ELECTRONIC

MEASUREMENTS
BY- MANISH KUMAR GUPTA

SUBSCRIBE Telegram group:- SIRJEE CLASSES

 Electronic Measurements
Syllabus

1. Measuring systems.
2. Basic principles of measurement.
3. Range Extension methods.
4. Cathode ray oscilloscope.
5. LCD, LEDpanel.
6. Transducers.
 SYSTEM OF MEASUREMENT

A system of measurement is a collection of units of measurement SIRJEE CLASSES

and rules relating them to each other.

unit of measurement
A unit of measurement is a definite magnitude of a quantity. defined
and adopted by convention or by law, that is used as a standard for
measurement of the same kind of quantity.
Any other quantity of that kind can be expressed as a multiple of the
unit of measurement.

For example, a length is a physical quantity. The metre is a unit of

length that represents a definite predetermined length. When we say
10 metres (or 10 m), we actually mean 10 times the definite
predetermined length called "metre".

Measurement is a process of determining how large or small a physical

quantity is as compared to a basic reference quantity of the same kind.
 MEASUREMENT
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Ex-
Measurement of current
Measurement of voltage
ELECTRONIC MEASURING INSTRUMENTS SIRJEE CLASSES
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 ELECTRONIC MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

1. Ammeter SIRJEE CLASSES

It is used for measuring the current. The current is the flow of

electrons whose unit is ampere. Hence the instrument which
measures the flows of current in ampere is known as ampere
meter or ammeter.

The ideal ammeter has zero internal resistance. But practically

the ammeter has small internal resistance. The measuring range
of the ammeter depends on the value of resistance.

Symbolic Representation

The capital alphabet A represents the ammeter in the

circuit.
 Connection of Ammeter in Circuit
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The ammeter is connected in series with the circuit so that the
whole electrons of measurand current passes through the ammeter.
The power loss occurs in ammeter because of the measurand current
and their internal resistance.

The ammeter circuit has low resistance so that the small voltage
drop occurs in the circuit.

The resistance of the ammeter is kept low

because of the two reasons:-

The whole measurand current passes through

the ammeter.

The low voltage drop occurs across the ammeter.

 Types of Ammeter

The classification of the ammeter depends on their design and SIRJEE CLASSES

the type of current flows through the ammeter. The following

are the types of an ammeter regarding construction:-

1. Permanent moving coil ammeter (PMMC) (DC only).

2. Moving iron ammeter. (both AC & DC)
3. Electro-dynamometer ammeter (both AC & DC).
4. Rectifier type ammeter (only AC).

By the current, the ammeter categorises into two types:-

1. AC ammeter
2. DC ammeter
Note:-
The PMMC ammeter used only for the measurement of
the direct current.
 Ammeter Shunt
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The high-value current directly passes through the ammeter
which damages their internal circuit. For removing this
problem, the shunt resistance is connected in parallel with
the ammeter.

If the large measurand current passes

through the circuit, the major portion of
the current passes through the shunt
resistance.

The shunt resistance will not affect the

working of the ammeter, i.e., the movement
of the coil remains same.

The swamping resistance reduces the effect of temperature

on the meter.
 VOLTMETER
The instrument which measures the voltage or potential
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difference in volts is known as the voltmeter.

It works on the principle that the torque is generated by the

current which induces because of measurand voltage and this
torque deflects the pointer of the instrument.

The deflection of the pointer is directly proportional to the

potential difference between the points. The voltmeter is always
connected in parallel with the circuit.

Symbolic Representation of voltmeter

The voltmeter is represented by the alphabet V inside the circle

along with the two terminals.
 Why is Voltmeter connected in Parallel?
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The voltmeter constructs in such a manner that their
internal resistance always remains high.

If it connects in series with the circuit, it minimises the

current which flows because of the measurand voltage.
Thus, disturb the reading of the voltmeter.
The voltmeter is constructed with very high
internal resistance because it measures the
potential difference between the two points of the
circuit.
If the voltmeter has low resistance, the current
passes through it, and the voltmeter gives the
incorrect result.

The high resistance of the voltmeter does not

allow the current to pass through it and thus the
correct reading is obtained.
VOLTMETER TYPES

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 Comparison between ammeter & voltmeter
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Basis For
Ammeter Voltmeter
Comparison
Definition The instruments It measures the
used for measuring voltage between
the current. any two points of
the circuit.
Symbolic
Representation
Resistance Low High

Connection It is connected in It is connected in

series with the parallel with the
circuit. circuit.
Accuracy More Less

Changing of Range Not possible Possible

 RANGE EXTENSION METHODS
1. Range Extension of Ammeter by Shunt SIRJEE CLASSES

Shunts are used for the range extension of ammeters. A

shunt is a low-value resistance having minimum temperature
co-efficient and is connected in parallel with
the ammeter whose range is to be extended. The combination
is connected in series with the circuit whose current is to be
measured.

This shunt provides a bypath for extra current because it is

connected across (i.e. in parallel with) the instrument.

These shunted instruments can be used to measure currents

many times greater than their normal full-scale deflection
currents.

The ratio of maximum current (with shunt) to the full-scale

deflection current (without shunt) is known as the
‘multiplying power’ or ‘multiplying factor’ of the shunt.
 1. Range Extension of Ammeter by Shunt

Example: A moving coil ammeter reading up to 1 ampere has SIRJEE CLASSES

a resistance of 0.02 ohm. How could this instrument be

adopted to read current up to 100 amperes.

Sol- Im = 1A
R = 0.02 ohm
Line current to be measured I =100A
Let shunt resistance be S =

As seen from Figure, the voltage across the

instrument coil and the shunt resistance is the
same since both are joined in parallel.

∴ Im*Rm = S*Is = S(I − Im)

or S = Im*Rm/(I – Im)

= 1*0.02/(100 – 1) = 0.02/99 = 0.000202 ohm Ans.

 2. Range Extension of voltmeter by Multiplier
Multipliers are used for the range extension of voltmeters. The SIRJEE CLASSES
multiplier is a non-inductive high-value resistance connected
in series with the instrument whose range is to be extended.
The combination is connected across the circuit whose voltage
is to be measured.
Example: A moving coil voltmeter reading upto 20 mV
has a resistance of 2 ohms. How this instrument can be
adopted to read voltage upto 300 volts.
Solution: In this case,
Voltmeter resistance, Rm = 2 ohm
Full-scale voltage Vfs = RmIm = 20 mV = 0.02 V
Full-scale current, Im = v/Rm = 0.02/2 = 0.01 A

Voltage to be measured, V = 300 V

Let the series resistance r = R
or R = (V – v)/Im
then as seen from figure, the or R = (300 – 0.02)/0.01 = 299.98/0.01 = 29998 ohms Ans.
voltage drop across R is V – ν

R *Im = V – ν
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENT
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BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENT
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BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENT
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BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENT
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 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MEASUREMENT
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Calibration may be required for the following reasons:

A new instrument taken.

After an instrument has been repaired or modified.

When a specified time period has elapsed.

After an instrument has been exposed to a shock, vibration, or physical

damage, which might potentially have compromised the integrity of its
calibration.

Sudden changes in weather.

ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT (T.V.~M.V)
ERRORS
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ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT (T.V.~M.V)

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ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT (T.V.~M.V)

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ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT (T.V.~M.V)

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ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT (T.V.~M.V)

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 CATHODE RAY OSCILOSCOPE (CRO)

The cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a type of electrical SIRJEE CLASSES

instrument which is used for showing the measurement

and analysis of waveforms and others electronic and
electrical phenomenon.
The CROs are used to analyse the waveforms,
transient, phenomena, and other time-
varying quantities from a very low-frequency
range to the radio frequencies.

The CRO is mainly operated on voltages. Thus, the other physical

quantity like current, strain, acceleration, pressure, are converted
into the voltage with the help of the transducer.

It is a very fast X-Y plotter shows the input signal versus

another signal or versus time.
 Construction of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope(CRO)
The main parts of the CRO are as follows. SIRJEE CLASSES

1. Cathode Ray Tube

2. Electronic Gun Assembly
3. Deflecting Plate
4. Fluorescent Screen
For CRT

5. Glass Envelop
 Main parts description
1. Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
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The cathode ray tube is the vacuum tube which converts the
electrical signal into the visual signal. The cathode ray tube
mainly consists the electron gun and the electrostatic deflection
plates (vertical and horizontal).
The electron gun produces a focused beam of the electron which is
accelerated to high frequency.
The vertical deflection plate moves the beams up and down and the
horizontal beam moved the electrons beams left to right. These
movements are independent to each other and hence the beam may be
positioned anywhere on the screen.
 2. Electronic Gun Assembly

The electron gun emits the electrons and forms them into a beam. SIRJEE CLASSES

The electron gun mainly consists a heater, cathode, a grid, a pre-

accelerating anode, a focusing anode and an accelerating anode.

After the emission of an electron from the cathode grid, it passes

through the control grid. It controls the intensity of the emitted
electron from the cathode.

The electron while passing through the control grid is accelerated by

a high positive potential which is applied to the pre-accelerating or
accelerating nodes.
 3. Deflecting Plate
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The electron beam after leaving the electron gun passes through
the two pairs of the deflecting plate. The pair of plate producing
the vertical deflection is called a vertical deflecting plate or Y
plates, and the pair of the plate which is used for horizontal
deflection is called horizontal deflection plate or X plates.
4. Fluorescent Screen for CRT
The front of the CRT is called the face plate.The screen
of the CRT is slightly curved for larger displays.

The inside surface of the faceplate is coated with phosphor crystal.

The phosphor converts electrical energy into light energy. When an
electronics beam strike phosphor crystal, it raises their energy
level and hence light is emitted during phosphorous crystallisation.
This phenomenon is called fluorescence.
 5. Glass Envelope
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It is a highly evacuated conical shape structure. The inner surface
of the CRT between the neck and the screen is coated with the
aquadag.

The aquadag is a conducting material and act as a high-voltage

electrode. The coating surface is electrically connected to the
accelerating anode and hence help the electron to be the focus.
 Working of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)
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When the electron is injected through the electron gun, it passes
through the control grid. The control grid controls the intensity of
electron in the vacuum tube.

If the control grid has high negative potential, then it allows only
a few electrons to pass through it. Thus, the dim spot is produced
on the lightning screen. If the negative potential on the control
grid is low, then the bright spot is produced. Hence the intensity
of light depends on the negative potential of the control grid.

After moving from the accelerating anode, the beam

comes under the effect of the deflecting plates.
When the deflecting plate is at zero potential, the
beam produces a spot at the centre.If the voltage is
applied to the vertical deflecting plate, the electron
beam focuses at the upward and when the voltage is
applied horizontally the spot of light will be
deflected horizontally.
 IMPORTANT POINTS (CRO)
HORIZONTAL DEFLECTING PLATE
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The horizontal deflection section of the CRO has the sweep generator, the
trigger circuit, the horizontal amplifier stages in which the sweep signal is
generated, shaped, amplified and presented to the horizontal deflecting
plates.
The sweep generator of a CRO is used to produce

a. Sinusoidal voltage for the horizontal/vertical deflection of

electron beam
b. Saw tooth voltage for the vertical/horizontal deflection of
electron beam

VERTICAL DEFLECTING PLATE

The vertical deflection of the CRO has delay line, vertical amplifier.
The delay that is caused by the horizontal deflecting circuits is about 80 ns. In
order to present the leading edge of the signal under observation, the signal
to the vertical deflecting plates must be delayed by the same time atleast. The
delay line provides the required delay to the vertical deflecting voltage.
 MEASUREMENT USING CRO
1. Voltage measurement SIRJEE CLASSES

CRO always measures peak-to-peak voltage of the waveform

displayed.
Vp-p = (deflection factor ) X (number of divisions from Vp-p)

Deflection factor (G) = 1/S S= deflection sensitivity

Deflection sensitivity = D/Vd D = deflection

Vd = potential b/w deflecting plate

2. Measurement of frequency
3. Measurement of modulation index of A.M. signal.
 LISSAJOUS FIGURE
Lissajous figure is the pattern which is displayed on SIRJEE CLASSES

the screen, when sinusoidal signals are applied to both

horizontal & vertical deflection plates of CRO.

These patterns will vary based on the amplitudes,

frequencies and phase differences of the sinusoidal
signals, which are applied to both horizontal &
vertical deflection plates of CRO.
The following figure shows an example of Lissajous figure.

The above Lissajous figure is in elliptical shape and its major

axis has some inclination angle with positive x-axis.
 LISSAJOUS PATTERN
Two sine waves of the same frequency and amplitude may produce a straight line,
an ellipse or a circle depending on their phase difference (below figure). SIRJEE CLASSES
 Measurements using Lissajous Figures

We can do the following two measurements from a Lissajous SIRJEE CLASSES

figure:-

1. Frequency of the sinusoidal signal.

2. Phase difference between two sinusoidal signals.

Applications of CRO
Voltage measurement.
Current measurement.
Examination of waveform.
Measurement of phase and frequency.
Uses of CRO
In laboratory, the CRO can be used as:-
It can display different types of waveforms.
It can measure short time interval.
In voltmeter, it can measure potential difference.
 LED (LIGHT EMITTING DIODE)
The LED is a PN-junction diode which emits light when an electric SIRJEE CLASSES

current passes through it in the forward direction.

In the LED, the recombination of charge carrier takes place. The

electron from the N-side and the hole from the P-side are combined
and gives the energy in the form of heat and light. The LED is made
of semiconductor material which is colourless, and the light is
radiated through the junction of the diode.
 Construction of LED
The recombination of the charge carrier occurs in the P-type SIRJEE CLASSES

material, and hence P-material is the surface of the LED. For the
maximum emission of light, a metal film anode is deposited at the
edge of the P-type material.

The cathode is made of gold film, and it is usually placed at the

bottom of the N-region. This gold layer of cathode helps in
reflecting the light to the surface.
 WORKING AND OPERATION
The working of the LED depends on the
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quantum theory.

The quantum theory states that when the

energy of electrons decreases from the higher
level to lower level, it emits energy in the form
of photons. The energy of the photons is equal
to the gap between the higher and lower level.
The LED is connected in the forward biased, which allows
the current to flows in the forward direction. The flow of
current is because of the movement of electrons in the
opposite direction.
CONTROL OPERATION
The simple transistor can be used for off/on of a LED as
shown in the figure above. The base current IB conducts
the transistor, and the transistor conducts heavily.

The resistance RC limits the current of the LED.

 S/C Materials used for making LED

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GaAsP- gallium arsenide phosphide (red or yellow light).
GaAs - gallium arsenide (emits IR radiation (invisible)).
GaP - gallium phosphide (emits red or green light).

LED display/LED panel

A LED display is a flat panel display that uses an array

of light-emitting diodes as pixels for a video display.

Their brightness allows them to be used outdoors where

they are visible in the sun for store signs and billboards.
In recent years, they have also become commonly used
in destination signs on public transport vehicles, as well
as variable-message signs on highways. LED

Detail view of a LED display with a

matrix of red, green and blue diodes.
APPLICATION OF LED
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ADVANTAGES OF LED
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 LCD (LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY)
A liquid-crystal display (LCD) is a flat-panel display or other SIRJEE CLASSES

electronically modulated optical device that uses the light-

modulating properties of liquid crystals.

Liquid crystals do not emit light directly, instead using

a backlight or reflector to produce images in color.
 APPLICATION OF LCD
LCDs are used in a wide range of applications, including LCD SIRJEE CLASSES
televisions, computer monitors, instrument panels, aircraft
cockpit displays, and indoor and outdoor signage. Small LCD
screens are common in portable consumer devices such as digital
cameras, watches, calculators, and mobile telephones,
including smartphones. LCD screens are also used on consumer
electronics products such as DVD players, video game devices
and clocks.
ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF LCD
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LED & LCD
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 TRANSDUCER
A transducer is a device that converts energy from one form SIRJEE CLASSES

to another.

Usually a transducer converts a signal in one form of energy

to a signal in another(energy can be force, torque, light,
motion, position, etc.)
The process of converting one form of energy to another is
known as transduction.

Transducer basically senses the signal hence contains sensing

element.
 ELEMENTS IN TRANSDUCER
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The transducer is a type of device that converts the physical

quantities like pressure, brightness, displacement into an
electrical quantity. The process of conversion of quantities
is known as the transduction.
 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCER

The transducer is of many types, and they can be classified by

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the following criteria:-

The input quantity is the non-electrical quantity, and the output

electrical signal is in the form of the current, voltage or frequency.
ACTIVE/PASSIVE TRANSDUCER

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 ACTIVE TRANSDUCER
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Self generating transducers or transducers which develop

their output in the form of voltage or current without any
auxiliary source.
eg: 1. Thermocouple,
2. Piezo electric transducers
3. Photo-voltaic cell

1. THERMOCOUPLE

It is a kind of temperature sensor that is used to measure the

temperature at one specific point in the form of the EMF or
an electric current.

This sensor comprises two dissimilar metal wires that are

connected together at one junction. The temperature can be
measured at this junction, and the change in temperature of
the metal wire stimulates the voltages.
 WORKING OF THERMOCOUPLE
This circuit can be built with two different metals, SIRJEE CLASSES

and that are coupled together by generating two

junctions. The two metals are surrounded to the
connection through welding.
Temperatures are denoted by T1, & T2. When the
temperature of the junction is dissimilar from each
other, then the electromagnetic force generates in
the circuit.
E = k(T2-T1)
E = a (∆Ө) + b (∆Ө)2

Where ∆Ө is the temperature difference among the hot thermocouple junction

end as well as the reference thermocouple junction end, a & b are constants
The temperate at the junction end turn into equivalent, then the equivalent, as
well as reverse electromagnetic force, produces in the circuit, and there is no
flow of current through it. Similarly, the temperature at the junction end
become imbalanced, then the potential variation induces in this circuit.
The amount of EMF generated in the thermocouple is very minute (millivolts).
 Thermocouple Working Principle

The thermocouple principle mainly depends on the three effects SIRJEE CLASSES

namely Seebeck, Peltier and Thompson.

1. See beck-effect
This type of effect occurs among two dissimilar metals. When the
heat offers to any one of the metal wire, then the flow of electrons
supplies from hot metal wire to cold metal wire. Therefore, direct
current stimulates in the circuit.

2. Peltier-effect

This Peltier effect is opposite to the Seebeck effect. This effect states
that the difference of the temperature can be formed among any two
dissimilar conductors by applying the potential variation among
them.
3. Thompson-effect
This effect states that as two disparate metals fix together & if they
form two joints then the voltage induces the total conductor’s length
due to the gradient of temperature.
 Thermocouple Applications
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Some of the applications of thermocouple include the
following:-

These are used as the temperature sensors in thermostats in

offices, homes, offices & businesses.

These are used in industries for monitoring temperatures of

metals in iron, aluminum, and metal.

These are used in the food industry for cryogenic and Low-
temperature applications.

Thermocouples are used as a heat pump for performing

thermoelectric cooling.
 PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCER

A piezoelectric sensor is a device that uses the piezoelectric effect, SIRJEE CLASSES

to measure changes in pressure, acceleration, temperature, strain,

or force by converting them to an electrical charge.
Charge developed is proportional to force
applied.
Q=F*d
d=charge sensitivity

Output voltage (Vo) = g.t.p P= pressure

g= voltage sensitivity
t= thickness of crystal

Materials of piezoelectric

Quartz, ceramics natural

piezoelectric
 PASSIVE Transducers
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It is a transducer in which electrical parameters R, L ,C changes
with changes in input signal.

It requires power supply for its operation.

1. LVDT
2. RTD
3. THERMISTOR
4. Capacitive transducer
5. resistive type , inductive type
1. (LVDT) linear variable differential transformer (linear to electrical)

The linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) (also

called linear variable displacement transformer,linear
variable displacement transducer, or simply differential
transformer is a type of electrical transformer used for
measuring linear displacement (position).
 Working principle of LVDT
Voltage is generated is given by:- SIRJEE CLASSES

Vo

Vs1 Vs2
Voltage displacement characteristics of LVDT
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 2. RTD (RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTOR) PTC
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Resistance thermometers, also called resistance temperature
detectors (RTDs), are sensors used to measure temperature.

The RTD wire is a pure material, typically platinum, nickel, or

copper. The material has an accurate resistance/temperature
relationship which is used to provide an indication of
temperature.
 3. THERMISTORS
Thermistors are essentially resistors whose resistance value SIRJEE CLASSES

changes with changes in temperature.

NTC stands for ‘Negative Temperature Coefficient which means

that the sensor resistance will decrease as temperature
increases.

The sensor is capable of reading temperature in the range of -20

to +20°C with an accuracy of 5%.

This is a commonly used sensor for basic temperature

measurement.

Thermistors are temperature sensitive semiconductors that exhibit a

large change in resistance over a relatively small range of temperature.
3. THERMISTORS (thermal resistor)
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 MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE
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PYROMETER
Pyrometer, device for measuring relatively high temperatures,
such as are encountered in furnaces. Most pyrometers work by
measuring radiation from the body whose temperature is to be
measured. Radiation devices have the advantage of not having to
touch the material being measured.
 ELECTRICAL TRNSDUCER

1. BASED ON RESISTANCE SIRJEE CLASSES

PIRANI GAUGE

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2. CAPACITIVE TYPE TRANSDUCER

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 SIRJEE CLASSES

Capacitor
microphone
3. BASED ON INDUCTANCE
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ACTIVE/PASSIVE TRANSDUCER LIST
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 PRIMARY/SECONDARY TRANSDUCER
Primary transducer
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The transducer which converts physical quantity into mechanical
displacement is called primary transducer.
• The force detected by the column in first. Hence it is called
primary transducer.
Example:
• It is a mechanical device.
• Bourdon Tube
• Diaphragm
• Bellows
Secondary transducer

The transducer which converts mechanical displacement into electrical

output is called secondary transducer.

• Output of primary transducer is converted into useful signal by

secondary transducer.
Example:
• It is an electrical device. • LVDT
ANALOG/DIGITAL TRANSDUCER
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 Factor to be considered while Selecting Transducer
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It should have high input impedance and low output impedance,
to avoid loading effect.

It should have good resolution over is entire selected range.

It must be highly sensitive to desired signal and insensitive to

unwanted signal.

It should be able to withstand pressure, shocks, vibrations etc.

It must have high degree of accuracy and repeatability.

Requirements of a Good Transducers

Smaller in size and weight.

High sensitivity.
 INVERSE TRANSDUCER
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The inverse transducer is the transducer which converts the
electrical quantity into a non-electrical quantity.

In other words, the inverse transducer is a kind of actuator

which has an electrical input and the non-electrical output.

Examples:
The analogue ammeter and the voltmeter convert the current
into a displacement.

The oscilloscope is used for converting the electrical signal into

a physical displacement.
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TRANSDUCER &
INVERSE TRANSDUCER
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Basis For Comparison Transducer Inverse Transducer

Definition The transducer The inverse transducer
converts the non- converts the electrical
electrical quantity into quantity into the non-
an electrical quantity. electrical quantity.

Input Non-electrical quantity Electrical quantity

Output Electrical quantity Non-electrical quantity
Examples Photoconductive Piezoelectric
transducer, Transducer, current
Thermocouple, carrying conductor
Pressure gauge, strain placed in an magnetic
gauge field.
 ELEMENTS IN TRANSDUCER
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The transducer is a type of device that converts the physical

quantities like pressure, brightness, displacement into an
electrical quantity. The process of conversion of quantities
is known as the transduction.
BASIC SENSING ELEMENTS
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BASIC SENSING ELEMENTS
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BASIC SENSING ELEMENTS
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