilities, drainage facilities,
disposal of waste products, etc. Site factors also extend to include the existence of cheap sites and the nature
of vegetation. Sites should be flat and well-served by adequate transport facilities. Large areas are required to
build factories. Now, there is a tendency to set up industries in rural areas because of the high cost of land in
urban centres.
g. Climate: This factor sometimes influences the location of industries. Harsh climate is not suitable for the
establishment of industries. There can be no industrial development in extremely hot, humid, dry or cold
climates. For instance, in the case of the cotton textile industry, a humid climate provides an added advantage
since the frequency of yarn breakage is low.
h. Sphere of Influence: the size of an industrial unit would also have much influence in choosing a location.
This is because the size of industrial units depends upon the radius of the circle within which they can
profitably distribute their goods and upon the density of the population living within the circle.

2. Economic Factors: some of the important economic factors influencing the location of industries are:
a. Capital: Modem industries are capital-intensive and require huge investments. Big cities like Lagos,
Abuja, Ibadan, and Kaduna are big industrial centres because the big capitalists live in them.
b. Industrial Inertia: Industries tend to develop at the place of their original location, though the original
cause may have disappeared. This can be in the form of geographical or industrial inertia.
c. Efficient Organisation: Efficient and enterprising organisation and management is essential for running
modern industry successfully. Bad management sometimes squanders away the capital and puts the industry
in financial trouble leading to ruin. Bad management does not handle the labour force efficiently and
tactfully, resulting in labour unrest which may result in strikes and lock-outs lead to the closure of industries.
d. Finance: Finance is required for the setting up of an industry, for its running, and also at the time of its
expansion. The availability of capital at cheap rates of interest and in adequate amounts is a dominating
factor influencing industrial location. In addition, establishment of industries involves the daily exchange of
cash. So, areas with better banking facilities are better suited to the establishment of industries. Furthermore,
there is a constant fear of damage to machine and man in industries for which insurance facilities are needed.
e. External Economies: External economies also exert considerable influence on the location of industries.
External economies arise due to the growth of specialized subsidiary activities when a particular industry is
mainly localized at a particular centre with transport facilities. External economies could also be enjoyed
when a large number of industrial units in the same industry are located in close proximity to one another.

3. Other Factors: these are less easy to measure than the other factors, they include:
a. Labour: Adequate supply of cheap and skilled labour is necessary for an industry. Labour supply is
important because workers in large numbers are often required and because people with skill or technical
expertise are needed. The attraction of an industry towards labour centres depends on the ratio of labour cost
to the total cost of production. In spite of increasing mechanisation, modern industries still require large
number of workers. There is no problem in securing unskilled labour by locating such industries in large
urban centres. Although, the location of any industrial unit is determined after a careful balancing of all
relevant factors, yet the light consumer goods and agro-based industries generally require a plentiful of
labour supply.
b. Government Policies: Government activity in planning the future distribution of industries, for reducing
regional disparities, elimination of pollution of air and water and for avoiding their heavy clustering in big
cities, has become an important locational factor. There is an increasing trend to set up all types of industries
in an area, where they derive common advantage of water and power and supply to each other the products
they turn out. The state policy of industrial location has a greater hand in the establishment of a number of
factories. Moreover, government can indirectly attract industries to certain areas by improving infrastructure
that will attract businesses such as construction of a new fast highway.
c. Services: Existence of public utility services and location of allied activities influence the location of an
industry to a certain extent. The government may classify some areas as backward where the entrepreneurs
would be granted various incentives like subsidies, tax holiday, provision of finance at concessional rate, or
supply of power at cheaper rates and provision of education and training facilities. Some entrepreneurs
induced by such incentives may come forward to locate their units in such areas.
d. Personal Factors: In deciding the location of industrial units, sometimes an entrepreneur may have
personal preferences and prejudices against certain localities. For instance, Mr. Ford started to manufacture
motor cars in Detroit simply because it was his home-town. In such cases, personal factor dominates other
considerations. However, this kind of domination is rare.
e. Strategic Considerations: In modern times, strategic considerations are playing a vital role in determining
industrial location. During war-time, a safe location assumes special significance; because in times of war the
main targets of air attacks would be armament and ammunition factories and industries supplying other
commodities which are required for war.
f. Historical Factors: Historical incidents also play a dominating role in determining the location of
industries in certain cases. An excellent example is the development of cotton-textile industry in Lancashire.
Major Industrial Areas of the World
If grouped by continents, there are four major industrial regions across the world. These are:
a. Europe:
i. Great Britain: This includes the Mid-lands, North-east England, Yorkshire, Lancashire, Greater London,
Central Scotland and the Belfast Regions.
ii. West Germany
iii. France
iv. Belgium, Netherlands, Scandinavia, Switzerland and Italy
b. North America:
i. U.S.A.: major areas of industrial activities are Southern New England and Southern Appalachian Region.
However, asides these major areas, there are other areas of scattered industrial activities in the U.S.A.
among these are: Los Angeles, San Francisco, St. Louis, Houston, Indianapolis and Cincinnati.
ii. Canada: Toronto, Hamilton, and Montreal.
iii. Lakeland Region: Pittsburgh, Chicago, Michigan, Detroit, Duluth, Cleveland, Buffalo.
iv. Mid-Atlantic States: New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore.
c. Asia: Japan, Russia, China and India.

d. Southern continents: manufacturing is very scarce in the southern continents; the few major ones are
found in Australia where the main activity takes place in Sydney and Melbourne. In Africa, industrial activity
is still under-developed. Sporadic industrial activities take place in Johannesburg, Cape Town and Kimberley
(all in South Africa). In these places the main industrial activity is mineral processing. Also, scattered
industrial investments are found in Nigeria with consumer goods as the major products. In South America,
pockets of industrial activities are found around Buenos Aries and Sao Paulo where food processing of lower
standard is the main business.

Factors Influencing Industrial Development in Developing Countries

Though a few of the developing nations have some deposits of industrial minerals to which other factors can
be applied, many of the countries do not have the requirements for industrial take-off.

i. Insufficient Capital: the major obstacle to industrial promotion in developing countries is insufficient
accumulation of industrial capital. The problem of industrialization is so difficult because it takes a long time
and a lot of investment to achieve adequate capital accumulation. Incomes in the developing nations are so
low that savings are non-existent. The citizens of most of these countries are just on or, even, below the
subsistence level hence capital formation is equally almost non-existent.

ii. Economic Potentials: A common characteristic of practically all developing countries is the low amount
of capita per head. Many countries are tackling the problem of capital investment by attracting foreign
industrialists through generous incentives. In some, there is actual capital flight out of the countries.

iii. Shortage of Modern Technology: Technological transfer is more difficult than perceived by developing
countries. Countries in possession of modern technology tend to guide it jealously. Technology evolves very
slowly and the developing countries appear impatient for indigenous technology to evolve to maturity. Some
cannot develop the simplest form of technology.

iv. Shortage of Skilled Labour: there is a shortage of skilled labour in terms of scientists and professionals.

v. Inadequate Infrastructures: infrastructures are neither adequately nor sufficiently provided in developing
countries. Telecommunication facilities, good roads, electricity, etc. are grossly inadequate.

vi. Political Climate: Industrial promotion is greatly influenced by the political climate in many of the
developing nations. In the few politically stable countries, the response seems limited. In the others where
there are political conflicts, the responses have been negative.
Environmental Impacts of Manufacturing Industry
Environmental degradation is the destruction or reduction in the quality of physical environment - - land,
water, vegetation and the atmosphere. At a global level, certain industrial activities pollute the earth’s
atmosphere irrespective of where they are located. The current destruction of the ozone layer is effected by
the production and consumption of certain gases particularly chlorofluorocarbon gases. However, the
negative impacts of industrial activities are felt most in the immediate environment of the industrial
establishment. These negative impacts are in the form of pollution and degradation of the environment.
During its routine production processes manufacturing pollutes its immediate environment in several difficult
ways. The air is polluted by the emission of smoke, ashes, gases and particulates. Industrial air pollution
promotes smog especially in cities which are the location of most industrial establishments. Smog as a
pollutant has toxic effect which on reaching dangerous concentrations may cause cardiac and bronchial
ailment. The greatest danger to environment by industrial activities is in the production and disposal of
wastes. Manufacturing effluents which often drain to the immediate streams and water body such water is
fouled and contaminated. Scraps and toxic wastes are often dumped on the land. They degraded the land,
destroy vegetation and sometimes kill the wildlife. Certain giant manufacturing establishments which are
located close to streams and water body tend to increase the temperature of the water. Iron and steel
manufacturing establishments and hydro-electric production plants are the worst polluters in this regard.
Manufacturing plants are liable to accidental breakdown thus the immediate environment may be jeopardized
by such accident. The 1986 Bhopal accident in India where a gas plant leaked dangerous elements to its
surroundings was perhaps one of the worst industrial accidents in history, killing about 2500 persons and
injuring about 200,000 others some permanently. The Chernobyl (in the former USSR) accident of a nuclear
reactor was equally costly to life and environment. Other notable industrial disasters are as follows.

Notable Industrial Disasters

Major industrial disasters are caused by industrial companies, either by accident, negligence or
incompetence. Some other accidents can also be considered industrial disaster, if their causes are rooted in
the products or processes of industry. For example, the Great Chicago Fire of 1871 was made more severe
due to the heavy concentration of lumber industry, wood houses, fuel and other chemicals in a small area.
• January 10, 1860: Pemberton Mill in Lawrence, Massachusetts collapsed without warning and an
estimated 145 workers were killed and 166 injured.
• May 2, 1878: The Washburn "A" Mill in Minneapolis was destroyed by a flour dust explosion, killing 18.
• March 20, 1905: Grover Shoe Factory disaster was a boiler explosion, building collapse and fire that
killed 58 people and injured 150 in Brockton, Massachusetts.
• March 25, 1911: Triangle Shirtwaist Factory fire in New York City was a major industrial disaster in the
U.S., causing the death of more than 100 workers who either died in the fire or jumped to their deaths.
• January 15, 1919: The Boston Molasses Disaster. A large molasses tank burst and a wave of molasses
rushed through the streets killing 21 and injuring 150.
• September 21, 1921: Oppau explosion in Germany. A tower silo exploded at a BASF plant in Oppau,
now part of Ludwigshafen, Germany, killing 500–600 people and injuring about 2,000.
• 1932-1968: The Minamata disaster resulted from the dumping of mercury compounds in Minamata Bay,
Japan by The Chisso Corporation, a fertilizer and later petrochemical company. The company polluted the
bay for 37 years. It is estimated that over 3,000 people suffered various deformities, severe mercury
poisoning symptoms or death from what became known as Minamata disease.
• April 26, 1942: Benxihu Colliery disaster in Benxi, Liaoning, China. 1,549 workers died.
• May 28, 1965: Dhanbad coal mine disaster took place in Jharkhand, India, over 300 miners killed
• October 21, 1966: Aberfan disaster was a catastrophic collapse of a colliery spoil-tip that occurred in the
Welsh village of Aberfan, killing 116 children and 28 adults.
• June 1, 1974: An explosion at a chemical plant near the village of Flixborough, England killed 28 people
and seriously injured another 36.
• July 10, 1976: this happened in a small chemical manufacturing plant of ICMESA in Seveso, Italy, 3,000
pets and farm animals died and, later, 70,000 animals were slaughtered to prevent dioxins from entering
the food chain. In addition, 193 people in the affected areas suffered from chloracne and other symptoms.
• February 6, 1979: The Rolandmühle (Roland Mill), located in Bremen, Germany, was destroyed by a
flour dust explosion, killing 14 and injuring 17.
• September and October, 1982: The so called Chicago Tylenol murders occurred when seven people
• died after taking pain-relief medicine capsules that had been poisoned.
• July 23, 1984: Romeoville, Illinois, Union Oil refinery explosion killed 19 people.
• November 23, 1984 A part of MESIT factory in Uherské Hradiště, Czechoslovakia collapsed, killing 18
workers and injuring 43.
• December 3, 1984: The Bhopal disaster in India is one of the largest industrial disasters on record. A
runaway reaction in a tank containing poisonous methyl isocyanate caused the pressure relief system to
vent large amounts to the atmosphere at a Union Carbide plant. Estimates of its death toll range from
4,000 to 20,000.
• April 26, 1986: Chernobyl disaster occurred at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in Prypiat, Ukraine.
The ensuing explosion and fire killed about 50 people instantly and several hundred thousand additional
cancer deaths over time. Fallout could be detected as far away as Canada. The Chernobyl Exclusion Zone,
remains poisoned and mostly uninhabited. Prypiat was totally evacuated and remains as a ghost town.
• November 1, 1986: The Sandoz disaster in Schweizerhalle, Switzerland, releasing tons of toxic
agrochemicals into the Rhine.
• May 4, 1988: Massive explosion at PEPCON, a chemical plant, in Henderson, Nevada killed 2 people.
• May 5, 1988: Norco, Louisiana, Shell Oil refinery explosion after hydrocarbon gas escaped from a
corroded pipe in a catalytic cracker and was ignited. 2,800 residents from nearby neighbourhoods were
evacuated. Seven workers were killed and 42 injured.
• June 28, 1988: improper mixing of chemicals killed five workers at a local metal-plating plant in Auburn,
Indiana.
• July 6, 1988: Piper Alpha disaster, where an explosion and resulting fire on a North Sea oil production
platform kills 167. is rated as the world's worst offshore oil disaster in terms of both lives lost and impact
to the petroleum industry.
• October 23, 1989: Phillips Disaster. Explosion and fire killed 23 and injured 314 in Pasadena, Texas.
• May 1, 1991: An explosion at the IMC operated Angus Chemical Nitro-paraffin Plant Sterlington,
Louisiana killed 8 workers and injured 120 other people. There was severe damage to the surrounding
community. The blasts were heard more than 8 miles away.
• September 3, 1991: 1991 Hamlet chicken processing plant fire in Hamlet, North Carolina, where locked
doors trapped workers in a burning processing plant, causing 25 deaths.
• May 9, 1993: Nambija mine disaster, Nambija, Ecuador. ~300 people killed in a land slide
• May 10, 1993: A fire started in Kader Toy Factory, a poorly built factory, in Thailand. Exit doors were
locked and the stairwell collapsed. 188 workers were killed.
• January 30, 2000: Baia Mare cyanide spill took place in Baia Mare, Romania. The accident, called the
worst environmental disaster in Europe since Chernobyl, was a release of 100,000 tons of cyanide
contaminated water by an Aurul mining company due to reservoir broke into the rivers Someş, Tisza and
Danube. Although no human fatalities were reported, the leak killed up to 80% of aquatic life of some of
the affected rivers.
• May 13, 2000: A fire and explosion at a fireworks depot in Enschede, Netherlands resulted in 22 deaths
and another 947 were injured. About 1,500 homes are damaged or destroyed.
• September 21, 2001: An explosion at the AZF fertilizer factory in Toulouse, France killed 29 and injured
2,500. Extensive structural damage to nearby neighbourhoods.
• March 23, 2005: Texas City Refinery explosion caused by the failure of several level indicators leading
to overfilling of a knock out drum. It is the third largest refinery in the United States and one of the largest
in the world. Over 100 were injured, and 15 were confirmed dead.
• February 1 2008: An unlicensed fireworks factory in Istanbul exploded accidentally, at least 22 people
dead and over 100 injured.
• February 7, 2008: A sugar refinery in Port Wentworth, Georgia, and United States exploded and killed
13 people and injured 42.
• March 2011: Fukushima I nuclear accidents in Japan. Regarded as the largest nuclear disaster since the
Chernobyl disaster, there were no direct deaths but a few of the plant's workers were severely injured or
killed by the disaster conditions resulting from the earthquake.
• September 11, 2012: 289 workers were suffocated or burnt alive at the Ali Enterprises garment factory in
Karachi, Pakistan, when a massive fire tore through the building.